Gettering Processes and the Role of Extended Defects

Advanced Silicon Materials for Photovoltaic Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 127-188

  Seibt, Michael ^a   Kveder, Vitaly ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

^b INSTITUTE OF SOLID STATE PHYSICS   (Russian Federation)

Author keywords

Bulk processes, affecting gettering and kinetics; Charged metal impurities solubility in extrinsic silicon, physics of gettering; Czochralski grown silicon, metal impurities by oxygen precipitation; External gettering in silicon photovoltaics; Gettering processes and the role of extended defects; Injection of intrinsic point defects, from surface reactions; Segregation gettering and redistribution, by metal impurities solubility; Solar cell efficiency, and the value of LD; Solubility of transition metal impurities, and gettering; Transition metal impurities in silicon and bulk processes

Indexed keywords

EID: 84881638024     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118312193.ch4     Document Type: Chapter

References (240)

1. R. N. Hall, (1952) Electron-hole recombination in germanium, Physical Review 87, 387.
2. W. Shockley and W. T. Read, (1952) Statistics of the recombinations of holes and electrons, Physical Review 87, 835.
3. A. Goetzberger and W. Shockley, (1960) Metal precipitates in silicon p-n junctions, Journal of Applied Physics 31, 1821.
4. F. Shimura, (1989) Semiconductor Silicon Crystal Technology, Academic Press, Inc.
5. W. Schröter, V. Kveder, M. Seibt, H. Ewe, H. Hedemann, F. Riedel, and A. Sattler, (2000) Atomic structure and electronic states of nickel and copper silicides in silicon, Materials Science and Engineering B 72, 80.
6. H. Hieslmair, S. McHugo, A. Istratov, and E. Weber, (1999) Properties of Crystalline Silicon, Chap. 15 Gettering of transition metals in c-Si: gettering in silicon technology, p. 777, The Institute of Electrical Engineering, London.
7. S. M. Myers, M. Seibt and W. Schröter, (2000) Mechanisms of transition-metal gettering in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 88, 3795.
8. C. L. Reed and K. M. Mar, (1980) The effects of abrasion gettering on silicon material with swirl defects, Journal of the Electrochemistry Society 127, 2058.
9. J. J. C. Mikkelsen, (1983) Gettering of oxygen in Si wafers damaged by ion implantation and mechanical abrasion, Applied Physics Letters 42, 695.
10. Y. Hayamizu, S. Ush, and T. Takaneka, (1992) Impurity gettering in silicon by thin polycrystalline films, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 262, 1005.
11. M. Aoki, T. Itakura, and N. Sasaki, (1995) Gettering of iron impurities in p/p+ epitaxial silicon wafers with heavily boron-doped substrates, Applied Physics Letters 66, 2709.
12. T. Y. Tan, E. E. Gardner, and W. K. Tice, (1977) Intrinsic gettering by oxide precipitate induced dislocations in Czochralski Si, Applied Physics Letters 30, 175.
13. H. Hieslmair, S. Balasubramanian, A. A. Istratov, and E. R. Weber, (2001) Gettering simulator: physical basis and algorithm, Semiconductor Science and Technology 16, 567.
14. R. Bock, J. Schmidt, and R. Brendel, (2008) N-type silicon solar cells with surfacepassivated screen-printed aluminium-alloyed rear emitter, Physica Status Solidi (RRL) 2, 248.
15. A. Haarahiltunen, H. Talvitie, H. Savin, M. Yli-Koski, M. I. Asghar, and J. Sinkkonen, (2008) Modeling boron diffusion gettering of iron in silicon solar cells, Applied Physics Letters 92, 021902.
16. B. L. Sopori, X. Deng, J. P. Benner, A. Rohatgi, P. Sana, S. K. Estreicher, Y. K. Park, and M. A. Roberson, (1996) Hydrogen in silicon: A discussion of diffusion and passivation mechanisms, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 41-42, 159.
17. F. Duerinckx and J. Szlufcik, (2002) Defect passivation of industrial multicrystalline solar cells based on PECVD silicon nitride, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 72, 231.
18. M. Seibt, M. Apel, I. Hanke, and W. Schröter, (1996) Redistribution kinetics of metal impurities in multicrystalline silicon, Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on the Role of Impurities and Defects in Silicon Device Processing (NREL/SP-413), 118.
19. T. Buonassisi, A. A. Istratov, M. A. Marcus, B. Lai, Z. Cai, S. M. Heald, and E. R. Weber, (2005) Engineering metal impurity nanodefects for low-cost solar cells, Nature Materials 4, 676.
20. V. Kveder, W. Schröter, A. Sattler, and M. Seibt, (2000) Simulation of Al and phosphorus diffusion gettering in Si, Materials Science and Engineering B 71, 175.
21. C. del Cañizo and A. Luque, (2000) A comprehensive model for the gettering of lifetime-killing impurities in silicon, Journal of the Electrochemical Society 147, 2685.
22. W. Schröter and M. Seibt, (1999) Properties of Crystalline Silicon, Chapter-Solubility and Diffusion of Transition Metal Impurities, p. 543, The Institute of Electrical Engineering, London.
23. W. Schröter, M. Seibt, and D. Gilles, (2000) High-temperature properties of transition elements in silicon, Handbook of Semiconductor Technology Vol. 1: Electronic Structure and Properties of Semiconductors, (eds) K. A. Jackson and W. Schröter, Wiley-VCH.
24. S. Hocine and D. Mathiot, (1988) Titanium diffusion in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 53, 1269.
25. E. R. Weber, (1983) Transition metals in silicon, Applied Physics A: Materials Science&Processing 30, 1.
26. R. C. Dorward and J. S. Kirkaldy, (1968) Thermodynamic properties of copper and gold in silicon and germanium, Transactions of AlME 242, 2055.
27. M. Aoki, A. Hara, and A. Ohsawa, (1992) Fundamental properties of intrinsic gettering of iron in a silicon wafer, Journal of Applied Physics 72, 895.
28. H. Kitagawa and M. Yoshida, (1992) On the distinction between the dissociative and kick-out mechanisms for site exchange in silicon, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 31, 2859.
29. M. Yoshida and K. Saito, (1967) Dissociative diffusion of nickel in silicon and self diffusion of silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 6, 573.
30. D. Gilles, W. Bergholz, and W. Schröter, (1986) Diffusion of manganese in silicon studied by deep-level transient spectroscopy and tracer measurements, Journal of Applied Physics 59, 3590.
31. D. Gilles, E. R. Weber, and S. Hahn, (1990) Mechanism of internal gettering of interstitial impurities in Czochralski grown silicon, Physical Review Letters 64, 196.
32. S. A. McHugo, R. J. McDonald, A. R. Smith, D. L. Hurley, and E. R. Weber, (1998) Iron solubility in highly boron doped silicon, Applied Physics Letters 73, 1424.
33. E. Weber and H. G. Riotte, (1980) The solution of iron in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 51, 1484.
34. S. D. Brotherton, P. Bradley, A. Gill, and E. R. Weber, (1984) Electrical observation of the Au-Fe complex in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 55, 952.
35. T. Buonassisi, A. A. Istratov, M. D. Pickett, M. Heuer, J. P. Kalejs, G. Hahn, M. A. Marcus, B. Lai, Z. Cai, S. M. Heald, T. F. Ciszek, R. F. Clark, D. W. Cunningham, A. M. Gabor, R. Jonczyk, S. Narayanan, E. Sauar, and E. R. Weber, (2006) Chemical natures and distributions of metal impurities in multicrystalline silicon materials, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research Applications 14, 513.
36. C. Rudolf, P. Saring, L. Stolze, and M. Seibt, (2009) Co-precipitation of copper and nickel in crystalline silicon, Materials Science and Engineering B 159-160, 365.
37. M. Seibt, R. Khalil, V. V. Kveder, and W. Schröter, (2009) Electronic states at dislocations and metal silicide precipitates in crystalline silicon and their role in solar cell materials, Applied Physics A 96, 235.
38. M. Setton and J. v. d. Spiegel, (1991) A review of some aspects of ternary metalmetal-Si and metal-B-Si systems,. Journal of Applied Physics 69, 994.
39. K. Maex and M. v. Rossum, (eds), (1995) Properties of Metal Silicides, The Institute of Electrical Engineering, London.
40. D. Abdelbarey, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, and M. Seibt, (2009) Aluminum gettering of iron in silicon as a problem of the ternary phase diagram, Applied Physics Letters 94, 061912.
41. W. Shockley and J. L. Moll, (1960) Solubility of flaws in heavily-doped semiconductors, Physical Review 119, 1480.
42. R. N. Hall and J. H. Racette, (1964) Diffusion and solubility of copper in extrinsic and intrinsic germanium, silicon, and gallium arsenide, Journal of Applied Physics 35, 379.
43. D. Gilles, W. Schröter, and W. Bergholz, (1990) Impact of the electronic structure on the solubility and diffusion of 3d transition elements in silicon, Physical Review B 41, 5770.
44. H. Kohno, H. Hieslmair, A. A. Istratov, and E. R. Weber, (2000) Temperature dependence of the iron donor level in silicon at device processing temperatures, Applied Physics Letters 76, 2734.
45. A. Chantre and D. Bois, (1985) Metastable-defect behavior in silicon: Chargestate- controlled reorientation of iron-aluminum pairs, Physical Review B 31, 7979.
46. A. Haarahiltunen, H. Savin, M. Yli-Koski, H. Talvitie, and J. Sinkkonen, (2009) Modeling phosphorus diffusion gettering of iron in single crystal silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 105, 023510.
47. T. Heiser and A. Mesli, (1992) Charge-state-dependent diffusion and carrieremission- limited drift of iron in silicon, Physical Review Letters 68, 978.
48. H. Takahashi, M. Suezawa, and K. Sumino, (1992) Charge-state-dependent activation energy for diffusion of iron in silicon, Physical Review B 46, 1882.
49. S. V. Koveshnikov and G. A. Rozgonyi, (1995) Iron diffusivity in silicon: Impact of charge state, Applied Physics Letters 66, 860.
50. T. Heiser and A. Mesli, (1996) Comment on "Iron diffusivity in silicon: Impact of charge state" [Applied Physics Letters. 66, 860 (1995)], Applied Physics Letters 68, 1868.
51. S. Koveshnikov and G. Rozgonyi, (1996) Response to "Comment on 'Iron diffusivity in silicon: Impact of charge state'" [Applied Physics Letters 68, 1868 (1996)], Applied Physics Letters 68, 1870.
52. H. P. Gunnlaugsson, G. Weyer, M. Dietrich and the ISOLDE collaboration, M. Fanciulli, K. Bharuth-Ram, and R. Sielemann, (2002) Charge state dependence of the diffusivity of interstitial Fe in silicon detected by Mößbauer spectroscopy, Applied Physics Letters 80, 2657.
53. R. Krain, S. Herlufsen, and J. Schmidt, (2008) Internal gettering of iron in multicrystalline silicon at low temperature, Applied Physics Letters 93, 152108.
54. M. Rinio, A. Yodyunyong, S. Keipert-Colberg, Y. P. B. Mouafi, D. Borchert, and A. Montesdeoca-Santana, (2011) Improvement of multicrystalline silicon solar cells by a low temperature anneal after emitter diffusion, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 19, 165.
55. A. A. Istratov, C. Flink, H. Hieslmair, E. R. Weber, and T. Heiser, (1998) Intrinsic diffusion coefficient of interstitial copper in silicon, Physical Review Letters 81, 1243.
56. R. Meek and T. Seidel, (1975) Enhanced solubility and ion pairing of Cu and Au in heavily doped silicon at high temperatures, Journal of the Physics and Chemistry of Solids 36, 731.
57. K. Graff, (2000) Metal Impurities in Silicon-Device Fabrication, Springer Berlin.
58. T. Tan, R. Gafiteanu, S. Joshi, and U. Gösele, (1998) Science and Modeling of Impurity Gettering in Silicon, in Semiconductor Silicon 1998, H. R. Huff, U. Gösele, and H. Tsuya, (eds) Vol. 98, p. 1051, Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ.
59. O. Breitenstein, J. Bauer, K. Bothe, W. Kwapil, D. Lausch, U. Rau, J. Schmidt, M. Schneemann, M. C. Schubert, J.-M. Wagner, and W. Warta, (2011) Understanding junction breakdown in multicrystalline solar cells, Journal of Applied Physics 109, 071101.
60. M. Kittler, J. Lärz, W. Seifert, M. Seibt, and W. Schröter, (1991) Recombination properties of structurally well defined NiSi2 precipitates in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 58, 911.
61. M. Kittler, C. Ulhaq-Bouillet, and V. Higgs, (1995) Influence of copper contamination on recombination activity of misfit dislocations in SiGe/Si epilayers: Temperature dependence of activity as a marker characterizing the contamination level, Journal of Applied Physics 78, 4573.
62. W. Schröter and R. Kühnapfel, (1990) Model describing phosphorus diffusion gettering of transition elements in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 56, 2207.
63. E. Spiecker, M. Seibt, and W. Schröter, (1997) Phosphorous-diffusion gettering in the presence of a nonequilibrium concentration of silicon interstitials: A quantitative model, Physical Review B 55, 9577.
64. P. Pichler, (2004) Intrinsic Point Defects, Impurities, and Their Diffusion in Silicon, Computational Microelectronics, Springer.
65. H.-M. You, U. M. Gösele, and T. Y. Tan, (1993) Simulation of the transient indiffusion-segregation process of triply negatively charged Ga vacancies in GaAs and AlAs/GaAs superlattices, Journal of Applied Physics 74, 2461.
66. P. S. Plekhanov, R. Gafiteanu, U. M. Gösele, and T. Y. Tan, (1999) Modeling of gettering of precipitated impurities from Si for carrier lifetime improvement in solar cell applications, Journal of Applied Physics 86, 2453.
67. J. Hofstetter, D. P. Fenning, M. I. Bertoni, J. F. Lelivre, C. d. Cañizo, and T. Buonassisi, (2011) Impurity-to-efficiency simulator: predictive simulation of silicon solar cell performance based on iron content and distribution, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 19, 487.
68. D. P. Fenning, J. Hofstetter, M. I. Bertoni, S. Hudelson, M. Rinio, J. F. Lelievre, B. Lai, C. del Cañizo, and T. Buonassisi, (2011) Iron distribution in silicon after solar cell processing: Synchrotron analysis and predictive modeling, Applied Physics Letters 98, 162103.
69. R. D. Thompson and K. N. Tu, (1982) Low temperature gettering of Cu, Ag, and Au across a wafer of Si by Al, Applied Physics Letters 41, 440.
70. L. Verhoef, P.-P. Michiels, S. Roorda, W. Sinke, and R. V. Zolingen, (1990) Gettering in polycrystalline silicon solar cells, Materials Science and Engineering: B 7, 49.
71. H. Hieslmair, S. McHugo, and E. R. Weber, (1996) Aluminum backside segregation gettering, Proceedings of the 25th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist Conference, Washington DC, May 13-17, 441.
72. A. Sattler, (2003) Ph. D. Thesis, Göttingen University, Cuvillier, Göttingen, ISBN 3-89873-856-6.
73. M. Seibt, A. Sattler, C. Rudolf, O. Voss, V. Kveder, and W. Schröter, (2006) Gettering in silicon photovoltaics: current state and future perspective, Physica Status Solidi A 203, 696.
74. M. Apel, I. Hanke, R. Schindler, and W. Schröter, (1994) Aluminum gettering of cobalt in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 76, 4432.
75. G. Rivlin and G. V. Raynor, (1981) International Metals Review 26, 133.
76. L. A. Verhoef, P.-P. Michiels, W. C. Sinke, C. M. M. Denisse, M. Hendriks, and R. J. C. van Zolingen, (1990) Combined impurity gettering and defect passivation in polycrystalline silicon solar cells, Applied Physics Letters 57, 2704.
77. A. Rohatgi, V. Yelundur, J. W. Jeong, A. Ebong, M. D. Rosenblum, and J. I. Hanoka, Fundamental understanding and implemantation of Al-enhanced PECVD SiNx hydrogenation in silicon ribbons, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 74, 117 (2002).
78. S. K. Estreicher, J. L. Hastings, and P. A. Fedders, (1999) Hydrogen-defect interactions in Si, Materials Science and Engineering B 58, 31.
79. J.-W. Jeong, M. D. Rosenblum, J. P. Kalejs, and A. Rohatgi, (2000) Hydrogenation of defects in edge-defined filmfed grown aluminum-enhanced plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposited silicon nitride multicrystalline silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 87, 7551.
80. V. Yelundur, A. Rohatgi, J. W. Jeong, A. M. Gabor, J. I. Hanoka, and R. L. Wallace, (2000) PECVD SiNx induced hydrogen passivation in string ribbon silicon, in Proceedings of the 28th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, p. 91, IEEE, Anchorage, 2000.
81. S. Dubois, O. Palais, M. Pasquinelli, S. Martinuzzi, C. Jaussaud, and N. Rondel, (2006) Influence of iron contamination on the performances of single-crystalline silicon solar cells: Computed and experimental results, Journal of Applied Physics 100, 024510.
82. S. Dubois, O. Palais, P. J. Ribeyron, N. Enjalbert, M. Pasquinelli, and S. Martinuzzi, (2007) Effect of intentional bulk contamination with iron on multicrystalline silicon solar cell properties, Journal of Applied Physics 102, 083525.
83. D. Karg, G. Pensl, and M. Schulz, (2003) Platinum-diffusion: a method for the determination of vacancy profiles in EFG silicon, Proceedings of 3rdWorld Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Osaka, 1112.
84. M. Jacob, P. Pichler, H. Ryssel, and R. Falster, (1997) Determination of vacancy concentrations in the bulk of silicon wafers by platinum diffusion experiments, Journal of Applied Physics 82, 182.
85. D. Abdelbarey, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, and M. Seibt, (2010) Light-induced point defect reactions of residual iron in crystalline silicon after aluminum gettering, Journal of Applied Physics 108, 043519.
86. M. A. Falkenberg, D. Abdelbarey, V. V. Kveder, and M. Seibt, (2010) Comparison of efficiency and kinetics of phosphorus-diffusion and aluminum gettering of metal impurities in silicon: a simulation study, Solid State Phenomena 156-158, 229.
87. S. Martinuzzi, I. Perichaud, and J. J. Simon, (1997) External gettering by aluminum-silicon alloying observed from carrier recombination at dislocations in float zone silicon wafers, Applied Physics Letters 70, 2744.
88. S. M. Joshi, U. M. Gösele, and T. Y. Tan, (2001) Extended high temperature Al gettering for improvement and homogenization of minority carrier diffusion lengths in multicrystalline Si, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 70, 231.
89. M. Blazek, W. Kwapil, J. Schön, and W. Warta, (2003) Gettering efficiency of backside aluminum and Al-Si-Eutectic, in Proceedings of the 23rd EUPVSEC, Valencia, 2008.
90. A. Luque and S. Hegedus, Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering, John Wiley&Sons Ltd. England.
91. T. Y. Tan and U. Gösele, (2000) Handbook of Semiconductor Technology, Chapter chap5 Point Defects, Diffusion and Precipitation, pp. 230-290, Wiley-VCH.
92. F. F. Morehead and R. F. Lever, (1986) Enhanced "tail" diffusion of phosphorus and boron in silicon: Self-interstitial phenomena, Applied Physics Letters 48, 151.
93. B. J. Mulvaney and W. B. Richardson, (1987) Model for defect-impurity pair diffusion in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 51, 1439.
94. M. Orlowski, (1988) Unified model for impurity diffusion in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 53, 1323.
95. E. O. Sveinbjörnsson, O. Engström, and U. Södervall, (1993) Phosphorus diffusion gettering of gold in silicon: The reversibility of the gettering process, Journal of Applied Physics 73, 7311.
96. M. Yoshida, E. Arai, H. Nakamura, and Y. Terunuma, (1974) Excess vacancy generation mechanism at phosphorus diffusion into silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 45, 1498.
97. A. Bourret and W. Schröter, (1984) HREM of SiP precipitates at the (111) silicon surface during phosphorus predeposition, Ultramicroscopy 14, 97.
98. S. Solmi, A. Parisini, R. Angelucci, A. Armigliato, D. Nobili, and L. Moro, (1996) Dopant and carrier concentration in Si in equilibrium with monoclinic SiP precipitates, Physical Review B 53, 7836.
99. S. Solmi and D. Nobili, (1998) High concentration diffusivity and clustering of arsenic and phosphorus in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 83, 2484.
100. J. Xie and S. P. Chen, (1999) Diffusion and clustering in heavily arsenic-doped silicon: discrepancies and explanation, Physical Review Letters 83, 1795.
101. A. Ourmazd and W. Schröter, (1984) Phosphorus gettering and intrinsic gettering of nickel in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 45, 781.
102. A. Ourmazd and W. Schröter, (1985) Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings 36, 25.
103. A. Correia, B. Pichaud, A. Lhorte, and J. B. Quoirin, (1996) Platinum gettering in silicon by silicon phosphides precipitates, Journal of Applied Physics 79, 2145.
104. M. Seibt, A. Döller, V. Kveder, A. Sattler and A. Zozime, (2000) Phosphorus diffusion gettering of platinum in silicon: formation of near-surface precipitates, Physica Status Solidi B 222, 327.
105. R. Kühnapfel and W. Schröter, (1986) Materials Science Forum 10-12, 151.
106. W. Schröter, D. Gilles, and M. Seibt, (1991) High temperature properties of 3d transition elements in silicon, Materials Science and Technology 4.
107. W. Schröter, A. Döller, A. Zozime, V. Kveder, M. Seibt, and E. Spiecker, (2004) Phosphorus diffusion gettering of metallic impurities in silicon: mechanisms beyond segregation, Solid State Phenomena 95-96, 527.
108. G. Martin, (1978) Radiation-induced solute redistribution and precipitation, Philosophical Magazine A 38, 131.
109. R. Kühnapfel and W. Schröter, (1990) in Semiconductor Silicon 1990, H. R. Huff, K. G. Barraclough and J. Chikawa, (eds) Vol. 90-7, p. 651, Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ.
110. C. Gong, S. Singh, J. Robbelein, N. Posthuma, E. Van Kerschaver, J. Poortmans, and R. Mertens, (2011) High efficient n-type back-junction back-contact silicon solar cells with screen-printed Al-alloyed emitter and effective emitter passivation study, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, 19, 781-786.
111. S. Myers, G. Petersen, T. Headley, J. Michael, T. Aselage. and C. Seager, (1997) Metal gettering by boron-silicide precipitates in boron-implanted silicon, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 127-128, 291.
112. T. J. Headly, S. M. Myers, G. A. Petersen, J. R. Michael, T. L. Aselage. and J. Bruley, (1997) in Microscopy and Microanalysis 1997, p. 455, Microscopy Society of America, Chicago, IL.
113. S. Frabboni, G. Lulli, P. Merli, A. Migliori. and R. Bauer, (1991) Electron spectroscopic imaging of dopant precipitation and segregation in silicon, Ultramicroscopy 35, 265.
114. S. M. Myers, G. A. Petersen, D. M. Follstaedt, C. H. Seager, T. J. Headly, J. R. Michael, W. Deweerd, G. Koops, J. Verheyden. and H. Pattyn, (1998) Segregation gettering by implantation-formed cavities and B-Si precipitates in silicon, in Semiconductor Silicon 1998, H. R. Huff, U. Gösele and H. Tsuya, (eds) Vol. 98, pp. 1150-1161, Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ.
115. J. Schön, M. C. Schubert, W. Warta, H. Savin, and A. Haarahiltunen, (2010) Analysis of simultaneous boron and phosphorus diffusion gettering in silicon, Physica Status Solidi A 207, 2589.
116. M. A. Kessler, T. Ohrdes, B. Wolpensinger, and N.-P. Harder, (2010) Charge carrier lifetime degradation in Cz silicon through the formation of a boron-rich layer during BBr3 diffusion processes, Semiconductor Science and Technology 25, 055001.
117. S. P. Phang and D. Macdonald, (2011) Direct comparison of boron, phosphorus, and aluminum gettering of iron in crystalline silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 109, 073521.
118. V. Vähänissi, A. Haarahiltunen, H. Talvitie, M. Yli-Koski, J. Lindroos, and H. Savin, (2010) Physical mechanisms of boron diffusion gettering of iron in silicon, Physica Status Solidi (RRL) 4, 136.
119. M. Seibt, (1997) Metal Silicide Precipitation in Silicon, Crystalline Defects and Contamination Control: Their Impact and Control in Device Manufacturing, B. O. Kolbesen, C. Clays, P. Stallhofer, and F. Tardiff (eds) The Electrochemical Society, Pennigton, PV 97-22.
120. M. Seibt, D. Abdelbarey, V. Kveder, C. Rudolf, P. Saring, L. Stolze, and O. Voss, (2009) Structure, chemistry and electrical properties of extended defects in crystalline silicon for photovoltaics, Physica Status Solidi C 6, 1847.
121. B. P. R. Marioton and U. Gösele, (1988) Transport of thermodynamic information by self-interstitials between precipitates in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 63, 4661.
122. A. G. Cullis and L. E. Katz, (1974) Electron microscope study of electrically active impurity precipitate defects in silicon, Philosophical Magazine 30, 1419.
123. K. Honda, A. Ohsawa, and N. Toyokura, (1985) Breakdown in silicon oxides (II)-correlation with Fe precipitates, Applied Physics Letters 46, 582.
124. M. Seibt and K. Graff, (1988) Characterization of haze-forming precipitates in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 63, 4444.
125. M. Seibt and W. Schröter, (1989) Precipitation behaviour of nickel in silicon, Philosophical Magazine A 59, 337.
126. J. K. Solberg, (1978) The crystal structure of ?-Cu3Si precipitates in silicon, Acta Crystallography A34, 684.
127. S. P. Murarka, (1983) Silicides for VLSI Applications, Academic Press, Inc.
128. J. Vanhellemont, O. D. Gryse, and P. Clauws, (2005) Precipitation and extended defect formation in silicon, Physica Status Solidi (c) 2, 1958.
129. M. Seibt, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, and O. Voss, (2005) Structural and electrical properties of metal impurities at dislocations in silicon, Physica Status Solidi A 202.
130. T. Buonassisi, A. A. Istratov, S. Peters, C. Ballif, J. Isenberg, S. Riepe, W. Warta, R. Schindler, G. Willeke, Z. Cai, B. Lai, and E. R. Weber, (2005) Impact of metal silicide precipitate dissolution during rapid thermal processing of multicrystalline silicon solar cells, Applied Physics Letters 87, 121918.
131. M. Heuer, T. Buonassisi, M. A. Marcus, A. A. Istratov, M. D. Pickett, T. Shibata, and E. R. Weber, (2006) Complex intermetallic phase in multicrystalline silicon doped with transition metals, Physical Review B 73, 235204.
132. P. Hahne, (2010) Untersuchung ternärer Silizide im System Kupfer-Nickel- Silizium, Masters thesis, Göttingen University.
133. S. Hudelson, B. K. Newman, S. Bernardis, D. P. Fenning, M. I. Bertoni, M. A. Marcus, S. C. Fakra, B. Lai, and T. Buonassisi, (2010) Retrograde Melting and Internal Liquid Gettering in Silicon, Advanced Materials 22, 3948.
134. V. Kveder, M. Kittler, and W. Schröter, (2001) Recombination activity of contaminated dislocations in silicon: A model describing electron-beam-induced current contrast behavior, Physical Review B 63, 115208.
135. A. Broniatowski, (1989) Multicarrier trapping by copper microprecipitates in silicon, Physical Review Letters 62, 3074.
136. P. Saring, C. Rudolf, L. Stolze, and M. Seibt, (2009) Light-beam induced current measurements on copper-nickel co-contaminated Cz-silicon bicrystals, Materials Science and Engineering B 159-160, 216.
137. P. S. Plekhanov and T. Y. Tan, (2000) Schottky effect model of electrical activity of metallic precipitates in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 76, 3777.
138. A. Zuschlag, S. Ohl, J. Bernhard, H. Morhenn, J. Ebser, J. Junge, S. Seren, and G. Hahn, (2010) μXRF investigations on the influence of solar cell processing steps on iron and copper precipitates in multicrystalline silicon, in Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2010 35th IEEE, pp. 347-351.
139. H. Hieslmair, A. A. Istratov, T. Heiser, and E. R. Weber, (1998) Evaluation of precipitate densities and capture radii from the analysis of precipitation kinetics, Journal of Applied Physics 84, 713.
140. J. W. Christian, (1975) The Theory of Transformations in Metals and Alloys, Pergamon Press, Ltd.
141. F. S. Ham, (1958) Theory of diffusion-limited precipitation, Journal of the Physics and Chemistry of Solids 6, 335.
142. A. D. Fokker, (1914) Die mittlere Energie rotierender elektrischer Dipole im Strahlungsfeld, Annalen der Physik 348, 810.
143. M. Planck, (1917) Über einen Satz der statistischen Dynamik und seine Erweiterung in der Quantentheorie, Sitzungberichte der Preussischen Akadademie der Wissenschaften XXIV, 324.
144. S. Senkader, J. Esfandyari, and G. Hobler, (1995) A model for oxygen precipitation in silicon including bulk stacking fault growth, Journal of Applied Physics 78, 6469.
145. J. Frenkel, (1946) Kinetic Theory of Liquids, Oxford University, Oxford.
146. A. Haarahiltunen, H. Väinölä, O. Anttila, E. Saarnilehto, M. Yli-Koski, J. Storg°ards, and J. Sinkkonen, (2005) Modeling of heterogeneous precipitation of iron in silicon, Applied Physics Letters 87, 151908.
147. A. Haarahiltunen, H. Väinölä, O. Anttila, M. Yli-Koski, and J. Sinkkonen, (2007) Experimental and theoretical study of heterogeneous iron precipitation in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 101, 043507.
148. W. Schröter and H. Cerva, (2002) Interaction of point defects with dislocations in silicon and germanium: Electrical and optical effects, Solid State Phenomena 85-86. Gettering processes and the role of extended defects 53
149. H. Alexander and H. Teichler, (2000) in: Handbook of Semiconductor Technology Vol. 1: Electronic Structure and Properties of Semiconductors, K. A. Jackson and W. Schröter (eds), Chapter 6 Dislocations in Semiconductors, p. 338 VCH-Wiley.
150. F. D. Wöhler, H. Alexander, and W. Sander, (1970) The annealing of the EPRsignal produced in silicon by plastic deformation, Journal of the Physics and Chemistry of Solids 31, 1381.
151. V. A. Grazhulis and Y. A. Osipian, (1970) Soviet Physics JETP 31, 677.
152. V. V. Kveder, Y. A. Osipian, and M. N. Zolotukhin, (1981) Investigation of the dislocation spin system in silicon as model of one-dimensional spin chains, Soviet Physics JETP 53, 160.
153. V. Kveder, T. Sekiguchi, and K. Sumino, (1995) Electronic states associated with dislocations in p-type silicon studied by means of electric-dipole spin resonance and deep-level transient spectroscopy, Physical Review B 51, 16721.
154. V. V. Kveder, Y. A. Ossipian, I. R. Sagdeev, A. I. Shalynin, and M. N. Zolotukhin, (1985) The effect of annealing and hydrogenation on the dislocation conduction in silicon, Physica Status Solidi A 87, 657.
155. M. Brohl and H. Alexander, (1989) IOP Conference Proceedings No. 104, 163.
156. A. Bourret, J. Desseaux, and A. Renault, (1982) Core structure of the Lomer dislocation in germanium and silicon, Philosophical Magazine A 45, 1.
157. V. V. Kveder, A. E. Koshelev, T. R. Mchedlidze, Y. A. Osipian, and A. I. Shalynin, (1989) Temperature dependence of conduction by reconstructed dislocations in silicon and nonlinear effects, Soviet Physics JETP 68, 104.
158. V. V. Kveder, T. R. Mchedlidze, Y. A. Osipian, and A. I. Shalynin, (1989) Conductivity along dislocations: temperature dependence and nonlinear effects. Combined resonance and structure peculiarities of plastically deformed silicon, Solid State Phenomena 6-7, 301.
159. V. Kveder, (1993) Electric-dipole spin resonance on extended defects in silicon, Solid State Phenomena 32-33, 279.
160. F. Liu, M. Mostoller, V. Milman, M. F. Chisholm, and T. Kaplan, (1995) Electronic and elastic properties of edge dislocations in Si, Physical Review B 51, 17192.
161. A. Luque, C. del Cañizo, R. Lagos, and A. Moehlecke, (1996) Dynamic modelling of the diffusion-segregation gettering. Application to the gettering by Al in Si, Physica Status Solidi A 157, 37.
162. V. Higgs and M. Kittler, (1994) Influence of hydrogen on the electrical and optical activity of misfit dislocations in Si/SiGe epilayers, Applied Physics Letters 65, 2804.
163. M. Kittler and W. Seifert, (1995) Analysis of recombination activity of NiSi2 platelets in Si, Physica Status Solidi A 150, 463.
164. M. Kittler and W. Seifert, (1993) On the origin of recombination activity of extended defects in silicon as studied by the method of the electron beam induced current, Institute of Physics Conference Series 134, 717.
165. M. Kittler and W. Seifert, (1993) Two classes of defect recombination behaviour in silicon as studied by SEM-EBIC, Scanning Microscopy 15, 316.
166. K. Knobloch, M. Kittler, W. Seifert, J. Simon, and I. Perichaud, (1998) Impact of Phosphorus Diffusion on the Contamination Level of Dislocations in Deformed Float Zone Silicon as Studied by Beam Injection Techniques, Solid State Phenomena 63-64, 105.
167. S. Kusanagi, T. Sekiguchi, B. Shen, and K. Sumino, (1995) Electrical activity of extended defects and gettering of metallic impurities in silicon, Materials Science Technology 11, 685.
168. B. Shen, T. Sekiguchi, R. Zhang, Y. Shi, H. Shi, K. Yang, Y. Zheng, and K. Sumino, (1996) Precipitation of Cu and Fe in dislocated floating-zone-grown silicon, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 35, 3301.
169. N. Fujita, R. Jones, S. Öberg, P. R. Briddon, and A. T. Blumenau, (2008) A theoretical study of copper contaminated dislocations in silicon, Solid State Phenomena 131-133, 259.
170. A. Castaldini, D. Cavalcoli, A. Cavallini, and S. Pizzini, (2005) Experimental evidence of dislocation related shallow states in p-type Si, Physical Review Letters 95, 076401.
171. W. Schröter, J. Kronewitz, U. Gnauert, F. Riedel, and M. Seibt, (1995) Bandlike and localized states at extended defects in silicon, Physical Review B 52, 13726.
172. W. Schröter, H. Hedemann, V. Kveder, and F. Riedel, (2002) Measurements of energy spectra of extended defects, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 14, 13047.
173. V. V. Kveder, Y. A. Osipian, W. Schröter, and G. Zoth, (1982) On the energy 7spectrum of dislocations in silicon, Physica Status Solidi A, 72, 791.
174. V. Kveder, V. Orlov, M. Khorosheva, and M. Seibt, (2008) Influence of the dislocation travel distance on the DLTS spectra of dislocations in silicon, Solid State Phenomena 131-133, 175.
175. J. Patel and L. Kimerling, (1979) Journal of Physics 40, 667.
176. P. Omling, E. R. Weber, L. Montelius, H. Alexander, and J. Michel, (1985) Electrical properties of dislocations and point defects in plastically deformed silicon, Physical Review B 32, 6571.
177. D. Cavalcoli, A. Cavallini, and E. Gombia, (1997) Defect states in plastically deformed n-type silicon, Physical Review B 56, 10208.
178. V. Kveder, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, and A. Sattler, (2001) Electrical activity of dislocations in Si decorated by Ni, Solid State Phenomena 82-84, 361.
179. D. Maroudas and R. A. Brown, (1991) Analysis of the effects of oxygen migration on dislocation motion in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 69, 3865.
180. W. Schröter, (1973) Recombination of charge carriers at dislocations in germanium, Physica Status Solidi A 19, 159.
181. A. Ourmazd, (1981) A theoretical interpretation of the electrical behaviour of individual edge dislocations in Si as determined by combined EBIC/TEM studies, Kristall und Technik 16, 137.
182. P. Wilshaw and G. Booker, (1985) New results and an interpretation for SEM EBIC conirast arising from individual dislocations in Si, Institute of Physics Conference Series 76, 329.
183. R. Labusch, (1979) Recombination of nonequilibrium carriers in the presence of dislocations in semiconductors, Journal of Physics 40, C6.
184. R. Labusch, (2002) The true potentials and transition barriers at dislocations, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 14, 12801.
185. K. Bullough and R. C. Newman, (1963) The interaction of impurities with dislocations in silicon and germanium, Progress in Semiconductors 7, 101 (1963).
186. A. Rodriguez, H. Bracht, and I. Yonenaga, (2004) Impact of high B concentrations and high dislocation densities on Au diffusion in Si, Journal of Applied Physics 95, 7841.
187. O. Voss, Wechselwirkungen von Gold und Versetzungen in Silizium, Ph.D. Thesis, Göttingen University, 2009.
188. O. F. Vyvenko, M. Kittler, W. Seifert and M. V. Trushin, (2005) Recombination activity and electrical levels of "clean" and copper contaminated dislocations in p-type Si, Physica Status Solidi C 2, 1852.
189. M. Seibt, (1992) Relaxation Induced Gettering of Metal Impurities in Silicon: Microscopic Properties of Effective Gettering Sites, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 262, 957.
190. T. Fuyuki, H. Kondo, T. Yamazaki, Y. Takahashi, and Y. Uraoka, (2005) Photographic surveying of minority carrier diffusion length in polycrystalline silicon solar cells by electroluminescence, Applied Physics Letters 86, 262108 (2005).
191. P. Würfel, (1982) The chemical potential of radiation, Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics 15, 3967.
192. A. Cuevas and D. Macdonald, (2004) Measuring and interpreting the lifetime of silicon wafers, Solar Energy 76, 255, Solar World Congress 2001.
193. K. Bothe, R. Krain, R. Falster, and R. Sinton, (2010) Determination of the bulk lifetime of bare multicrystalline silicon wafers, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 18, 204.
194. T. Trupke, R. A. Bardos, M. C. Schubert, and W.Warta, (2006) Photoluminescence imaging of silicon wafers, Applied Physics Letters 89, 044107.
195. S. Binetti, M. Acciarr, and J. Libal, (2008) Impact of extended defects on the electrical properties of solar grade multicrystalline silicon for solar cell application, Solid State Phenomena 131-133, 419.
196. V. Kveder, M. Badylevich, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, E. Steinman and A. Izotov, (2005) Silicon light-emitting diodes based on dislocation luminescence, Physica Status Solidi A 202, 901.
197. N. A. Drozdov, A. A. Patrin and V. D. Tkachev, (1976) Recombination radiation on dislocations in silicon, JETP Letters 23, 597.
198. J. Weber, (1994) Solid State Phenomena 37-38, 13.
199. K. Weronek, Ph.D. Thesis, Stuttgart, 1992.
200. A. I. Izotov and E. A. Shteinman, (1986) Soviet Physics Solid State 28, 567 (1986).
201. R. Sauer, J. Weber, J. Stolz, E. R. Weber, K. H. Küsters, and H. Alexander, (1985) Dislocation-related photoluminescence in silicon, Applied Physics A: Materials Science&Processing 36, 1.
202. R. Sauer, C. Kisielowski-Kemmerich, and H. Alexander, (1986) Dissociationwidth- dependent radiative recombination of electrons and holes at widely split dislocations in silicon, Physical Review Letters 57, 1472.
203. V. V. Kveder, E. A. Steinman, and H. G. Grimmeiss, (1996) Dislocation related electroluminescence at room temperature in plastically deformed silicon, Solid State Phenomena 47-48, 419.
204. V. V. Kveder, A. I. Shalynin, E. A. Steinman, and A. N. Izotov, (1996) Influence of the splitting of dislocations on the g factor of holes in one-dimensional dislocation band, JETP 83, 829.
205. V. Higgs, E. C. Lightowlers, E. A. Fitzgerald, Y. H. Xie, and P. J. Silverman, (1993) Characterization of compositionally graded Si1-xGex alloy layers by photoluminescence spectroscopy and by cathodoluminescence spectroscopy and imaging, Journal of Applied Physics 73, 1952.
206. G. P. Watson, J. L. Benton, Y. H. Xie, and E. A. Fitzgerald, (1998) Influence of misfit dislocation interactions on photoluminescence spectra of SiGe on patterned Si, Journal of Applied Physics 83, 3773.
207. R. Jones, B. Coomer, J. Goss, S. Berg, and P. Briddon, (2000) Intrinsic defects and the D1 to D4 optical bands detected in plastically deformed Si, Physica Status Solidi B 222, 133.
208. E. Leoni, S. Binetti, B. Pichaud, and S. Pizzini, (2004) Dislocation luminescence in plastically deformed silicon crystals: effect of dislocation intersection and oxygen decoration, The European Physical Journal-Applied Physics 27, 123.
209. V. V. Kveder, E. A. Steinman, S. A. Shevchenko, and H. G. Grimmeiss, (1995) Dislocation-related electroluminescence at room temperature in plastically deformed silicon, Physical Review B 51, 10520.
210. S. Pizzini, M. Acciarri, E. Leoni, and A. Le Donne, (2000) About the D1 and D2 dislocation luminescence and its correlation with oxygen segregation, Physica Status Solidi B 222, 141.
211. A. J. Kenyon, E. A. Steinman, C. W. Pitt, D. E. Hole, and V. I. Vdovin, (2003) The origin of the 0.78 eV luminescence band in dislocated silicon, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 15, S2843.
212. S. Binetti, R. Somaschini, A. L. Donne, E. Leoni, S. Pizzini, D. Li, and D. Yang, (2002) Dislocation luminescence in nitrogen-doped Czochralski and float zone silicon, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 14, 13247.
213. V. Kveder, M. Badylevich, E. Steinman, A. Izotov, M. Seibt, and W. Schröter, (2004) Room-temperature silicon light-emitting diodes based on dislocation luminescence, Applied Physics Letters 84(12).
214. A. Voigt, E. Wolf, and H. Strunk, (1998) Grain orientation and grain boundaries in cast multicrystalline silicon, Materials Science and Engineering B 54, 202.
215. J. Thibault, J.-L. Rouviere, and A. Bourret, (2000) in: Handbook of Semiconductor Technology, Vol. 1, K. A. Jackson and W. Schröter (eds), Chap. 7 Grain Boundaries in Semiconductors, p. 379, Wiley-VCH.
216. R. C. Dorward and J. S. Kirkaldy, (1968) Effect of grain-boundaries on the solubility of copper in silicon, Journal of Materials Science 3, 502.
217. A. A. Istratov, W. Huber, and E. R. Weber, (2004) Experimental evidence for the presence of segregation and relaxation gettering of iron in polycrystalline silicon layers on silicon, Applied Physics Letters 85, 4472.
218. A. Haarahiltunen, M. Yli-Koski, H. Talvitie, V. Vähänissi, J. Lindroos, and H. Savin, (2011) Gettering of iron in CZ silicon by polysilicon layer, Physica Status Solidi C 8, 751.
219. J. P. Hirth and L. Lothe, (1968) Theory of Dislocations, McGraw-Hill, New York.
220. J.-L. Maurice, (1993) Electrical activity and microstructure of a faceted (111)-(112), Σ = 3 twin boundary in aluminium-doped silicon, Philosophical Magazine A 68, 951.
221. A. Ihlal, R. Rizk, and O. B. M. H. Duparc, (1996) Correlation between the gettering efficiencies and the energies of interfaces in silicon bicrystals, Journal of Applied Physics 80, 2665.
222. M. Elkajbaji and J. Dessus, and J. Thibault, (1992) Structure of copper precipitates in a symmetrical silicon tilt bicrystal: High-resolution electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, Philosophical Magazine A 66, 873.
223. A. Broniatowski and C. Haut, (1990) The electronic properties of copper-decorated twinned boundaries in silicon, Philosophical Magazine Letters 62, 407.
224. A. Ihlal, R. Rizk, P. Voivenel, and G. Nouet, (1995) A comparative study of the EBIC contrast and gettering efficiency of the tilt boundaries Σ = 25, Σ = 13 and Σ = 9 in silicon bicrystals, Journal of Physics III France 5, 1371.
225. X. Portier and R. Rizk, (1996) Nickel precipitation at the grain boundary of a silicon bicrystal, Physica Status Solidi A 155, 125.
226. X. Portier, R. Rizk, G. Nouet, and G. Allais, (1995) High-resolution electron microscopy observations of silicon/nickel silicide interfaces in a Σ = 25 silicon bicrystal, Philosophical Magazine A 71, 1109.
227. X. Portier, A. Ihlal, and R. Rizk, (1997) Iron silicide formation by precipitation in a silicon bicrystal, Physica Status Solidi (a) 161, 75.
228. A. Ihlal and R. Rizk, (1996) Effects of iron contamination on the electrical activity of a silicon bicrystal, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 29, 3096.
229. J. Chen, D. Yang, Z. Xi, and T. Sekiguchi, (2005) Recombination activity of Σ 3 boundaries in boron-doped multicrystalline silicon: Influence of iron contamination, Journal of Applied Physics 97, 033701.
230. B. Chen, J. Chen, T. Sekiguchi, M. Saito, and K. Kimoto, (2009) Structural characterization and iron detection at Σ3 grain boundaries in multicrystalline silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 105, 113502.
231. J. Chen, B. C. W. Lee, M. Fujuzawa, M. Yamada, and T. Sekiguchi, (2010) Grain boundaries in multicrystalline silicon, Solid State Phenomena 156-158, 18.
232. T. Buonassisi, A. A. Istratov, M. D. Pickett, M. A. Marcus, T. F. Ciszek, and E. R. Weber, (2006) Metal precipitation at grain boundaries in silicon: Dependence on grain boundary character and dislocation decoration, Applied Physics Letters 89, 042102.
233. J. Bauer, O. Breitenstein, A. Lotnyk, and H. Blumtritt, (2007) Investigations on different types of filaments in multi-crystalline silicon for solar cells, 22nd European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 3-7 September 2007, Milan, Italy.
234. A. Sattler, M. Seibt, and W. Schröter, (2004) Interaction of interstitially dissolved cobalt and oxygen-related centres in silicon, Solid State Phenomena 95-96.
235. W. Schröter, V. Kveder, M. Seibt, A. Sattler, and E. Spiecker, (2002) Mechanisms and computer modelling of transition element gettering in silicon, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 72(1-4), 299.
236. M. Seibt, D. Abdelbarey, V. Kveder, C. Rudolf, P. Saring, L. Stolze, and O. Voss, (2009) Interaction of metal impurities with extended defects in crystalline silicon and its implications for gettering techniques used in photovoltaics, Materials Science and Engineering: B 159-160, 264.
237. P. Manshanden and L. Geerligs, (2006) Improved phosphorous gettering of multicrystalline silicon, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 90, 998.
238. M. D. Pickett and T. Buonassisi, (2008) Iron point defect reduction in multicrystalline silicon solar cells, Applied Physics. Letters 92, 122103.
239. G. Zoth and W. Bergholz, (1990) A fast, preparation-free method to detect iron in silicon, Journal of Applied Physics 67, 6764.
240. D. Macdonald and A. Cuevas, (2000) The trade-off between phosphorus gettering and thermal degradation in multicrystalline silicon, in Proceedings of the 16th EPVSEC, p. 1707.