Health effects of resistant starch

Nutrition Bulletin

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 10-41

  Lockyer, S ^a   Nugent, A P ^b  

^a BRITISH NUTRITION FOUNDATION   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE DUBLIN   (Ireland)

Author keywords

amylose; fibre; glycaemia; resistant starch; satiety; short chain fatty acids

Indexed keywords

EID: 85008195246     PISSN: 14719827     EISSN: 14673010     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/nbu.12244     Document Type: Review

References (260)

1. Abell GC, Cooke CM, Bennett CN et al. (2008) Phylotypes related to Ruminococcus bromii are abundant in the large bowel of humans and increase in response to a diet high in resistant starch. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 66: 505–15.
2. Abellan Ruiz MS, Barnuevo Espinosa MD, Contreras Fernandez CJ et al. (2015) Digestion-resistant maltodextrin effects on colonic transit time and stool weight: a randomized controlled clinical study. European Journal of Nutrition 63: 1–9.
3. Adamu B (2001) Resistant starch derived from extruded corn starch and guar gum as affected by acid and surfactants: structural characterization. Starch-Stärke 53: 582–91.
4. Agency FS (2006) Food Portion Sizes. The Stationary Office: London.
5. Åkerberg AK, Liljeberg HG, Granfeldt YE et al. (1998) An in vitro method, based on chewing, to predict resistant starch content in foods allows parallel determination of potentially available starch and dietary fiber. The Journal of Nutrition 128: 651–60.
6. Alam NH, Islam S, Sattar S et al. (2009) Safety of rapid intravenous rehydration and comparative efficacy of 3 oral rehydration solutions in the treatment of severely malnourished children with dehydrating cholera. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 48: 318–27.
7. Almeida EL, Chang YK & Steel CJ (2013) Dietary fibre sources in bread: influence on technological quality. LWT-Food Science and Technology 50: 545–53.
8. Al-Tamimi EK, Seib PA, Snyder BS et al. (2010) Consumption of cross-linked resistant starch (RS4(XL)) on glucose and insulin responses in humans. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 2010: 651063, doi:10.1155/2010/651063.
9. American Association of Cereal Chemists (2000) Approved Methods Committee 32-40.01 Resistant starch in starch samples and plant materials. Available at: http://methods.aaccnet.org/summaries/32-40-01.aspx (accessed 7 September 2016).
10. Ames N, Blewett H, Storsley J et al. (2015) A double-blind randomised controlled trial testing the effect of a barley product containing varying amounts and types of fibre on the postprandial glucose response of healthy volunteers. British Journal of Nutrition 113: 1373–83.
11. Anderson GH, Cho CE, Akhavan T et al. (2010) Relation between estimates of cornstarch digestibility by the Englyst in vitro method and glycemic response, subjective appetite, and short-term food intake in young men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91: 932–9.
12. Anson NM, Havenaar R, Vaes W et al. (2011) Effect of bioprocessing of wheat bran in wholemeal wheat breads on the colonic SCFA production in vitro and postprandial plasma concentrations in men. Food Chemistry 128: 404–9.
13. Aravind N, Sissons M, Fellows CM et al. (2013) Optimisation of resistant starch II and III levels in durum wheat pasta to reduce in vitro digestibility while maintaining processing and sensory characteristics. Food Chemistry 136: 1100–9.
14. Arora T & Backhed F (2016) The gut microbiota and metabolic disease: current understanding and future perspectives. Journal of Internal Medicine 280: 339–49.
15. Aune D, Chan DS, Lau R et al. (2011) Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. British Medical Journal 343: d6617.
16. Ayala JE, Bracy DP, James FD et al. (2009) The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor regulates endogenous glucose production and muscle glucose uptake independent of its incretin action. Endocrinology 150: 1155–64.
17. Baghurst PA, Baghurst K & Record S (1996) Dietary fibre, non-starch polysaccharides and resistant starch: a review. Food Australia 48: S3–35.
18. Baghurst KI, Baghurst PA & Record SJ (2001) Dietary fiber, nonstarch polysaccharide, and resistant starch intakes in Australia. In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fibre in Human Health, pp. 583–91.
19. Bartholomé R, Salden B, Vrolijk MF et al. (2015) Paracetamol as a post prandial marker for gastric emptying, a food-drug interaction on absorption. PLoS ONE 10: e0136618.
20. Bassaganya-Riera J, DiGuardo M, Viladomiu M et al. (2011) Soluble fibers and resistant starch ameliorate disease activity in interleukin-10–deficient mice with inflammatory bowel disease. The Journal of Nutrition 141: 1318–25.
21. Bergmann J, Chassany O, Petit A et al. (1992) Correlation between echographic gastric emptying and appetite: influence of psyllium. Gut 33: 1042–3.
22. Bermudez-Brito M, Rösch C, Schols HA et al. (2015) Resistant starches differentially stimulate Toll-like receptors and attenuate proinflammatory cytokines in dendritic cells by modulation of intestinal epithelial cells. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 59: 1814–26.
23. Binder HJ (2010) Role of colonic short-chain fatty acid transport in diarrhea. Annual Review of Physiology 72: 297–313.
24. Binder HJ, Brown I, Ramakrishna BS et al. (2014) Oral rehydration therapy in the second decade of the twenty-first century. Current Gastroenterology Reports 16: 376.
25. Bird AR, Vuaran MS, King RA et al. (2008) Wholegrain foods made from a novel high-amylose barley variety (Himalaya 292) improve indices of bowel health in human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 99: 1032–40.
26. Birt DF, Boylston T, Hendrich S et al. (2013) Resistant starch: promise for improving human health. Advances in Nutrition 4: 587–601.
27. Ble-Castillo JL, Aparicio-Trapala MA, Francisco-Luria MU et al. (2010) Effects of native banana starch supplementation on body weight and insulin sensitivity in obese type 2 diabetics. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 7: 1953–62.
28. Blundell J, De Graaf C, Hulshof T et al. (2010) Appetite control: methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods. Obesity Reviews 11: 251–70.
29. Bodinham CL, Frost GS & Robertson MD (2010) Acute ingestion of resistant starch reduces food intake in healthy adults. British Journal of Nutrition 103: 917–22.
30. Bodinham CL, Smith L, Wright J et al. (2012) Dietary fibre improves first-phase insulin secretion in overweight individuals. PLoS ONE 7: e40834.
31. Bodinham CL, Al-Mana NM, Smith L et al. (2013) Endogenous plasma glucagon-like peptide-1 following acute dietary fibre consumption. British Journal of Nutrition 110: 1429–33.
32. Bodinham CL, Smith L, Thomas EL et al. (2014) Efficacy of increased resistant starch consumption in human type 2 diabetes. Endocrine Connections 3: 75–84.
33. Boll EV, Ekstrom LM, Courtin CM et al. (2016) Effects of wheat bran extract rich in arabinoxylan oligosaccharides and resistant starch on overnight glucose tolerance and markers of gut fermentation in healthy young adults. European Journal of Nutrition 55: 1661–70.
34. Bouvard V, Loomis D, Guyton KZ et al. (2015) Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed meat. The Lancet Oncology 16: 1599–600.
35. Bracken RM, Gray BJ, Turner D (2014) Comparison of the metabolic responses to ingestion of hydrothermally processed high-amylopectin content maize, uncooked maize starch or dextrose in healthy individuals. British Journal of Nutrition 111: 1231–8.
36. Brighenti F, Benini L, Del Rio D et al. (2006) Colonic fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates contributes to the second-meal effect. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83: 817–22.
37. Brüssow H (2013) Microbiota and healthy ageing: observational and nutritional intervention studies. Microbial Biotechnology 6: 326–34.
38. Burn J, Bishop DT, Chapman PD et al. (2011) A randomized placebo-controlled prevention trial of aspirin and/or resistant starch in young people with familial adenomatous polyposis. Cancer Prevention Research (Philadelphia, Pa.) 4: 655–65.
39. Cani PDNA, Fava F, Knauf C et al. (2007) Selective increases of bifidobacteria in gut microflora improve high-fat-diet-induced diabetes in mice through a mechanism associated with endotoxaemia. Diabetologica 50: 2374–83.
40. Carciofi M, Blennow A, Jensen SL et al. (2012) Concerted suppression of all starch branching enzyme genes in barley produces amylose-only starch granules. BMC Plant Biology 12: 1.
41. Chai W, Dong Z, Wang N et al. (2012) Glucagon-like peptide1 recruits microvasculature and increases glucose use in muscle via a nitric oxide-dependent mechanism. Diabetes 61: 888–96.
42. Chambers ES, Viardot A, Psichas A et al. (2014) Effects of targeted delivery of propionate to the human colon on appetite regulation, body weight maintenance and adiposity in overweight adults. Gut 64: 1744–54.
43. Chambers L, McCrickerd K & Yeomans MR (2015a) Optimising foods for satiety. Trends in Food Science & Technology 41: 149–60.
44. Chambers ES, Morrison DJ & Frost G (2015b) Control of appetite and energy intake by SCFA: what are the potential underlying mechanisms? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 74: 328–36.
45. Chaudhri O, Small C & Bloom S (2006) Gastrointestinal hormones regulating appetite. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 361: 1187–209.
46. Chiu Y-T & Stewart ML (2013) Effect of variety and cooking method on resistant starch content of white rice and subsequent postprandial glucose response and appetite in humans. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 22: 372–9.
47. Chung H-J & Liu Q (2010) Molecular structure and physicochemical properties of potato and bean starches as affected by gamma-irradiation. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 47: 214–22.
48. Chung H-J, Liu Q & Hoover R (2009) Impact of annealing and heat-moisture treatment on rapidly digestible, slowly digestible and resistant starch levels in native and gelatinized corn, pea and lentil starches. Carbohydrate Polymers 75: 436–47.
49. Clarke JM, Bird AR, Topping DL et al. (2007) Excretion of starch and esterified short-chain fatty acids by ileostomy subjects after the ingestion of acylated starches. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86: 1146–51.
50. Clarke JM, Young GP, Topping DL et al. (2012) Butyrate delivered by butyrylated starch increases distal colonic epithelial apoptosis in carcinogen-treated rats. Carcinogenesis 33: 197–202.
51. Clark MJ & Slavin JL (2013) The effect of fiber on satiety and food intake: a systematic review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 32: 200–11.
52. Clarke JM, Topping DL, Christophersen CT et al. (2011) Butyrate esterified to starch is released in the human gastrointestinal tract. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94: 1276–83.
53. Crittenden R, Morris L, Harvey M et al. (2001) Selection of a Bifidobacterium strain to complement resistant starch in a synbiotic yoghurt. Journal of Applied Microbiology 90: 268–78.
54. Cummings J, Pomare E, Branch W et al. (1987) Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood. Gut 28: 1221–7.
55. Cummings JH, Beatty ER, Kingman SM et al. (1996) Digestion and physiological properties of resistant starch in the human large bowel. British Journal of Nutrition 75: 733–47.
56. De Filippo C, Cavalieri D, Di Paola M et al. (2010) Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107: 14691–6.
57. De Roos N, Heijnen M, De Graaf C et al. (1995) Resistant starch has little effect on appetite, food intake and insulin secretion of healthy young men. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49: 532–41.
58. Delzenne NMCP (2005) A place for dietary fibre in the management of the metabolic syndrome. Current Opinion Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 8: 636–40.
59. Dodevska MS, Sobajic SS, Djordjevic PB et al. (2016) Effects of total fibre or resistant starch-rich diets within lifestyle intervention in obese prediabetic adults. European Journal of Nutrition 55: 127–37.
60. Dronamraju SS, Coxhead JM, Kelly SB et al. (2009) Cell kinetics and gene expression changes in colorectal cancer patients given resistant starch: a randomised controlled trial. Gut 58: 413–20.
61. Dundar AN & Gocmen D (2013) Effects of autoclaving temperature and storing time on resistant starch formation and its functional and physicochemical properties. Carbohydrate Polymers 97: 764–71.
62. Edwards CH, Grundy MM, Grassby T et al. (2015) Manipulation of starch bioaccessibility in wheat endosperm to regulate starch digestion, postprandial glycemia, insulinemia, and gut hormone responses: a randomized controlled trial in healthy ileostomy participants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 102: 791–800.
63. EFSA Food Ingredients and Packaging Unit (2016) Call for technical data on certain starches and celluloses authorised as food additives in the EU. Available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/consultation/160211.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
64. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2007) Statement of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to dietary fibre. Available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/scientific_output/files/main_documents/1060.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
65. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2010a) Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre. EFSA Journal 8: 1462.
66. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2010b) Scientific opinion on the safety of ‘phosphated distarch phosphate’ as a Novel Food ingredient. EFSA Journal 8: 1772.
67. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2010c) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to dietary fibre (ID 744, 745, 746, 748, 749, 753, 803, 810, 855, 1415, 1416, 4308, 4330) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 8: 1735.
68. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2010d) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to wheat bran fibre and increase in faecal bulk (ID 3066), reduction in intestinal transit time (ID 828, 839, 3067, 4699) and contribution to the maintenance or achievement of a normal body weight (ID 829) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 8: 1817.
69. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2011a) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to resistant maltodextrin and reduction of post prandial glycaemic responses (ID 796), maintenance of normal blood LDL cholesterol concentrations (ID 2927), maintenance of normal (fasting). EFSA Journal 9: 2070.
70. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2011b) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to resistant starch and reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses (ID 681), “digestive health benefits” (ID 682) and “favours a normal colon metabolism” (ID 783) pursuant to Article 13. EFSA Journal 9: 2024.
71. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2011c) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to oat and barley grain fibre and increase in faecal bulk (ID 819, 822) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 9: 2249.
72. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2011d) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to rye fibre and changes in bowel function (ID 825), reduction of post prandial glycaemic responses (ID 826) and maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 827) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 9: 2258.
73. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2011e) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG) and decreasing potentially pathogenic gastro-intestinal microorganisms (ID 788), changes in short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and/or pH in the gastro-intestinal tract (ID 787, 813), changes in bowel function (ID 813(853), 1902, 1903, 1904, 2929, 2930, 2931), and reduction of gastro-intestinal discomfort (ID 813, 1902, 1903, 1904, 2929, 2930, 2931). EFSA Journal 9: 2254.
74. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2011f) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to acacia gum (gum Arabic) and decreasing potentially pathogenic gastro-intestinal microorganisms (ID 758), changes in short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and pH in the gastro-intestinal tract (ID 759), changes in bowel function (ID 759), reduction of gastro-intestinal discomfort (ID 759), maintenance of faecal nitrogen content and/or normal blood urea concentrations (ID 840, 1975), and maintenance of normal blood LDL cholesterol concentrations (ID 841) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 9: 2202.
75. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2012) Guidance on the scientific requirements for health claims related to appetite ratings, weight management, and blood glucose concentrations. EFSA Journal 10: 2604.
76. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2014a) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to non-digestible carbohydrates and a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal 12: 3513–26.
77. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2014b) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to Nutriose 06 and a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 19242/2006. EFSA Journal 12: 3839–48.
78. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2015) Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to “native chicory inulin” and maintenance of normal defecation by increasing stool frequency pursuant to Article 13.5 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061. EFSA Journal 13: 3951.
79. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies (2016) Guidance on the scientific requirements for health claims related to the immune system, the gastrointestinal tract and defence against pathogenic microorganisms. EFSA Journal 14: 4369.
80. Ekstrom LM, Bjorck IM & Ostman EM (2013) On the possibility to affect the course of glycaemia, insulinaemia, and perceived hunger/satiety to bread meals in healthy volunteers. Food & Function 4: 522–9.
81. Elia M & Cummings J (2007) Physiological aspects of energy metabolism and gastrointestinal effects of carbohydrates. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61: S40.
82. Englyst H, Wiggins HS & Cummings JH (1982) Determination of the non-starch polysaccharides in plant foods by gas-liquid chromatography of constituent sugars as alditol acetates. Analyst 107: 307–18.
83. Englyst HN, Kingman SM & Cummings JH (1992) Classification and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46(Suppl. 2): S33–50.
84. Englyst HN, Quigley ME & Hudson GJ (1994) Determination of dietary fibre as non-starch polysaccharides with gas–liquid chromatographic, high-performance liquid chromatographic or spectrophotometric measurement of constituent sugars. Analyst 119: 1497–509.
85. European Commission (2006) Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32006R1924&from=en (accessed 7 September 2016).
86. European Commission (2008) Commission directive 2008/100/EC of 28 October 2008 amending Council Directive 90/496/EEC on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs as regards recommended daily allowances, energy conversion factors and definitions. Official Journal of the European Union. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:285:0009:0012:EN:PDF (accessed 7 September 2016).
87. European Commission (2011) Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32011R1169&from=EN (accessed 7 September 2016).
88. European Parliament (2008) Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives. Official Journal of the European Union Article ID: L 354/16.
89. Evans A (2015) Resistant starch and health. In: Encyclopedia of Food Grains (CW Wrigley, H Corke, K Seetharaman et al. eds). Elsevier: Oxford.
90. Faith JJ, McNulty NP, Rey FE et al. (2011) Predicting a human gut microbiota's response to diet in gnotobiotic mice. Science 333: 101–4.
91. FAO (2016) International Year of the Pulses. Available at: http://www.fao.org/pulses-2016/communications-toolkit/fact-sheets/en/ (accessed 7 September 2016).
92. Flowers SA, Ellingrod VL (2015) The microbiome in mental health: potential contribution of gut microbiota in disease and pharmacotherapy management. Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy 35: 910–6.
93. Food and Drug Administration (2015) Documentation Supporting the Determination that High-Amylose Maize Starch (HAMS) is Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for Use as an Ingredient in Oral Rehydration Solutions that are Medical Foods. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/gras/noticeinventory/ucm502987.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
94. Freeland K, Wilson C & Wolever T (2010) Adaptation of colonic fermentation and glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion with increased wheat fibre intake for 1 year in hyperinsulinaemic human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 103: 82–90.
95. Fuentes-Zaragoza E, Sánchez-Zapata E, Sendra E et al. (2011) Resistant starch as prebiotic: a review. Starch-Stärke 63: 406–15.
96. Fung KY, Cosgrove L, Lockett T et al. (2012) A review of the potential mechanisms for the lowering of colorectal oncogenesis by butyrate. British Journal of Nutrition 108: 820–31.
97. García-Rodríguez CE, Mesa MD, Olza J et al. (2013) Postprandial glucose, insulin and gastrointestinal hormones in healthy and diabetic subjects fed a fructose-free and resistant starch type IV-enriched enteral formula. European Journal of Nutrition 52: 1569–78.
98. Gargari BP, Namazi N, Khalili M et al. (2015) Is there any place for resistant starch, as alimentary prebiotic, for patients with type 2 diabetes? Complementary Therapies in Medicine 23: 810–5.
99. Gentile CL, Ward E, Holst JJ et al. (2015) Resistant starch and protein intake enhances fat oxidation and feelings of fullness in lean and overweight/obese women. Nutrition Journal 14: 1.
100. Gibson GR, Scott KP, Rastall RA et al. (2010) Dietary prebiotics: current status and new definition. Food Science and Technology Bulletin – Functional Foods 7: 1–19.
101. Gower BA, Bergman R, Stefanovski D et al. (2016) Baseline insulin sensitivity affects response to high-amylose maize resistant starch in women: a randomized, controlled trial. Nutrition & Metabolism (London) 13: 2.
102. Grabitske HA & Slavin JL (2009) Gastrointestinal effects of low-digestible carbohydrates. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 49: 327–60.
103. Haenen D, da Silva CS, Zhang J et al. (2013) Resistant starch induces catabolic but suppresses immune and cell division pathways and changes the microbiome in the proximal colon of male pigs. The Journal of Nutrition 143: 1889–98.
104. Hallström E, Sestili F, Lafiandra D et al. (2011) A novel wheat variety with elevated content of amylose increases resistant starch formation and may beneficially influence glycaemia in healthy subjects. Food & Nutrition Research 55: 7074.
105. Harrold J, Breslin L, Walsh J et al. (2014) Satiety effects of a whole-grain fibre composite ingredient: reduced food intake and appetite ratings. Food & Function 5: 2574–81.
106. Hasjim J, Lee S-O, Hendrich S et al. (2010) Characterization of a novel resistant-starch and its effects on postprandial plasma-glucose and insulin responses. Cereal Chemistry Journal 87: 257–62.
107. Hasjim J, Ai Y & Jl J (2013) Novel applications of amylose-lipid complex as resistant starch type 5. In: Resistant Starch Sources, Applications and Health Benefits (Y-C Shi & CC Maningat eds). John Wiley and Sons Ltd: Chichester, UK.
108. Haub MD, Hubach KL, Al-Tamimi EK et al. (2010) Different types of resistant starch elicit different glucose responses in humans. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 2010: 230501.
109. Heijnen M, Van Amelsvoort J, Deurenberg P et al. (1996) Neither raw nor retrograded resistant starch lowers fasting serum cholesterol concentrations in healthy normolipidemic subjects. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64: 312–8.
110. Higgins JA (2014) Resistant starch and energy balance: impact on weight loss and maintenance. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 54: 1158–66.
111. Higgins JA, Higbee DR, Donahoo WT et al. (2004) Resistant starch consumption promotes lipid oxidation. Nutrition & Metabolism 1: 1.
112. Hoad CL, Rayment P, Spiller RC et al. (2004) In vivo imaging of intragastric gelation and its effect on satiety in humans. The Journal of Nutrition 134: 2293–300.
113. Holst JJ, Windeløv JA, Boer GA et al. (2016) Searching for the physiological role of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. Journal of Diabetes Investigation 7: 8–12.
114. Holt S, Brand J, Soveny C et al. (1992) Relationship of satiety to postprandial glycaemic, insulin and cholecystokinin responses. Appetite 18: 129–41.
115. Homayouni A, Azizi A, Ehsani M et al. (2008) Effect of microencapsulation and resistant starch on the probiotic survival and sensory properties of synbiotic ice cream. Food Chemistry 111: 50–5.
116. Howe JC, Rumpler WV & Behall KM (1996) Dietary starch composition and level of energy intake alter nutrient oxidation in “carbohydrate-sensitive” men. The Journal of Nutrition 126: 2120.
117. Hu Y, Le Leu RK, Christophersen CT et al. (2016) Manipulation of the gut microbiota using resistant starch is associated with protection against colitis-associated colorectal cancer in rats. Carcinogenesis 37: 366–75.
118. de la Hunty A & Scott J (2014) Authorised EU health claim for resistant starch and post-prandial glycaemic responses. In: Foods, Nutrients and Food Ingredients with Authorised EU Health Claims, Vol. 1 (MJ Sadler ed). Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands.
119. Ingredion Incorporated (2014) WEIGHTAIN™ 31599B00 Technical Specification. Available at: http://www.ingredion.us/content/dam/ingredion/technical-documents/na/Weightain%20%2031599B00%20Technical%20Specification.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
120. Institute of Medicine (2002) Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academics Press: Washington, DC.
121. Iyer C & Kailasapathy K (2005) Effect of co-encapsulation of probiotics with prebiotics on increasing the viability of encapsulated bacteria under in vitro acidic and bile salt conditions and in yogurt. Journal of Food Science 70: M18–23.
122. James SL, Christophersen CT, Bird AR et al. (2015) Abnormal fibre usage in UC in remission. Gut 64: 562–70.
123. Jenkins DJ, Vuksan V, Kendall CW et al. (1998) Physiological effects of resistant starches on fecal bulk, short chain fatty acids, blood lipids and glycemic index. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 17: 609–16.
124. Jin T (2008) The WNT signalling pathway and diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 51: 1771–80.
125. Johansson EV, Nilsson AC, Ostman EM et al. (2013) Effects of indigestible carbohydrates in barley on glucose metabolism, appetite and voluntary food intake over 16 h in healthy adults. Nutrition Journal 12: 46.
126. Johnston K, Thomas EL, Bell JD et al. (2010) Resistant starch improves insulin sensitivity in metabolic syndrome. Diabetic Medicine 27: 391–7.
127. Karalus M, Clark M, Greaves KA et al. (2012) Fermentable fibers do not affect satiety or food intake by women who do not practice restrained eating. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 112: 1356–62.
128. Karupaiah T, Aik CK, Heen TC et al. (2011) A transgressive brown rice mediates favourable glycaemic and insulin responses. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 91: 1951–6.
129. Kataoka K (2016) The intestinal microbiota and its role in human health and disease. The Journal of Medical Investigation 63: 27–37.
130. Keenan MJ, Marco ML, Ingram DK et al. (2015a) Improving healthspan via changes in gut microbiota and fermentation. AGE 37: 1–10.
131. Keenan MJ, Zhou J, Hegsted M et al. (2015b) Role of resistant starch in improving gut health, adiposity, and insulin resistance. Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal 6: 198–205.
132. Keller KL, Kral TVE & Rolls BJ (2013) Impacts of energy density and portion size on satiation and satiety. In: Satiation, Satiety and the Control of Food Intake (JE Blundell & F Bellisle eds), pp. 115–27. Elsevier: Cambridge.
133. Keogh JB, Lau CWH, Noakes M et al. (2006) Effects of meals with high soluble fibre, high amylose barley variant on glucose, insulin, satiety and thermic effect of food in healthy lean women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61: 597–604.
134. Kim W & Egan JM (2008) The role of incretins in glucose homeostasis and diabetes treatment. Pharmacological Reviews 60: 470–512.
135. Klosterbuer AS, Thomas W & Slavin JL (2012) Resistant starch and pullulan reduce postprandial glucose, insulin, and GLP-1, but have no effect on satiety in healthy humans. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60: 11928–34.
136. Klosterbuer AS, Hullar MA, Li F et al. (2013) Gastrointestinal effects of resistant starch, soluble maize fibre and pullulan in healthy adults. British Journal of Nutrition 110: 1068–74.
137. Kobyliak N, Virchenko O & Falalyeyeva T (2016) Pathophysiological role of host microbiota in the development of obesity. Nutrition Journal 15: 43.
138. Kwak JH, Paik JK, Kim HI et al. (2012) Dietary treatment with rice containing resistant starch improves markers of endothelial function with reduction of postprandial blood glucose and oxidative stress in patients with prediabetes or newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. Atherosclerosis 224: 457–64.
139. Landon S, Colyer C, Salman H (2012) The resistant starch report – Food Australia Supplement. Available at: http://foodaust.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Hi_Maize-supplement_web.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
140. Lau E, Zhou W & Henry CJ (2016) Effect of fat type in baked bread on amylose-lipid complex formation and glycaemic response. The British Journal of Nutrition 115: 2122–9.
141. Le Leu RK, Winter JM, Christophersen CT et al. (2015) Butyrylated starch intake can prevent red meat-induced O6-methyl-2-deoxyguanosine adducts in human rectal tissue: a randomised clinical trial. British Journal of Nutrition 114: 220–30.
142. Lee SC, Prosky L & De Vries J (1992) Determination of total, soluble, and insoluble dietary fiber in foods: enzymatic-gravimetric method, MES-TRIS buffer: collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International (USA) 75: 395–416.
143. Lesmes U, Beards EJ, Gibson GR et al. (2008) Effects of resistant starch type III polymorphs on human colon microbiota and short chain fatty acids in human gut models. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 56: 5415–21.
144. Lin CH, Chang DM, Wu DJ et al. (2015) Assessment of blood glucose regulation and safety of resistant starch formula-based diet in healthy normal and subjects with type 2 diabetes. Medicine (Baltimore) 94: e1332.
145. Linsberger-Martin G, Lukasch B & Berghofer E (2012) Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the RS content of amaranth, quinoa and wheat starch. Starch-Stärke 64: 157–65.
146. Lobley GE, Holtrop G, Bremner DM et al. (2013) Impact of short term consumption of diets high in either non-starch polysaccharides or resistant starch in comparison with moderate weight loss on indices of insulin sensitivity in subjects with metabolic syndrome. Nutrients 5: 2144–72.
147. Lochocka K, Bajerska J, Glapa A et al. (2015) Green tea extract decreases starch digestion and absorption from a test meal in humans: a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study. Scientific Reports 5: 12015.
148. Lockyer S, Spiro A & Stanner S (2016) Dietary fibre and the prevention of chronic disease – should health professionals be doing more to raise awareness? Nutrition Bulletin 41: 214–31.
149. López-Nicolás R, Marzorati M, Scarabottolo L et al. (2016) Satiety Innovations: food products to assist consumers with weight loss, evidence on the role of satiety in healthy eating: overview and in vitro approximation. Current Obesity Reports 5: 97–105.
150. Luhovyy BL, Mollard RC, Yurchenko S et al. (2014) The effects of whole grain high-amylose maize flour as a source of resistant starch on blood glucose, satiety, and food Intake in young men. Journal of Food Science 79: H2550–6.
151. Lyte M, Chapel A, Lyte JM et al. (2016) Resistant starch alters the microbiota-gut brain axis: implications for dietary modulation of behavior. PLoS ONE 11: e0146406.
152. Macfarlane S & Macfarlane GT (2003) Regulation of short-chain fatty acid production. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62: 67–72.
153. Maki KC, Sanders LM, Reeves MS et al. (2009) Beneficial effects of resistant starch on laxation in healthy adults. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 60(Suppl. 4): 296–305.
154. Maki KC, Pelkman CL, Finocchiaro ET et al. (2012) Resistant starch from high-amylose maize increases insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese men. The Journal of Nutrition 142: 717–23.
155. Malcomson FC, Willis ND & Mathers JC (2015) Is resistant starch protective against colorectal cancer via modulation of the WNT signalling pathway? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 74: 282–91.
156. Mann J, Cummings JH, Englyst HN et al. (2007) FAO//WHO Scientific Update on carbohydrates in human nutrition: conclusions. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61: S132–7.
157. Marciani L, Gowland PA, Spiller RC et al. (2001) Effect of meal viscosity and nutrients on satiety, intragastric dilution, and emptying assessed by MRI. American Journal of Physiology – Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 280: G1227–33.
158. Martinez I, Kim J, Duffy PR et al. (2010) Resistant starches types 2 and 4 have differential effects on the composition of the fecal microbiota in human subjects. PLoS ONE 5: e15046.
159. Martinez RC, Bedani R & Saad SM (2015) Scientific evidence for health effects attributed to the consumption of probiotics and prebiotics: an update for current perspectives and future challenges. British Journal of Nutrition 114: 1993–2015.
160. Mathers JC, Movahedi M, Macrae F et al. (2012) Long-term effect of resistant starch on cancer risk in carriers of hereditary colorectal cancer: an analysis from the CAPP2 randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Oncology 13: 1242–9.
161. McCleary BV (2013) Measurement of resistant starch and incorporation of resistant starch into dietary fibre measurements. In: Resistant Starch (Y-C Shi & CC Maningat eds), pp. 131–44. John Wiley and Sons Ltd: Chichester, UK.
162. McCleary BV & Monaghan DA (2002) Measurement of Resistant Starch. Journal of AOAC International 85: 665–75.
163. McCleary BV, McNally M & Rossiter P (2002) Measurement of resistant starch by enzymatic digestion in starch and selected plant materials: collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International 85: 1103–11.
164. McCleary BV, DeVries JW, Rader JI et al. (2012) Determination of insoluble, soluble, and total dietary fiber (CODEX definition) by enzymatic-gravimetric method and liquid chromatography: collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International 95: 824–44.
165. McCoy AN, Araujo-Perez F, Azcarate-Peril A et al. (2013) Fusobacterium is associated with colorectal adenomas. PLoS ONE 8: e53653.
166. McOrist AL, Miller RB, Bird AR et al. (2011) Fecal butyrate levels vary widely among individuals but are usually increased by a diet high in resistant starch. Journal of Nutrition 141: 883–9.
167. Megazyme (2015) Resistant starch assay kit. Available at: https://secure.megazyme.com/files/Booklet/K-RSTAR_DATA.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
168. Mermelstein NH (2009) Laboratory: analyzing for resistant starch. Food Technology (Chicago) 63: 80–4.
169. Monira S, Hoq MM, Chowdhury AK et al. (2010) Short-chain fatty acids and commensal microbiota in the faeces of severely malnourished children with cholera rehydrated with three different carbohydrates. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64: 1116–24.
170. Muir J & O'dea K (1992) Measurement of resistant starch: factors affecting the amount of starch escaping digestion in vitro. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56: 123–7.
171. van Munster IP, Tangerman A & Nagengast FM (1994) Effect of resistant starch on colonic fermentation, bile acid metabolism, and mucosal proliferation. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 39: 834–42.
172. Murphy MM, Douglass JS & Birkett A (2008) Resistant starch intakes in the United States. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108: 67–78.
173. Murphy N, Norat T, Ferrari P et al. (2012) Dietary fibre intake and risks of cancers of the colon and rectum in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC). PLoS ONE 7: e39361.
174. Nasrin TAA & Anal AK (2015) Enhanced oxidative stability of fish oil by encapsulating in culled banana resistant starch-soy protein isolate based microcapsules in functional bakery products. Journal of Food Science and Technology 52: 5120–8.
175. Navarro S, Mauro M, Pesarini J et al. (2015) Resistant starch: a functional food that prevents DNA damage and chemical carcinogenesis. Genetics and Molecular Research 14: 1679–91.
176. Nichenametla SN, Weidauer LA, Wey HE et al. (2014) Resistant starch type 4-enriched diet lowered blood cholesterols and improved body composition in a double blind controlled cross-over intervention. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 58: 1365–9.
177. Nilsson AC, Östman EM, Holst JJ et al. (2008) Including indigestible carbohydrates in the evening meal of healthy subjects improves glucose tolerance, lowers inflammatory markers, and increases satiety after a subsequent standardized breakfast. The Journal of Nutrition 138: 732–9.
178. Nilsson AC, Ostman EM, Knudsen KEB et al. (2010) A cereal-based evening meal rich in indigestible carbohydrates increases plasma butyrate the next morning. Journal of Nutrition 140: 1932–6.
179. Nilsson A, Johansson E, Ekström L et al. (2013) Effects of a brown beans evening meal on metabolic risk markers and appetite regulating hormones at a subsequent standardized breakfast: a randomized cross-over study. PLoS ONE 8: e59985.
180. Nilsson AC, Johansson-Boll EV & Bjorck IM (2015) Increased gut hormones and insulin sensitivity index following a 3-d intervention with a barley kernel-based product: a randomised cross-over study in healthy middle-aged subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 114: 899–907.
181. Nofrarías M, Martínez-Puig D, Pujols J et al. (2007) Long-term intake of resistant starch improves colonic mucosal integrity and reduces gut apoptosis and blood immune cells. Nutrition 23: 861–70.
182. Noronha N, O'Riordan ED & O'Sullivan M (2007) Replacement of fat with functional fibre in imitation cheese. International Dairy Journal 17: 1073–82.
183. Nugent AP (2005) Health properties of resistant starch. Nutrition Bulletin 30: 27–54.
184. Nystrom T, Gutniak MK, Zhang Q et al. (2004) Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 on endothelial function in type 2 diabetes patients with stable coronary artery disease. American Journal of Physiology Endocrinology and Metabolism 287: E1209–15.
185. Oladele EO & Williamson G (2016) Impact of resistant starch in three plantain (Musa AAB) products on glycaemic response of healthy volunteers. European Journal of Nutrition 55: 75–81.
186. Ordiz MI, May TD, Mihindukulasuriya K et al. (2015) The effect of dietary resistant starch type 2 on the microbiota and markers of gut inflammation in rural Malawi children. Microbiome 3: 37.
187. Ozturk S, Koksel H & Ng PK (2009) Farinograph properties and bread quality of flours supplemented with resistant starch. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 60: 449–57.
188. Penn-Marshall M, Holtzman GI & Barbeau WE (2010) African Americans may have to consume more than 12 grams a day of resistant starch to lower their risk for type 2 diabetes. Journal of Medicinal Food 13: 999–1004.
189. Perera A, Meda V & Tyler RT (2010) Resistant starch: a review of analytical protocols for determining resistant starch and of factors affecting the resistant starch content of foods. Food Research International 43: 1959–74.
190. Pinhero RG, Waduge RN, Liu Q et al. (2016) Evaluation of nutritional profiles of starch and dry matter from early potato varieties and its estimated glycemic impact. Food Chemistry 203: 356–66.
191. Pollak LM, Scott MP & Duvick SA (2011) Resistant starch and starch thermal characteristics in exotic corn lines grown in temperate and tropical environments. Cereal Chemistry Journal 88: 435–40.
192. Prosky L, Asp NG, Schweizer TF et al. (1988) Determination of insoluble, soluble and total dietary fiber in foods and food products: interlaboratory study. Journal-Association of Official Analytical Chemists 71: 1017–23.
193. Purwani EY, Purwadaria T & Suhartono MT (2012) Fermentation RS3 derived from sago and rice starch with Clostridium butyricum BCC B2571 or Eubacterium rectale DSM 17629. Anaerobe 18: 55–61.
194. Quilez J, Bullo M & Salas-Salvadó J (2007) Improved postprandial response and feeling of satiety after consumption of low-calorie muffins with maltitol and high-amylose corn starch. Journal of Food Science 72: S407–11.
195. Raatz SK, Idso L, Johnson LK et al. (2016) Resistant starch analysis of commonly consumed potatoes: content varies by cooking method and service temperature but not by variety. Food Chemistry 208: 297–300.
196. Rabe E & Sievert D (1992) Effects of baking, pasta production, and extrusion cooking on formation of resistant starch. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46: S105.
197. Raben A, Tagliabue A, Christensen NJ et al. (1994) Resistant starch: the effect on postprandial glycemia, hormonal response, and satiety. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60: 544–51.
198. Raghupathy P, Ramakrishna BS, Oommen SP et al. (2006) Amylase-resistant starch as adjunct to oral rehydration therapy in children with diarrhea. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 42: 362–8.
199. Raigond P, Ezekiel R & Raigond B (2015) Resistant starch in food: a review. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 95: 1968–78.
200. Ramakrishna BS, Nance SH, Roberts-Thomson IC et al. (1990) The effects of enterotoxins and short-chain fatty acids on water and electrolyte fluxes in ileal and colonic loops in vivo in the rat. Digestion 45: 93–101.
201. Ramakrishna BS, Venkataraman S, Srinivasan P et al. (2000) Amylase-resistant starch plus oral rehydration solution for cholera. New England Journal of Medicine 342: 308–13.
202. Ramakrishna BS, Subramanian V, Mohan V et al. (2008) A randomized controlled trial of glucose versus amylase resistant starch hypo-osmolar oral rehydration solution for adult acute dehydrating diarrhea. PLoS ONE 3: e1587.
203. Roberfroid M, Gibson GR, Hoyles L et al. (2010) Prebiotic effects: metabolic and health benefits. British Journal of Nutrition 104: S1–63.
204. Roberts J, Jones GP, Rutishauser IH et al. (2004) Resistant starch in the Australian diet. Nutrition & Dietetics: The Journal of the Dietitians Association of Australia 61: 98–105.
205. Robertson MD (2012a) Dietary-resistant starch and glucose metabolism. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care 15: 362–7.
206. Robertson MD, Bickerton AS, Dennis AL et al. (2005) Insulin-sensitizing effects of dietary resistant starch and effects on skeletal muscle and adipose tissue metabolism. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82: 559–67.
207. Robertson MD, Wright JW, Loizon E et al. (2012) Insulin-sensitizing effects on muscle and adipose tissue after dietary fiber intake in men and women with metabolic syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 97: 3326–32.
208. Rohlfing KA, Pollak LM & White PJ (2010) Exotic corn lines with increased resistant starch and impact on starch thermal characteristics. Cereal Chemistry 87: 190–3.
209. Rosen LA, Ostman EM & Bjorck IM (2011) Effects of cereal breakfasts on postprandial glucose, appetite regulation and voluntary energy intake at a subsequent standardized lunch; focusing on rye products. Nutrition Journal 10: 7.
210. SACN (Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition) (2015) Carbohydrates and Health. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/445503/SACN_Carbohydrates_and_Health.pdf (accessed 7 September 2016).
211. Sakata T, Kojima T, Fujieda M et al. (2003) Influences of probiotic bacteria on organic acid production by pig caecal bacteria in vitro. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62: 73–80.
212. Salonen A, Lahti L, Salojarvi J et al. (2014) Impact of diet and individual variation on intestinal microbiota composition and fermentation products in obese men. ISME Journal 8: 2218–30.
213. Sandberg JC, Bjorck IM & Nilsson AC (2016) Rye-based evening meals favorably affected glucose regulation and appetite variables at the following breakfast; a randomized controlled study in healthy subjects. PLoS ONE 11: e0151985.
214. Sands AL, Leidy HJ, Hamaker BR et al. (2009) Consumption of the slow-digesting waxy maize starch leads to blunted plasma glucose and insulin response but does not influence energy expenditure or appetite in humans. Nutrition Research 29: 383–90.
215. Sanz T, Salvador A & Fiszman SM (2008) Resistant starch (RS) in battered fried products: functionality and high-fibre benefit. Food Hydrocolloids 22: 543–9.
216. Sanz T, Salvador A, Baixauli R et al. (2009) Evaluation of four types of resistant starch in muffins. II. Effects in texture, colour and consumer response. European Food Research and Technology 229: 197–204.
217. Sarda FAH, Giuntini EB, Gomez MLPA et al. (2016) Impact of resistant starch from unripe banana flour on hunger, satiety and glucose homeostasis in healthy volunteers. Journal of Functional Foods 24: 63–74.
218. Scheppach W (1994) Effects of short chain fatty acids on gut morphology and function. Gut 35: S35–8.
219. Schwiertz A, Lehmann UGJ, Jacobasch G et al. (2002) Influence of resistant starch on the SCFA production and cell counts of butyrate-producing Eubacterium spp. in the human intestine. Journal of Applied Microbiology 93: 157–62.
220. Sekirov I, Russell SL, Antunes LCM et al. (2010) Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiological Reviews 90: 859–904.
221. Seneviratne H & Biliaderis C (1991) Action of α-amylases on amylose-lipid complex superstructures. Journal of Cereal Science 13: 129–43.
222. Series E (1978) Water with sugar and salt. Lancet 2: 300–1.
223. Shen L, Keenan MJ, Raggio A et al. (2011) Dietary-resistant starch improves maternal glycemic control in Goto-Kakazaki rat. Molecular Nutrition Food Research 55: 1499–508.
224. Shimotoyodome A, Suzuki J, Kameo Y et al. (2011) Dietary supplementation with hydroxypropyl-distarch phosphate from waxy maize starch increases resting energy expenditure by lowering the postprandial glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide response in human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition 106: 96–104.
225. Singh J, Dartois A & Kaur L (2010) Starch digestibility in food matrix: a review. Trends in Food Science & Technology 21: 168–80.
226. Sirich TL, Plummer NS, Gardner CD et al. (2014) Effect of increasing dietary fiber on plasma levels of colon-derived solutes in hemodialysis patients. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 9: 1603–10.
227. Stanner S (2005) Cardiovascular Disease: Diet, Nutrition and Emerging Risk Factors (The Report of the British Nutrition Foundation Task Force). John Wiley & Sons: Oxford.
228. Stewart ML, Nikhanj SD, Timm DA et al. (2010) Evaluation of the effect of four fibers on laxation, gastrointestinal tolerance and serum markers in healthy humans. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 56: 91–8.
229. Sultana K, Godward G, Reynolds N et al. (2000) Encapsulation of probiotic bacteria with alginate–starch and evaluation of survival in simulated gastrointestinal conditions and in yoghurt. International journal of food microbiology 62: 47–55.
230. Tagliabue A, Raben A, Heijnen ML et al. (1995) The effect of raw potato starch on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61: 1070–5.
231. Topping DL & Clifton PM (2001) Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides. Physiological Reviews 81: 1031–64.
232. Topping DL, Fukushima M & Bird AR (2003) Resistant starch as a prebiotic and synbiotic: state of the art. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62: 171–6.
233. Troke RC, Tan TM & Bloom SR (2014) The future role of gut hormones in the treatment of obesity. Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease 5: 4–14.
234. Tulley RT, Appel MJ, Enos TG et al. (2009) Comparative methodologies for measuring metabolizable energy of various types of resistant high amylose corn starch. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57: 8474–9.
235. Upadhyaya B, McCormack L, Fardin-Kia AR et al. (2016) Impact of dietary resistant starch type 4 on human gut microbiota and immunometabolic functions. Scientific Reports 6: 28797.
236. Van Hung P, Yamamori M & Morita N (2005) Formation of enzyme-resistant starch in bread as affected by high-amylose wheat flour substitutions. Cereal Chemistry 82: 690–4.
237. Vandamme TF, Gbassi GK, Nguyen TL et al. (2016) Microencapsulation of probiotics. In: Encapsulation and Controlled Release Technologies in Food Systems, 2nd edn (JM Lakkis ed), pp. 97–128. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
238. Vaziri ND (2012) CKD impairs barrier function and alters microbial flora of the intestine: a major link to inflammation and uremic toxicity. Current Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension 21: 587.
239. Vaziri ND, Liu S-M, Lau WL et al. (2014) High amylose resistant starch diet ameliorates oxidative stress, inflammation, and progression of chronic kidney disease. PLoS ONE 9: e114881.
240. Verbeke K, Ferchaud-Roucher V, Preston T et al. (2010) Influence of the type of indigestible carbohydrate on plasma and urine short-chain fatty acid profiles in healthy human volunteers. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64: 678–84.
241. Vernaza MG, Gularte MA & Chang YK (2011) Addition of green banana flour to instant noodles: rheological and technological properties. Ciência e Agrotecnologia 35: 1157–65.
242. Wacker M, Wanek P, Eder E et al. (2002) Effect of enzyme-resistant starch on formation of 1, N2-propanodeoxyguanosine adducts of trans-4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and cell proliferation in the colonic mucosa of healthy volunteers. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 11: 915–20.
243. Walker AW, Ince J, Duncan SH et al. (2011) Dominant and diet-responsive groups of bacteria within the human colonic microbiota. ISME Journal 5: 220–30.
244. Wanders AJ, van den Borne JJGC, de Graaf C et al. (2011) Effects of dietary fibre on subjective appetite, energy intake and body weight: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Obesity Reviews 12: 724–39.
245. Wei C, Xu B, Qin F et al. (2010) C-Type starch from high-amylose rice resistant starch granules modified by antisense RNA inhibition of starch branching enzyme. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58: 7383–8.
246. West NP, Christophersen CT, Pyne DB et al. (2013) Butyrylated Starch increases colonic butyrate concentration but has limited effects on immunity in healthy physically active individuals. Exercise Immunology Review 19: 102–19.
247. Williams EA, Coxhead JM & Mathers JC (2003) Anti-cancer effects of butyrate: use of micro-array technology to investigate mechanisms. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62: 107–15.
248. Willis HJ, Eldridge AL, Beiseigel J et al. (2009) Greater satiety response with resistant starch and corn bran in human subjects. Nutrition Research 29: 100–5.
249. Worthley DL, Le Leu RK, Whitehall VL et al. (2009) A human, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial of prebiotic, probiotic, and synbiotic supplementation: effects on luminal, inflammatory, epigenetic, and epithelial biomarkers of colorectal cancer. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90: 578–86.
250. Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C et al. (2011) Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science 334: 105–8.
251. Wu GD, Compher C, Chen EZ et al. (2016) Comparative metabolomics in vegans and omnivores reveal constraints on diet-dependent gut microbiota metabolite production. Gut 65: 63–72.
252. Yao CK, Muir JG & Gibson PR (2016) Review article: insights into colonic protein fermentation, its modulation and potential health implications. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 43: 181–96.
253. Younes H, Coudray C, Bellanger J et al. (2001) Effects of two fermentable carbohydrates (inulin and resistant starch) and their combination on calcium and magnesium balance in rats. British Journal of Nutrition 86: 479–85.
254. Younes H, Egret N, Hadj-Abdelkader M et al. (2006) Fermentable carbohydrate supplementation alters nitrogen excretion in chronic renal failure. Journal of Renal Nutrition 16: 67–74.
255. Young GP & Le Leu RK (2004) Resistant starch and colorectal neoplasia. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists International 87: 775–86.
256. Zaman SA & Sarbini SR (2016) The potential of resistant starch as a prebiotic. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 36: 578–84.
257. Ze X, Duncan SH, Louis P et al. (2012) Ruminococcus bromii is a keystone species for the degradation of resistant starch in the human colon. ISME Journal 6: 1535–43.
258. Zhang C, Zhang M, Wang S et al. (2010) Interactions between gut microbiota, host genetics and diet relevant to development of metabolic syndromes in mice. The ISME Journal 4: 232–41.
259. Zhang Y-B, Chen W-H, Guo J-J et al. (2013) Soy isoflavone supplementation could reduce body weight and improve glucose metabolism in non-Asian postmenopausal women—a meta-analysis. Nutrition 29: 8–14.
260. Zhou J, Martin RJ, Tulley R et al. (2008) Dietary resistant starch upregulates total GLP-1 and PYY in a sustained day long manner through fermentation in rodents. American Journal of Physiology Endocrinology Metabolism 295: E1160–6.