Oxidative stress, antioxidants and neurodegenerative diseases

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 11, Issue 16, 2005, Pages 2033-2052

  Casetta, I ^a   Govoni, V ^a   Granieri, E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FERRARA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Antioxidants; Neurodegenerative diseases; Parkinson's disease

Indexed keywords

1 METHYL 4 PHENYLPYRIDINIUM; 1,2,3,6 TETRAHYDRO 1 METHYL 4 PHENYLPYRIDINE; 3 NITROTYROSINE; 4 HYDROXYNONENAL; ALCOHOL; ALPHA SYNUCLEIN; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMINE OXIDASE (FLAVIN CONTAINING); AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; ANTIOXIDANT; APOMORPHINE; ASCORBIC ACID; BROMOCRIPTINE; CABERGOLINE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CARBIDOPA PLUS LEVODOPA; CAROTENOID; CLIOQUINOL; CLOZAPINE; COPPER; COPPER ZINC SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; CREATINE; CURCUMIN; DEFEROXAMINE; DIHYDROPYRIDINE; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; FERALEX G; FLAVONOID; GESTAGEN; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; GLUTATHIONE; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; IDEBENONE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; IRON CHELATING AGENT; LAZAROID; LEVODOPA; MANGANESE SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; MELATONIN; N TERT BUTYL ALPHA PHENYLNITRONE; NICOTINE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; PARKIN; PERGOLIDE; PLACEBO; POLYPHENOL; PRAMIPEXOLE; RASAGILINE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; RESVERATROL; ROPINIROLE; ROTENONE; SCAVENGER; SELEGILINE; SULPIRIDE; TACRINE; TAU PROTEIN; TENILSETAM; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UBIQUITIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; ZINC;

ABETALIPOPROTEINEMIA; AGING; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL DEFICIENCY; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCHRANE LIBRARY; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE MODEL; DOPAMINERGIC NERVE CELL; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENZYME INHIBITION; ENZYME METABOLISM; FOOD COMPOSITION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETIC RISK; HUMAN; IMMUNITY; IN VITRO STUDY; LIFE EXPECTANCY; LIPID PEROXIDATION; LONG TERM CARE; META ANALYSIS; METAL BINDING; MONOTHERAPY; MORTALITY; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; MUTATIONAL ANALYSIS; NERVE CELL LESION; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROTOXICITY; NIGRONEOSTRIATAL SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEPLETION; PROTEIN INTERACTION; RED WINE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SIDE EFFECT; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

ANIMALS; ANTIOXIDANTS; HUMANS; NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES; OXIDATIVE STRESS; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES;

EID: 20044366019     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612054065729     Document Type: Review

References (368)

1. Floyd RA. Antioxidants, oxidative stress, and degenerative neurological disorders. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1999; 222: 236-45.
2. Zaleska MM, Floyd RA. Regional lipid peroxidation in rat brain in vitro: possible role of endogenous iron. Neurochem Res 1985; 10: 397-410.
3. de Rijk MC, Tzourio C, Breteler MM, Dartigues JF, Amaducci L, Lopez-Pousa S, et al. Prevalence of parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease in Europe: the EUROPARKINSON Collaborative Study. European Community Concerted Action on the Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 62: 10-5.
4. Lang AE, Lozano AM. Parkinson's disease. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1044-53.
5. Lang AE, Lozano AM. Parkinson's disease. Second of two parts. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1130-43.
6. Schapira AHV. Science, medicine, and the future: Parkinson's disease. BMJ 1999; 318: 311-4.
7. Prasad KN, Cole WC, Kumar B. Multiple antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18: 413-23.
8. Ebadi M, Srinivasan SK, Baxi MD. Oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 1996; 48: 1-19.
9. Jenner P. Oxidative mechanisms in nigral cell death in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1998; 13: 24-34.
10. Anglade P, Vyas S, Hirsch EC, Agid Y. Apoptosis in the dopaminergic neurons of human substantia nigra during normal aging. Histol Histopathol 1997; 12: 603-10.
11. Emborg ME, Ma SY, Mufson EJ, Levey AI, Taylor MD, Brown WD, et al. Age-related declines in nigral neuronal function correlate with motor impairments in rhesus monkeys. J Comp Neurol 1998; 16: 253-65.
12. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Oxygen radicals and the nervous system. Trends Neurosci 1985; 6: 22-6.
13. Jenner P, Olanow CW. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1996; 47 (Suppl 3): S161-70.
14. Simonian NA, Coyle JT. Oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 36: 83-106.
15. Halliwell B. Role of free radicals in the neurodegenerative diseases. Drugs aging 2001; 18: 685-716.
16. Schulz JB, Weller M, Klockgether T. Potassium deprivation-induced apoptosis of cerebellar granule neurons: a sequential requirement for new mRNA and protein synthesis, ICE-like protease activity, and reactive oxygen species. J Neurosci 1996; 16: 4696-706.
17. Sastry PS, Rao KS. Apoptosis and the nervous system. J Neurochem 2000; 74: 1-20.
18. Beal MF. Oxidative damage in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroscientist 1997; 3: 21-7.
19. Castilho RF, Ward MW, Nicholls DG. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial function, and acute glutamate excitotoxicity in cultured cerebellar granule cells. J Neurochem 1999; 72: 1349-401.
20. Ishikawa Y, Satoh T, Enokido Y, Nishio C, Ikeuchi T, Hatanaka H. Generation of reactive oxygen species, release of L-glutamate and activation of caspases are required for oxygen-induced apoptosis of embryonic hippocampal neurons in culture. Brain Res 1999; 824: 71-80.
21. Tong L, Toliver-Kinski T, Taglialatela G, Werrbach-Perez K, Wood T, Perez-Polo JR. Signal transduction in neuronal death. J Neurochem 1998; 71: 447-59.
22. Yuan J, Yankner BA. Apoptosis in the nervous system. Nature 2000; 407: 802-9.
23. Junn E, Mouradian MM. Apoptotic signaling in dopamine-induced cell death: the role of oxidative stress, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, cytochrome c and caspases. J Neurochem 2001; 78: 374-83.
24. Mochizuki H, Goto K, Mori H, Mizuno Y. Histochemical detection of apoptosis in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 1996, 137: 120-23.
25. Stefanis L, Burke RE, Greene LA. Apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders. Curr Opin Neurol 1997; 10: 299-305.
26. Anglade P, Vyas S, Javoy-Agid F, Herrero MT, Michel PP, Marquez J, et al. Apoptosis and autophagy in nigral neurons of patients with Parkinson's disease. Histol Histopathol 1997; 12: 25-31.
27. Nijhawan D, Honarpour N, Wang X. Apoptosis in neural development and diseases. Annu Rev Neurosci 2000; 23: 73-87.
28. Jellinger KA. Cell death mechanisms in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm 2000; 200: 1-29.
29. Jain A, Martensson J, Stole E, Auld PA, Meister A. Glutathione deficiency leads to mitochondrial damage in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 1913-7.
30. Rice ME. Ascorbate regulation and its neuroprotective role in the rat brain. Trends Neurosci 2000; 23: 209-16.
31. McCay PB. Vitamin E: interactions with free radicals and ascorbate. Annu Rev Nutr 1985; 5: 322-40.
32. Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutases. An adaptation to a paramagnetic gas. J Biol Chem 1989; 264: 7761-64.
33. Cohen G, Werner P. Free radicals, oxidative stress, and neurodegeneration. In: Calne DB, Ed, Neurodegenerative diseases. Philadelphia, Saunders 1994; 139-61.
34. Coyle JT, Puttfarken P. Oxidative stress, glutamate and neurodegenerative disorders. Science 1993; 262: 689-95.
35. Kruman I, Bruce-Keller AJ, Bredesen D, Waeg G, Mattson MP. Evidence that 4-hydroxynonenal mediated oxidative stress-induced neuronal apoptosis. J Neurosci 1997; 17: 5089-100.
36. Selley ML. (E)-4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal may be involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 1998; 25: 169-74.
37. Good PF, Hsu A, Werner P, Perl DP, Olanow CW. Protein nitration in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998; 57: 338-42.
38. Zhang J, Perry G, Smith MA, Robertson D, Olson SJ, Graham DG, et al. Parkinson's disease is associated with oxidative damage to cytoplasmic DNA and RNA in substantia nigra neurons. Am J Pathol 1999; 154: 1423-9.
39. Flohé L, Brigelius-Flohé SC, Traber MG, Packer L. Redox regulation of NF-kappaB activation. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 22: 1115-26.
40. Mattson MP, Culmsee C, Yu ZF, Camaldola S. Roles of nuclear factor-κB in neuronal survival and plasticity. J Neurochem 2000; 74: 443-56.
41. Dalton TP, Shertzer HG, Puga A. Regulation of gene expression by reactive oxygen. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1999; 39: 67-101.
42. Mattson MP, Goodman Y, Luo H, Fu W, Furukawa K. Activation of NF-κB protects hippocampal neurons against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis: evidence for induction of manganese superoxide dismutase and suppression of peroxynitrite production and protein tyrosine nitration. J Neurosci Res 1997; 49: 681-97.
43. Mattson MP, Camaldola S. NF-κB in neuronal plasticity and neurodegenerative disorders. J Clin Invest 2001; 107: 247-54.
44. Tamatani M, Che YH, Matsuzaki H, Ogawa S, Okado H, Miyake S, et al. Tumor necrosis factor induces Bcl-2 and bcl-x expression through NF-κB activation in primary hippocampal neurons. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 8531-8.
45. O'Neill LAJ, Kaltschmidt C. NF-κB: a crucial transcription factor for glial and neuronal cell function. Trends Neurosci 1997; 20: 252-8.
46. Li N, Karim M. Is NF-κB the sensor of oxidative stress? FASEB J 1999; 13: 1137-43.
47. Schreck R, Albermann K, Baeuerle PA. Nuclear factor κB: an oxidative stress-responsive transcription factor of eukaryotic cells (a review). Free Radic Res Commun 1992; 17: 221-37.
48. Lin Y-L, Lin J-K. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate blocks the induction of nitric oxide synthase by down-regulating lipopolysaccharide-induced activity of transcription factor nuclear factor-κB. Mol Pharmacol 1997; 52: 465-72.
49. Hunot S, Brugg B, Ricard D, Michel PP, Muriel MP, Ruberg M, et al. Nuclear translocation of NF-κB is increased in dopaminergic neurons of patients with Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 7531-6.
50. Panet H, Barzilai A, Daily D, Melamed E, Offen D. Activation of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB) is essential for dopamine-induced apoptosis in PC 12 cells. J Neurochem 2001; 77: 391-8.
51. Lipton SA. Janus face of NF-κB: neurodestruction versus neuroprotection. Nat Med 1997; 3: 20-1.
52. Dexter DT, Carayon A, Javoy-Agid F, Agid Y, Wells SE, Jenner P, et al. Alterations in the levels of iron, ferritin and other trace metals in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases effecting the basal ganglia. Brain 1991; 114: 1953-75.
53. Pearce RKB, Owen A, Daniel S, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Alterations in the distribution of glutathione in the substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm 1997; 104: 661-77.
54. Sian J, Dexter DT, Lees AJ, Daniel S, Agid Y, Javoy-Agid F, et al. Alterations in glutathione levels in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases effecting basal ganglia. Ann Neurol 1994; 36: 348-55.
55. Dexter DT, Holley AE, Flitter WD, Slater TF, Wells FR, Daniel S, et al. Increased levels of lipid hydroperoxides in the Parkinsonian substantia nigra: an HPLC and ESR study. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 92-7.
56. Jenner P, Dexter DT, Sian J, Schapira AHV, Marsden CD. Oxidative stress as a cause of nigral cell death in Parkinson's disease and incident Lewy body disease. Ann Neurol 1992; 32: 582-7.
57. Saggu H, Cooksey J, Dexter D, Wells FR, Lees A, Jenner P, et al. A selective increase in particulate superoxide dismutase activity in parkinsonian substantia nigra. J Neurochem 1989; 53: 692-7.
58. Yoshida E, Mokuno K, Aoki S, Takahashi A, Riku S, Murayama T, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of superoxide dismutases in neurological diseases detected by sensitive enzyme immunoassays. J Neurol Sci 1994; 124: 25-31.
59. Hunot S, Boissiere F, Faucheux B, Brugg B, Mouatt-Prigent A, Agid Y, et al. Nitric oxide synthase and neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson's disease, Neuroscience 1996; 72: 355-63.
60. Mogi M, Harada M, Kondo T, Riederer P, Inagaki H, Minami M, et al. Interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor-alpha are elevated in brain from parkinsonian patients. Neurosci Lett 1994; 180: 147-50.
61. Mogi M, Harada M, Riederer P, Narabayashi H, Fujita K, Nagatsu T. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) increases both in the brain and in the cerebrospinal fluid from parkinsonian patients. Neurosci Lett 1994; 165: 208-10.
62. Giasson BI, Duda JE, Murray IV, Chen Q, Souza JM, Hurtig HI, et al. Oxidative damage linked to neurodegeneration by selective alpha-synuclein nitration in synucleinopathy lesions. Science 2000; 3: 985-989.
63. Shimura-Miura H, Hattori N, Kang D, Miyako K, Nakebeppu Y, Mizuno Y. Increased 8-oxo-dGTPase in the mitochondria of the substantia nigral neurons in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1999; 46: 920-4.
64. Yamamoto T, Maruyama W, Kato Y, Yi H, Shamoto-Nagai M, Tanaka M, et al. Selective nitration of mitochondrial complex I by peroxynitrite: involvement in mitochondria dysfunction and cell death of dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells. J Neural Transm 2002; 109: 1-13.
65. Schapira AH, Mann VM, Cooper JM, Dexter D, Daniel SE, Jenner P, et al. Anatomic and disease specificity of NADH CoQ1 reductase (complex I) deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1990; 55: 2142-5.
66. Betarbet R, Sherer TB, MacKenzie G, Garcia-Osuna M, Panov AV, Greenamyre JT. Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease. Nat Neurosci 2000; 3: 1301-6.
67. Hartmann A, Michel PP, Troadec JD, Mouatt-Prigent A, Faucheux BA, Ruberg M, et al. Is Bax a mitochondrial mediator in apoptotic death of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease? J Neurochem 2001; 76: 1785-93.
68. Tatton NA. Increased caspase 3 and Bax immunoreactivity accompany nuclear GAPDH translocation and neuronal apoptosis in Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2000; 166: 29-43.
69. Maruyama W, Boulton AA, Davis BA, Dostert P, Naoi M. Enantio-specific induction of apoptosis by an endogenous neurotoxin, N-methyl(R)salsolinol, in dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells: suppression of apoptosis by N-(2-heptyl)-N-methylpropargylamine. J Neural Transm 2001; 108: 11-24.
70. Zhang Y, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Oxidative stress and genetics in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2000; 7: 240-50.
71. Middleton EJ. Effect of plant flavonoids on immune and inflammatory cell function. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 439: 175-82.
72. Cao G, Sofic E, Prior RL. Antioxidant and prooxidant behavior of flavonoids: structure-activity relationships. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 22: 749-60.
73. Hanasaki Y, Ogawa S, Fukui S. The correlation between active oxygen scavenging and antioxidative effects of flavonoids. Free Radic Biol Med 1994; 16: 845-50.
74. Nijveldt RJ, van Nood E, van Hoorn DEC, Boelens PG, van Norren K, van Leeuwen PAM. Flavonoids: a review of probable mechanisms of action and potential applications. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74: 418-25.
75. Hoult JRS, Moroney MA, Payà M. Action of flavonoids and coumarins on lipoxygenase and ciclooxygenase. Methods Enzymol 1994; 234: 443-55.
76. Cotelle N, Bernier JL, Catteau JP, Pommery J, Wallet JC, Gaydou EM. Antioxidant properties of hydroxy-flavones. Free Radic Biol Med 1996; 20: 35-43.
77. Gil B, Sanz MJ, Terencio MC, Ferrandiz ML, Bustos G, Payà M, et al. Effects of flavonoids on Naja naja and human recombinant synovial phospholipase A2 and inflammatory responses in mice. Life Sci 1994; 54: 333-8.
78. Cushman M, Nagaratham D, Burg DL, Geahlen R-L. Synthesis and protein-tyrosine kinase inhibitory activities of flavonoid analogues. J Med Chem 1991; 34: 798-806.
79. Salah N, Miller NJ, Paganga G, Tijburg L, Bolwell GP, Rice-Evans C. Polyphenolic flavanols as scavengers of aqueous phase radicals and as chain-breaking antioxidants. Arch Biochem Biophys 1995; 322: 339-46.
80. Levites Y, Weinreb O, Maor G, Youdim MBH, Mandel S. Green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate prevents N-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridin-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. J Neurochem 2001; 78: 1073-82.
81. Levites Y, Youdim MBH, Maor G, Mandel S, Attenuation of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation and cell death by tea extracts in neuronal cultures. Biochem Pharmacol 2002; 63: 21-9.
82. Sies E, Stahl W, Sundquist AR. Antioxidant functions of vitamins-vitamins E and C, beta-carotene, and other carotenoids. Ann NY Acad Sci 1992; 669: 7-20.
83. Burkhardt CR, Weber HC. Parkinson's disease: a chronic lowgrade antioxidant deficiency? Med Hypoth 1994; 43: 111-4.
84. Abbot RA, Cox M, Markus H, Tomkins A. Diet, body size and micronutrient status in Parkinson's disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 1992; 46; 879-84.
85. Fernandez-Calle P, Molina JA, Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Vazquez A, Pondal M, Garcia-Ruiz PJ, et al. Serum levels of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1992; 42: 1064-6.
86. King D, Playfer JR, Roberts NB. Concentrations of vitamins A, C and E in elderly patients with Parkinson's disease. Postgrad Med J 1992; 68: 634-7.
87. Foy CJ, Passmore AP, Vahidassr MD, Young IS, Lawson JT, Plasma chain-breaking antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia and Parkinson's disease. QJM 1999; 92: 39-45.
88. Fernandez-Calle P, Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Molina JA, Cabrera-Valdivia F, Vazquez A, Garcia Urra D, et al. Serum levels of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 1993; 118: 25-8.
89. Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Molina JA, Fernandez-Calle P, Vazquez A, Cabrera-Valdivia F, Catalan MJ, et al. Serum levels of beta-carotene and other carotenoids in Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 1993; 157: 103-6.
90. Golbe LI, Farrel TM, Davis PH. Case-control study of early life dietary factors in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1988; 45: 1350-3.
91. Golbe LI, Farrel TM, Davis PH. Follow-up study of early-life protective a risk factors in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1990; 5: 66-70.
92. de Rijk MC, Breteler MM, den Breeijen JH, Launer LJ, Grobbee DE, van der Meche FG, et al. Dietary antioxidants and Parkinson's disease: the Rotterdam Study. Arch Neurol 1997; 54: 762-5.
93. Logroscino G, Marder K, Cote L, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R. Dietary lipids and antioxidants in Parkinson's disease: a population-based, case-control study. Ann Neurol 1996; 39: 89-94.
94. Scheider WL, Hershey LA, Vena JE, Holmlund T, Marshall JR, Freudenheim JL. Dietary antioxidants and other dietary factors in the etiology of Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 190-6.
95. Johnson CC, Gorell JM; Rybicki BA, Sanders K, Peterson EL. Adult nutrient intake as a risk factor for Parkinson's disease. Int J Epidemiol 1999; 28: 1102-9.
96. Morens DM, Grandinetti A, Waslien CI, Park CB, Ross GW, White LR. Case-control study of idiopathic Parkinson's disease and dietary vitamin E intake. Neurology 1996; 46: 1270-4.
97. Zhang SM, Hernàn MA, Chen H, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Ascherio A. Intakes of vitamins E and C, carotenoids, vitamin supplements, and PD risk. Neurology 2002; 59: 1161-9.
98. Parkinson's Study Group. Effects of tocopherol and deprenyl on the progression of disability in early Parkinson's disease. N Eng J Med 1993; 328: 176-83.
99. Dexter DT, Brooks DJ, Harding AE, Burn DJ, Muller DP, Goss-Sampson MA, et al. Nigrostriatal function in vitamin E deficiency: clinical, experimental, and positron emission tomographic studies. Ann Neurol 1994; 35: 298-303.
100. Akaneya Y, Takahashi M, Hatanaka H. Involvement of free radicals in MPP+ neurotoxicity against rat dopaminergic neurons in culture. Neurosci Lett 1995; 193: 53-6.
101. Odunze IN, Klaidman LK, Adams JD, Jr. MPTP toxicity in the mouse brain and vitamin E. Neurosci Lett 1990; 108: 346-9.
102. Perry TL, Yong VW, Clavier RM, Jones K, Wright JM, Foulks JG, et al. Partial protection from the dopaminergic neurotoxin N-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine by four different antioxidants in the mouse. Neurosci Lett 1985; 60: 109-14.
103. Perry TL, Yong VW, Hansen S, Jones K, Bergeron C, Foulks JG, et al. Alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene do not protect marmosets against the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of N-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine. J Neurol Sci 1987; 81: 321-31.
104. Wagner GC, Jarvis MF, Carelli RM. Ascorbic acid reduces the dopamine depletion induced by MPTP. Neuropharmacology 1985; 24: 1261-2.
105. Tissingh G, Booij J, Bergmans P, Winogrodzka A, Janssen AG, van Royen EA, et al. Iodine-123-N-omega-fluoropropyl-2beta-carbomethoxy -3 beta-(4-iodophenyl)tropane SPECT in healthy controls and early-stage, drug-naive Parkinson's disease. J Nucl Med 1998; 39: 1143-8.
106. Langston JW. Epidemiology versus genetics in Parkinson's disease: progress in resolving an age-old debate. Ann Neurol 1998; 44 (Suppl): S45-52.
107. Langston JW, Ballard PA, Tetrud JW, Irwin I. Chronic parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine analog synthesis. Science 1983; 219: 979-80.
108. Tipton KF, Singer TP. Advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of the neurotoxicity of MPTP and related compounds. J Neurochem 1993; 61: 1191-206.
109. Singer TP, Castagnoli N, Ramsay RR, Trevor AJ. Biochemical events in the development of Parkinsonism induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine. J Neurochem 1987; 49: 1-8.
110. Nicklas WJ, Vyas I, Heikkila RE. Inhibition of NADH-linked oxidation in brain mitochondria by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridine, a metabolite of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine. Life Sci 1985; 36: 2503-8.
111. Schapira AHV, Cooper JM, Dexter D, Clark JB, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1990; 54: 823-7.
112. Bindoff LA, Birch-Machin M, Cartlidge NEF, Parker Jr WD, Turnbull DM. Mitochondrial function in Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1989; 2: 49.
113. Marsden CD, Olanow CW. The causes of Parkinson's disease are being unraveled and rational neuroprotective therapy is close to reality. Ann Neurol 1998; 44 (Suppl): S189-96.
114. Olanow CW, Tatton WG. Etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Annu Rev Neurosci 1999; 22: 123-44.
115. Riederer P, Sian J, Gerlach M. Is there neuroprotection in Parkinson syndrome? J Neurol 2000; 247 (Suppl 4): IV/8-IV/11.
116. Agid Y, Ruberg M, Javoy-Agid F, Hirsch E, Raisman-Vozari R, Vyas S, et al. Are dopaminergic neurons selectively vulnerable to Parkinson's disease? Adv Neurol 1993; 60: 148-64.
117. Spina MB, Cohen G. Dopamine turnover and glutathione oxidation: implications for Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 1398-400.
118. Olanow CW. Oxidation reactions in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1990; 40 (Suppl): 32-7.
119. Fearnley JM, Lees AJ. Ageing and Parkinson's disease: substantia nigra regional selectively. Brain 1991; 114: 2283-301.
120. Brooks DJ. The early diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1998; 44 (Suppl): S19-31.
121. Shults CW, Beal MF, Fontaine D, Nakano K, Haas RH. Absorption, tolerability, and effects on mitochondrial activity of oral coenzime Q10 in parkinsonian patients. Neurology 1998, 50: 793-5.
122. Shults CW, Oakes D, Kieburtz K, Beal MF, Haas R, Plumb S, et al. Effects of coenzime Q10 in early Parkinson disease: evidence of slowing of the functional decline. Arch Neurol 2002; 59: 1541-50.
123. Shoulson I. DATATOP: a decade of neuroprotective inquiry. Ann Neurol 1998; 44 (Suppl): S160-6.
124. Golbe LL, Langston JW, Shoulson I. Selegiline and Parkinson's disease: protective and symptomatic consideration. Drugs 1990, 39: 646-51.
125. Heikkila RE, Manzino L, Duvoisin RC, Cabbat FS. Protection against the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine by monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Nature 1984; 311: 467-9.
126. + in vivo. Eur J Pharmacol 1993; 243: 241-7.
127. Rinne JO. Nigral degeneration in Parkinson's disease in relation to clinical features. Acta Neurol Scand 1991; 84: 87-90.
128. Tatton WG, Chalmers-Redman RME. Modulation of gene expression rather than monoamine oxidase inhibition: (-)-deprenyl-related compounds in controlling neurodegeneration. Neurology 1996; 47: 171-83.
129. Tattoo WG, Greenwood CE. Rescue of dying neurons: a new action for deprenyl in MPTP parkinsonism. J Neurosci Res 1991; 30: 666-72.
130. Birkmayer W, Knoll J, Riederer P, Youdim MB, Hars V, Marton J. Increased life expectancy resulting from addition of L-deprenyl to Madopar treatment in Parkinson's disease: a long term study. J Neurol Transm 1985; 64: 113-27.
131. Lees AJ on the behalf of the Parkinson's disease research group of the United Kingdom. Comparison of therapeutic effects and mortality data of levodopa and levodopa combined with selegiline in patients with early mild Parkinson's disease. BMJ 1995; 331: 1602-6.
132. Olanow CW, Godbold J, Koller WC. Effect of adding selegiline to levodopa in early, mild Parkinson's disease. BMJ 1996; 312: 702-3.
133. Gerlach M, Riederer P. Time sequences of dopaminergic cell death in Parkinson's disease: indications for neuroprotective studies, Adv Neurol 1999; 80: 219-25.
134. Rabey JM, Sagi I, Huberman M, Melamed E, Korczyn A, Giladi N, et al. Rasagiline mesylate, a new MAO-B inhibitor for the treatment of Parkinson's disease: a double blind study as adjunctive therapy to levodopa. Clin Neuropharmacol 2000; 23: 324-30.
135. Maruyama W, Akao Y, Carrillo MC, Kitani K, Youdium MB, Naoi M. Neuroprotection by propargylamines in Parkinson's disease: suppression of apoptosis and induction of prosurvival genes. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2002; 24: 675-82.
136. Olanow CW, Jenner P, Brooks D. Dopamine agonists and neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1998; 44 (Suppl): S167-74.
137. Sawada H, Ibi M, Kihara T, Urushitani M, Akaike A, Kimura J, et al. Dopamine D2-type agonism protect mesencephalic neurons from glutamate neurotoxicity: mechanisms of neuroprotective treatment against oxidative stress. Ann Neurol 1998; 44: 110-9.
138. Fahn S. Is levodopa toxic? Neurology 1996; 47 (Suppl 3): S184-95.
139. Chase TN. Levodopa therapy. Consequences of the non-physiologic replacement of dopamine. Neurology 1998; 50 (Suppl): S17-25.
140. Hiramatsu M, Kohno M, Mori A, Shiraga H, Pfeiffer RF, Ebadi M. An ESR study of 6-hydroxydopamine: generated hydroxy radicals and superoxide anions in brain. Neuroscience 1994; 20: 129-38.
141. Spencer Smith T, Parker Jr WD, Bennett Jr JP. L-DOPA increases nigral production of hydroxyl radicals in vivo: potential L-DOPA toxicity? Neuroreport 1994; 5: 1006-11.
142. Mena MA, Pardo B, Casarejos MJ, Fahn S, de Yebenes JG. Neurotoxicity of levodopa on catecholamine-rich neurons. Mov Disord 1992; 7: 23-31.
143. Miyasaki JM, Martin W, Suchowersky O, Weiner WJ, Lang AE. Practice parameter: Initiation a treatment for Parkinson's disease: An evidence-based review. Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2002; 58: 11-7.
144. Koller WC, Hubble JP. Levodopa therapy in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1990; 40: 40-7.
145. Michel PP, Hefti F. Toxicity of 6-hydroxydopamine and dopamine for dopaminergic neurons in culture. J Neurosci Res 1990; 26: 428-35.
146. Agid Y. Levodopa. Is toxicity a myth? Neurology 1998; 50 (Suppl): S858-63.
147. 3 nigrostriatal lesions. Mov Disord 2001; 16: 424-34.
148. Perry TL, Yong VW, Ito M, Foulks JG, Wall RA, Godin DV, et al. Nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons remain undamaged in rats given high doses of L-dopa and carbidopa chronically. J Neurochem 1984; 43: 990-3.
149. Blunt SB, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Suppressive effect of L-dopa on dopamine cells remaining in the ventral tegmental area of rats previously exposed to the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 129-33.
150. Murer MG, Dziewczapolski G, Menalled LB, Garcia MC, Agid Y, Gershanik O, et al. Chronic levodopa is not toxic for remaining dopamine neurons, but instead promotes their recovery, in rats with moderate nigrostriatal lesions. Ann Neurol 1998; 43: 561-75.
151. Freed CR, Greene PE, Breeze RE, Tsai WY, DuMouchel W, Kao R, et al. Transplantation of embryonic dopamine neurons for severe Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 710-9.
152. Agid Y, Ahlskog E, Albanese A, Calne D, Chase T, De Yebenes J, et al. Levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: a consensus meeting. Mov Disord 1999; 14: 911-3.
153. Uitti RJ, Ahlskog JE, Maraganore DM, Muenter MD, Atkinson EJ, Cha RH, et al. Levodopa therapy and survival in idiopathic Parkinson's disease: Olmstead County project. Neurology 1993; 43: 1918-26.
154. Zou L, Xu J, Jankovic J, He Y, Appel SH. Pramipexole inhibits lipid peroxidation and reduces injury in the substantia nigra induced by the dopaminergic neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine in C57BL/6 mice. Neurosci Lett 2000; 281: 167-70.
155. Cassarino DS, Fall CP, Smith TS, Bennett JP Jr. Pramipexole reduces reactive oxygen species production in vivo and in vitro and inhibits the mitochondrial permeability transition produced by the parkinsonian neurotoxin methyl-pyridinium ion. J Neurochem 1998; 71: 295-301.
156. Zou L, Jankovic J, Rowe DB, Xie W, Appel SH, Le W. Neuroprotection by pramipexole against dopamine- and levodopa-induced cytotoxicity. Life Sci 1999; 64: 1275-85.
157. Schapira AHV, Gu M, King DF, Cooper JM, Jenner P. Pramipexole protects against rotenone toxicity: mechanisms and implications. Neurology 2002; 58: A495.
158. + toxicity in SHSY5Y cells by maintaining mitochondrial membrane potential. Neurology 2001; 56: A377-A388.
159. Jenner P, Iravani MM; Haddon CO, Johnston LC, Jackson MJ, Smith L, et al. Pramipexole protects against MPTP-induced nigral dopaminergic cell loss in primates. Neurology 2002; 58: A494.
160. Schapira AH. Neuroprotection and dopamine agonists. Neurology 2002; 58 (Suppl): S9-S18.
161. Gassen M, Glinka Y, Pinchasi B, Youdim MB. Apomorphine is a highly potent free radical scavenger in rat brain mitochondrial fraction. Eur J Pharmacol 1996; 308: 219-25.
162. Ogawa N, Tanaka K, Asanuma M, Kawai M, Masumizu T, Kohno M, Mori A. Bromocriptine protects mice against 6-hydroxydopamine and scavenges hydroxyl free radical in vitro. Brain Res 1994; 657: 207-13.
163. Muralikrishnan D, Mohanakumar KP. Neuroprotection by bromocriptine against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine-induced neurotoxicity in mice. FASEB J 1998; 12: 905-12.
164. Finotti N, Castagna L, Moretti A, Marzatico F. Reduction of lipid peroxidation in different rat brain areas after cabergoline treatment. Pharmacol Res 2000; 42: 287-91.
165. Yoshioka M, Tanaka K, Miyazaki, Fujita N, Higashi Y, Asanuma M, et al. The dopamine agonist cabergoline provides neuroprotection by activation of the glutathione system and scavenging free radicals. Neuroscience Res 2002; 43: 259-67.
166. Nishibayashi S, Asanuma M, Kohno M, Gòmez-Vargas M, Ogawa N. Scavenging effects of dopamine agonists on nitric oxide radicals. J Neurochem 1996; 67: 2208-11.
167. Gomez-Vargas M, Nishibayashi-Asanuma S, Asanuma M, Kondo Y, Iwata E, Ogawa N. Pergolide scavenges both hydroxyl and nitric oxide free radicals in vitro and inhibits peroxidation in different regions of the rat brain. Brain Res 1998; 790: 202-8.
168. Clow A, Freestone C, Lewis E, Dexter D, Sandler M, Glover V. The effect of pergolide and MDL 72974 on rat brain CuZn superoxide dismutase. Neurosci Lett 1993; 164: 41-3.
169. 2 receptor-mediated antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of ropinirole, a dopamine agonist. Brain Res 1999; 838: 51-9.
170. Parkinson Study Group. Pramipexole vs levodopa as initial treatment for Parkinson's disease. JAMA 2000; 284: 231-8.
171. Rascol O, Brooks DJ, Korczyn AD, De Deyn PP, Clarke CE, Lang AE. A five year study of the incidence of dyskinesia in patients with early Parkinson's disease who were treated with ropinirole or levodopa. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1484-91.
172. Rinne UK, Bracco F, Chouza C, Dupont E, Gershanik O, Marti Masso JF, et al. Early treatment of Parkinson's disease with cabergoline delays the onset of motor complications. Results of a double-blind levodopa controlled trial. Drugs 1998; 55: 23-30.
173. Parkinson Study Group. Dopamine transporter brain imaging to assess the effects of pramipexole vs levodopa on Parkinson's disease progression. JAMA 2002; 287: 1653-61.
174. Whone AL, Remy P, Davis MR, Sabolek M, Nahmias C, Stoessl AJ, et al. The REAL-PET study: slower progression in early Parkinson's disease treated with ropinirole compared with l-dopa. Neurology 2002; 58: A82-3.
175. Albin RL, Nichols TE, Frey KA. Brain imaging to assess the effects of dopamine agonists on progression of Parkinson's disease. JAMA 2002; 288: 311-2.
176. Tarnopolski MA, Beal MF. Potential for Creatine and other therapies targeting cellular energy dysfunction in neurological disorders. Ann Neurol 2001; 49: 561-74.
177. Matthews RT, Ferrante RJ, Klivenyi P, Yang L, Klein AM, Mueller G, et al. Creatine and cyclocreatine attenuate MPTP neurotoxicity. Exp Neurol 1999; 157: 142-9.
178. Gorell JM, Rybicki BA, Johnson CC, Peterson EL. Smoking and Parkinson's disease: a dose-response relationship. Neurology 1999; 52: 115-9.
179. Morens DM, Grandinetti A, Reed D, White LR, Ross GW. Cigarette smoking and protection from Parkinson's disease: false association or etiologic clue? Neurology 1995; 45: 1041-51.
180. Soto-Otero R, Mendez-Alvarez E, Hermida-Ameijeiras A, Lopez-Real AM, Labandeira-Garcia JL. Effects of (-)-Nicotine and (-)-cotinine on 6-hydroxydopamine-induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity: relevance for Parkinson's disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2002; 64: 125-35.
181. Mizuno Y, Hattori N, Mori H, Suzuki T, Tanaka K. Parkin and Parkinson's disease. Curr Opin Neurol 2001; 14: 477-82.
182. Polymeropoulos MH. Genetics of Parkinson's disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000; 920: 28-32.
183. Chung KK, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. The role of the ubiquitin-proteasomal pathway in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Trends Neurosci 2001; 24 (Suppl): S7-S14.
184. Lavedan C, Buchholtz S, Nussbaum RL, Albin RL, Polymeropoulos MH. A mutation in the human neurofilament M gene in Parkinson's disease suggests a role for the cytoskeleton in neuronal degeneration. Neurosci Lett 2002; 322: 57-61.
185. Mouradian MM. Recent advances in the genetics and
186. McNaught KS, Jenner P. Proteasomal function is impaired in the substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 2001; 297: 191-4.
187. Spillantini MG, Schmidt ML, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ, Jakes R, Goedert M. Alpha-synuclein in Lewy bodies. Nature 1997; 388: 839-40.
188. Mori K. Tripartite management of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. Cell 2000; 101: 451-4.
189. Bennett MC, Bishop JF, Leng Y, Chock PB, Chase TN, Mouradian MM. Degradation of alpha-synuclein by proteasome. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 33855-8.
190. Tanaka Y, Engelender S, Igarashi S, Rao RK, Wanner T, Tanzi RE, et al. Inducible expression of mutant alpha-synuclein decreases proteasome activity and increases sensitivity to mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. Hum Mol Genet 2001; 10: 919-26.
191. Ostrerova-Golts N, Petrucelli L, Hardy J, Lee JM, Farer M, Wolozin B. The A53T alpha synuclein mutation increases iron-dependent aggregation and toxicity. J Neurosci 2000; 20: 6048-54.
192. Galvin JE, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ. Synucleinopathies: clinical and pathological implications. Arch Neurol 2001; 58: 186-90.
193. Kanda S, Bishop JF, Eglitis MA, Yang Y, Mouradian MM. Enhanced vulnerability to oxidative stress by alpha-synuclein mutations and C-terminal truncation. Neuroscience 2000; 97: 279-84.
194. Bence NF, Sampat RM, Kopito RR. Impairment of the ubiquitin-proteasome system by protein aggregation. Science 2001; 292: 1552-5.
195. Lee FJ, Liu F, Pristupa ZB, Niznik HB. Direct binding and functional coupling of alpha-synuclein to the dopamine transporters accelerate dopamine-induced apoptosis. FASEB J 2001; 15: 916-26.
196. Betarbet R, Sherer TB, MacKenzie G, Garcia-Osuna M, Panov AV, Greenamyre JT. Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease. Nat Neurosci 2000; 3: 1301-6.
197. Solano SM, Miller DW, Augood SJ, Young AB, Penney JB Jr. Expression of alpha-synuclein, parkin, and ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 mRNA in human brain: genes associated with familial Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2000; 47: 201-10.
198. Double KL, Gerlach M, Youdim MB, Riederer P. Impaired iron homeostasis in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (suppl) 2000; 60: 37-58.
199. Turnbull S, Tabner BJ, El-Agnaf OM, Moore S, Davies Y, Allsop D. alpha-Synuclein implicated in Parkinson's disease catalyses the formation of hydrogen peroxide in vitro. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30: 1163-70.
200. Farrer M, Maraganore DM, Lockhart P, Singleton A, Lesnick TG, de Andrade M, et al. alpha-Synuclein gene haplotypes are associated with Parkinson's disease. Hum Mol Genet 2001; 10: 1847-51.
201. Prasad KD, Cole WC, Hovland AR, Prasad KC, Nahreini P, Kumar B, et al. Multiple antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disease: analysis of biologic rationale. Curr Opin Neurol 1999; 12: 761-70.
202. Rocca WA, Bonaiuto S, Lippi A, Luciani P, Turtu F, Cavarzeran F, et al. Prevalence of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease and other dementing disorders: a door-to-door survey in Appignano, Macerata Province, Italy. Neurology 1990; 40: 626-31
203. Rocca WA, Hofman A, Brayne C, Breteler MM, Clarke M, Copeland JR, et al. Frequency and distribution of Alzheimer's disease in Europe: a collaborative study of 1980-1990 prevalence findings. The EURODEM-Prevalence Research Group. Ann Neurol 1991; 30: 381-90
204. Kukull WA, Higdon R, Bowen JD, McCormick WC, Teri L, Schellenberg GD, et al. Dementia and Alzheimer disease incidence: a prospective cohort study. Arch Neurol 2002; 59: 1737-46
205. Braak H, Braak E. Pathology of Alzheimer diseas. In: Calne DB, ed. Neurodegenerative diseases. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1994: 585-613.
206. Davies P. An update on the neurochemistry of Alzheimer disease. In: Mayeux R, Rosen WG, eds. The dementias. Vol 38. of Advances in Neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1983: 75-86.
207. Selkoe DJ. Alzheimer's disease: genes, proteins, and therapy. Physiol Rev 2001; 81: 741-66.
208. Harman D. Free radical theory of aging. Mutat Res 1992; 275: 257-266.
209. Ames BN, Shigenda MK, Hagen TM. Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 7915-7922.
210. Beal MF. Aging, energy, and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative disease. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 357-366.
211. Markesbery WR. Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 23: 134-147.
212. Markesbery WR. The role of oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1999; 56: 1449-1452.
213. Markesbery WR, Carney JM. Oxidative alterations in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Pathol 1999; 9: 133-146.
214. Pratico D, Delanty N. Oxidative injury in diseases of the central nervous system: focus on Alzheimer's disease. Am J Med 2000; 109: 577-585.
215. Floyd RA, Hensley K. Oxidative stress in brain aging. Implications for therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiol Aging 2002; 23: 795-807.
216. Subbarao KV, Richardson JS, Ang LC. Autopsy samples of Alzheimer's cortex show increased peroxidation in vitro. J Neurochem 1990; 55: 342-345.
217. Balazs L, Leon M. Evidence of an oxidative challenge in the Alzheimer's brain. Neurochem Res 1994; 19: 1131-7.
218. Palmer AM, Burns MA. Selective increase in lipid peroxidation in the inferior temporal cortex in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 1994; 645: 338-42.
219. Lovell MA, Ehmann WD, Butler SM, Markesbery WR. Elevated thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and antioxidant enzyme activity in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1995; 45: 1594-1601.
220. Pratico D, V MYL, Trojanowski JQ, Rokach J, Fitzgerald GA. Increased F2-isoprostanes in Alzheimer's disease: evidence for enhanced lipid peroxidation in vivo. FASEB J 1998; 12: 1777-1783.
221. Montine TJ, Markesbery WR, Morrow JD, Roberts LJ 2nd. Cerebrospinal fluid F2-isoprostane levels are increased in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1998; 44: 410-3.
222. Montine TJ, Beal MF, Cudkowicz ME, O'Donnell H, Margolin RA, McFarland L, et al. Increased CSF F2-isoprostane concentration in probable AD. Neurology 1999; 52: 562-5.
223. Nourooz-Zadeh J, Liu EH, Yhlen B, Anggard EE, Halliwell B. F4-isoprostanes as specific marker of docosahexaenoic acid peroxidation in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 1999; 72: 734-40.
224. Reich EE, Markesbery WR, Roberts LJ 2nd, Swift LL, Morrow JD, Montine TJ. Brain regional quantification of F-ring and D-/E-ring isoprostanes and neuroprostanes in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 2001; 158: 293-7.
225. Reich EE, Markesbery WR, Roberts LJ 2nd, Swift LL, Morrow JD, Montine TJ. Quantification of F-ring and D-/E-ring isoprostanes and neuroprostanes in Alzheimer's disease. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001; 500: 253-6.
226. Esterbauer H, Schaur RJ, Zollner H. Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malonaldehyde and related aldehydes. Free Radic Biol Med 1991; 11: 81-128.
227. Mark RJ, Lovell MA, Markesbery WR, Uchida K, Mattson MP. A role for 4-hydroxynonenal, an aldehydic product of lipid peroxidation, in disruption of ion homeostasis and neuronal death induced by amyloid beta-peptide. J Neurochem 1997; 68: 255-64.
228. Uchida K, Stadtman ER. Modification of histidine residues in proteins by reaction with 4-hydroxynonenal. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 4544-8.
229. Humphries KM, Yoo Y, Szweda LI. Inhibition of NADH-linked mitochondrial respiration by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal. Biochemistry 1998; 37: 552-7.
230. Humphries KM, Szweda LI. Selective inactivation of alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase: reaction of lipoic acid with 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal. Biochemistry 1998; 37: 15835-41.
231. Shen KF, Blass JP. The alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. Ann NY Acad Sci 1999; 893: 61-78.
232. Gibson GE, Park LC, Sheu KF, Blass JP, Calingasan NY. The alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex in neurodegeneration. Neurochem Int 2000; 36: 97-112.
233. Mark RJ, Hensley K, Butterfield DA, Mattson MP. Amyloid beta-peptide impairs ion-motive ATPase activities: evidence for a role in loss of neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis and cell death. J Neurosci 1995; 15: 6239-49.
234. Siems WG, Hapner SJ, van Kuijk FJ. 4-hydroxynonenal inhibits Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase. Free Radic Biol Med 1996; 20: 215-23.
235. Keller JN, Mark RJ, Bruce AJ, Blanc E, Rothstein JD, Uchida K, et al. 4-Hydroxynonenal, an aldehydic product of membrane lipid peroxidation, impairs glutamate transport and mitochondrial function in synaptosomes. Neuroscience 1997; 80: 685-96.
236. Lauderback CM, Hackett JM, Huang FF, Keller JN, Szweda LI, Markesbery WR, et al. The glial glutamate transporter, GLT-1, is oxidatively modified by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal in the Alzheimer's disease brain: the role of Abeta1-42. J Neurochem 2001; 78: 413-6.
237. Markesbery WR, Lovell MA. Four-hydroxynonenal, a product of lipid peroxidation, is increased in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 1998; 19: 33-6.
238. Montine KS, Kim PJ, Olson SJ, Markesbery WR, Montine TJ. 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal pyrrole adducts in human neurodegenerative disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997; 56: 866-71.
239. Sayre LM, Zelasko DA, Harris PL, Perry G, Salomon RG, Smith MA. 4-Hydroxynonenal-derived advanced lipid peroxidation end products are increased in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 1997; 68: 2092-7.
240. Montine KS, Reich E, Neely MD, Sidell KR, Olson SJ, Markesbery WR, et al. Distribution of reducible 4-hydroxynonenal adduct immunoreactivity in Alzheimer disease is associated with APOE genotype. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998; 57: 415-25.
241. Smith CD, Carney JM, Starke-Reed PE, Oliver CN, Stadtman ER, Floyd RA, et al. Excess brain protein oxidation and enzyme dysfunction in normal aging and in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 10540-3.
242. Montine TJ, Amarnath V, Martin ME, Strittmatter WJ, Graham DG. E-4-hydroxy-2-nonenal is cytotoxic and cross-links cytoskeletal proteins in P19 neuroglial cultures. Am J Pathol 1996; 148: 89-93.
243. Neely MD, Sidell KR, Graham DG, Montine TJ. The lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal inhibits neurite outgrowth, disrupts neuronal microtubules, and modifies cellular tubulin. J Neurochem 1999; 72: 2323-33.
244. Smith MA, Sayre LM, Monnier VM, Perry G. Radical AGEing in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 1995; 18: 172-6.
245. Yan SD, Chen X, Schmidt AM, Brett J, Godman G, Zou YS, et al. Glycated tau protein in Alzheimer disease: a mechanism for induction of oxidant stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 7787-91.
246. Smith MA, Kutty RK, Richey PL, Yan SD, Stern D, Chader GJ, et al. G. Heme oxygenase-1 is associated with the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1994; 145: 42-7.
247. Gabbita SP, Lovell MA, Markesbery WR. Increased nuclear DNA oxidation in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 1998; 71: 2034-40.
248. Mecocci P, MacGarvey U, Beal MF. Oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA is increased in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 1994; 36: 747-51.
249. Lovell MA, Gabbita SP, Markesbery WR. Increased DNA oxidation and decreased levels of repair products in Alzheimer's disease ventricular CS F. J Neurochem 1999; 72: 771-6.
250. Butterfield DA, Drake J, Pocernich C, Castegna A. Evidence of oxidative damage in Alzheimer's disease brain: central role for amyloid beta-peptide. Trends Mol Med 2001; 7: 548-554.
251. Butterfield DA, Castegna A, Lauderback CM, Drake J. Evidence that amyloid beta-peptide-induced lipid peroxidation and its sequelae in Alzheimer's disease brain contribute to neuronal death. Neurobiol Aging 2002; 23: 655-664.
252. Butterfield DA, Griffin S, Munch G, Pasinetti GM. Amyloid beta-peptide and amyloid pathology are central to the oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades under which Alzheimer's disease brain exists. J Alzheimers Dis 2002; 4: 193-201
253. Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, Brown J, Crawford F, Fidani L, et al. Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1991; 349: 704-6
254. Butterfield DA, Yatin SM, Varadarajan S, Koppal T. Amyloid beta-peptide-associated free radical oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and Alzheimer's disease. Methods Enzymol 1999; 309: 746-68.
255. Subramaniam R, Koppal T, Green M, Yatin S, Jordan B, Drake J, et al. The free radical antioxidant vitamin E protects cortical synaptosomal membranes from amyloid beta-peptide(25-35) toxicity but not from hydroxynonenal toxicity: relevance to the free radical hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Res 1998; 23: 1403-10.
256. Koppal T, Subramaniam R, Drake J, Prasad MR, Dhillon H, Butterfield DA. Vitamin E protects against Alzheimer's amyloid peptide (25-35)-induced changes in neocortical synaptosomal membrane lipid structure and composition. Brain Res 1998; 786: 270-3.
257. Butterfield DA, Koppal T, Subramaniam R, Yatin S. Vitamin E as an antioxidant/free radical scavenger against amyloid beta-peptide-induced oxidative stress in neocortical synaptosomal membranes and hippocampal neurons in culture: insights into Alzheimer's disease. Rev Neurosci 1999; 10: 141-9.
258. Lim GP, Chu T, Yang F, Beech W, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. J Neurosci 2001; 21: 8370-8377.
259. Behl C. Alzheimer's disease and oxidative stress: implications for novel therapeutic approaches. Prog Neurobiol 1999; 57: 301-323.
260. Behl C. Vitamin E and other antioxidants in neuroprotection. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1999; 69: 213-219.
261. Harris ME, Hensley K, Butterfield DA, Leedle RA, Carney JM. Direct evidence of oxidative injury produced by the Alzheimer's beta-amyloid peptide (1-40) in cultured hippocampal neurons. Exp Neurol 1995; 131: 193-202.
262. Lucca E, Angeretti N, Forloni G. Influence of cell culture conditions on the protective effect of antioxidants against beta-amyloid toxicity: studies with lazaroids. Brain Res 1997; 764: 293-8.
263. Ramassamy C, Averill D, Beffert U, Theroux L, Lussier-Cacan S, Cohn JS, et al. Oxidative insults are associated with apolipoprotein E genotype in Alzheimer's disease brain. Neurobiol Dis 2000; 7: 23-37.
264. Ramassamy C, Krzywkowski P, Averill D, Lussier-Cacan S, Theroux L, Christen Y, et al. Impact of apoE deficiency on oxidative insults and antioxidant levels in the brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2001; 86: 76-83.
265. Roses AD. Apolipoprotein E alleles as risk factors in Alzheimer's disease. Annu Rev Med 1996; 47: 387-400.
266. Nunomura A, Perry G, Aliev G, Hirai K, Takeda A, Balraj EK, et al. Oxidative damage is the earliest event in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60: 759-67.
267. Perry G, Taddeo MA, Nunomura A, Zhu X, Zenteno-Savin T, Drew KL, et al. Comparative biology and pathology of oxidative stress in Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases: beyond damage and response. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2002; 133: 507-13.
268. Rottkamp CA, Nunomura A, Raina AK, Sayre LM, Perry G, Smith MA. Oxidative stress, antioxidants, and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2000; 14 Suppl 1: S62-6.
269. Gibson GE. Interactions of oxidative stress with cellular calcium dynamics and glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2002; 32: 1061-1070.
270. Smith MA, Drew KL, Nunomura A, Takeda A, Hirai K, Zhu X, et al. Amyloid-beta, tau alterations and mitochondrial dysfunction in Alzheimer disease: the chickens or the eggs? Neurochem Int 2002; 40: 527-31.
271. Bush AI. The metallobiology of Alzheimer's disease. Trends Neurosci 2003; 26: 207-14.
272. Martin A, Youdim K, Szprengiel A, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph J. Roles of vitamins E and C on neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive performance. Nutr Rev 2002; 60: 308-26.
273. Youdim KA, Joseph JA. A possible emerging role of phytochemicals in improving age-related neurological dysfunctions: a multiplicity of effects. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30: 583-94.
274. Chandra RK. Effect of vitamin and trace-element supplementation on cognitive function in elderly subjects. Nutrition 2001; 17: 709-12.
275. Nourhashémi F, Gillette-Guyonnet S, Andrieu S, Ghisolfi A, Ousset PJ, Grandjean H, et al. Alzheimer disease: protective factors. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 643s-649s.
276. Riviere S, Birlouez-Aragon I, Nourhashemi F, Vellas B. Low plasma vitamin C in Alzheimer patients despite an adequate diet. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998; 13: 749-754.
277. Sinclair AJ, Bayer AJ, Johnston J, Warner C, Maxwell SR. Altered plasma antioxidant status in subjects with Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998; 13: 840-845.
278. Jeandel C, Nicolas MB, Dubois F, Nabet-Belleville F, Penin F, Cuny G. Lipid peroxidation and free radical scavengers in Alzheimer's disease. Gerontology 1989; 35: 275-282.
279. Bourdel-Marchasson I, Delmas-Beauvieux MC, Peuchant E, Richard-Harston S, Decamps A, Reignier B, et al. Antioxidant defences and oxidative stress markers in erythrocytes and plasma from normally nourished elderly Alzheimer patients. Age Ageing 2001; 30: 235-241.
280. Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, de Bustos F, Molina JA, Benito-Leon J, Tallon-Barranco A, Gasalla T, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) in Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm 1997; 104: 703-710.
281. Kontush A, Mann U, Arlt S, Ujeyl A, Luhrs C, Muller-Thomsen T, et al. Influence of vitamin E and C supplementation on lipoprotein oxidation in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 31: 345-354.
282. Yamada K, Tanaka T, Han D, Senzaki K, Kameyama T, Nabeshima T. Protective effects of idebenone and alpha-tocopherol on beta-amyloid-(1-42)-induced learning and memory deficits in rats: implication of oxidative stress in beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in vivo. Eur J Neurosci 1999; 11: 83-90.
283. Yatin SM, Varadarajan S, Butterfield DA. Vitamin E Prevents Alzheimer's Amyloid beta-Peptide (1-42)-Induced Neuronal Protein Oxidation and Reactive Oxygen Species Production. J Alzheimers Dis 2000; 2: 123-131.
284. Butterfield DA, Castegna A, Drake J, Scapagnini G, Calabrese V. Vitamin E and neurodegenerative disorders associated with oxidative stress. Nutr Neurosci 2002; 5: 229-39.
285. Hendrie HC. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease. Geriatrics 1997 52 Suppl 2: S4-8.
286. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 2002; 287: 3223-3229.
287. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Aggarwal N, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidant nutrients and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a biracial community study. JAMA 2002; 287: 3230-3237.
288. Laurin D, Foley DJ, Masaki KH, White LR, Launer LJ. Vitamin E and C supplements and risk of dementia. JAMA 2002; 288: 2266-2268.
289. Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R. Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003; 60: 203-208.
290. Zandi PP, Anthony JC, Khachaturian AS, Stone SV, Gustafson D, Tschanz JT, et al. Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 2004; 61: 82-8.
291. Sano M, Ernesto C, Klauber MR, Schafer K, Woodbury P, Thomas R, et al. Rationale and design of a multicenter study of selegiline and alpha-tocopherol in the treatment of Alzheimer disease using novel clinical outcomes. Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1996; 10: 132-140.
292. Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, Klauber MR, Schafer K, Grundman M, et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. N Eng J Med 1997; 336: 1216-1222.
293. Sano M. Do dietary antioxidants prevent Alzheimer's disease? Lancet Neurology 2002; 1: 342.
294. Tabet N, Birks J, Grimley Evans J. Vitamin E for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000: CD002854.
295. Prasad KN, Hovland AR, Cole WC, Prasad KC, Nahreini P, Edwards-Prasad J, et al. Multiple antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer disease: analysis of biologic rationale. Clin Neuropharmacol 2000; 23: 2-13.
296. Prasad KN, Cole WC, Prasad KC. Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease: role of multiple antioxidants, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and cholinergic agents alone or in combination in prevention and treatment. J Am Coll Nutr 2002; 21: 506-522.
297. Prasad KN, Edwards-Prasad J. Vitamin E and cancer prevention: recent advances and future potentials. J Am Coll Nutr 1992; 11: 487-500.
298. Sung S, Yao Y, Uryu K, Yang H, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ, et al. Early vitamin E supplementation in young but not aged mice reduces Abeta levelsand amyloid deposition in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease. FASEB J 2004; 18: 323-5.
299. Bilks J, Flicker L. Selegiline for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; (1): CD000442.
300. Rottkamp CA, Nunomura A, Hirai K, Sayre LM, Perry G, Smith MA. Will antioxidants fulfill their expectations for the treatment of Alzheimer disease? Mech Ageing Dev 2000; 116: 169-179.
301. Bell C, Moosmann B. Antioxidant neuroprotection in Alzheimer's disease as preventive and therapeutic approach. Free Radic Biol Med 2002; 33: 182-191.
302. Esposito E, Rotilio D, Di Matteo V, Di Giulio C, Cacchio M, Algeri S. A review of specific dietary antioxidants and the effects on biochemical mechanisms related to neurodegenerative processes. Neurobiol Aging 2002; 23: 719-735.
303. Butterfield D, Castegna A, Pocernich C, Drake J, Scapagnini G, Calabrese V. Nutritional approaches to combat oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease. J Nutr Biochem 2002; 13: 444.
304. Choi YT, Jung CH, Lee SR, Bae JH, Baek WK, Suh MH, et al. The green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate attenuates beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons. Life Sci 2001; 70: 603-614.
305. Forster DP, Newens AJ, Kay DW, Edwardson JA. Risk factors in clinically diagnosed presenile dementia of the Alzheimer type: a case-control study in northern England. J Epidemiol Community Health 1995; 49: 253-8.
306. Rogers MA, Simon DG. A preliminary study of dietary aluminium intake and risk of Alzheimer's disease. Age Ageing 1999; 28: 205-9.
307. Orgogozo JM, Dartigues JF, Lafont S, Letenneur L, Commenges D, Salamon R, et al. Wine consumption and dementia in the elderly: a prospective community study in the Bordeaux area. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1997; 153: 185-92.
308. Chanvitayapongs S, Draczynska-Lusiak B, Sun AY. Amelioration of oxidative stress by antioxidants and resveratrol in PC12 cells. Neuroreport 1997; 8: 1499-502.
309. Virgili M, Contestabile A. Partial neuroprotection of in vivo excitotoxic brain damage by chronic administration of the red wine antioxidant agent, trans-resveratrol in rats. Neurosci Lett 2000; 281: 123-6.
310. Jang JH, Surh YJ. Protective effect of resveratrol on beta-amyloid-induced oxidative PC12 cell death. Free Radic Biol Med 2003; 34: 1100-10.
311. Commenges D, Scotet V, Renaud S, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Barberger-Gateau P, Dartigues JF. Intake of flavonoids and risk of dementia. Eur J Epidemiol 2000; 16: 357-63.
312. Ruitenberg A, van Swieten JC, Witteman JC, Mehta KM, van Duijn CM, Hofman A, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Lancet 2002; 359: 281-6.
313. Huang W, Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. Alcohol consumption and incidence of dementia in a community sample aged 75 years and older. J Clin Epidemiol 2002; 55: 959-64.
314. Deschamps V, Barberger-Gateau P, Penchant E, Orgogozo JM. Nutritional factors in cerebral aging and dementia: epidemiological arguments for a role of oxidative stress. Neuroepidemiology 2001; 20: 7-15.
315. Joseph JA, Shukitt-Hale B, Denisova NA, Bielinski D, Martin A, McEwen JJ, et al. Reversals of age-related declines in neuronal signal transduction, cognitive, and motor behavioral deficits with blueberry, spinach, or strawberry dietary supplementation. J Neurosci 1999; 19: 8114-21.
316. Galli RL, Shukitt-Hale B, Youdim KA, Joseph JA. Fruit polyphenolics and brain aging: nutritional interventions targeting age-related neuronal and behavioral deficits. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002; 959: 128-32.
317. Joseph JA, Denisova NA, Arendash G, Gordon M, Diamond D, Shukitt-Hale B, et al. Blueberry supplementation enhances signalling and prevents behavioral deficits in an Alzheimer disease model. Nutr Neurosci 2003; 6: 153-62.
318. Oyama Y, Chikahisa L, Ueha T, Kanemaru K, Noda K. Ginkgo biloba extract protects brain neurons against oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide. Brain Res 1996; 712: 349-52.
319. Yao Z, Drieu K, Papadopoulos V. The Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 rescues the PC12 neuronal cells from beta-amyloid-induced cell death by inhibiting the formation of beta-amyloid-derived diffusible neurotoxic ligands. Brain Res 2001; 889: 181-90.
320. Schindowski K, Leutner S, Kressmann S, Eckert A, Muller WE. Age-related increase of oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in mice prevention by Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb761). J Neural Transm 2001; 108: 969-78.
321. Bastianetto S, Quirion R. EGb 761 is a neuroprotective agent against beta-amyloid toxicity. Cell Mol Biol 2002; 48: 693-7.
322. Luo Y, Smith JV, Paramasivam V, Burdick A, Curry KJ, Buford JP, et al. Inhibition of amyloid-beta aggregation and caspase-3 activation by the Ginkgo biloba extract EGb761. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99: 12197-202.
323. Ernst E, Pittler MH. Ginkgo Biloba for dementia: a systematic review of double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Clinical Drug Investigation 1999; 17: 301-308.
324. Birks J, Grimley EV, Van Dongen M. Ginkgo biloba for cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; 4: CD003120.
325. Dongen M, van Rossum E, Kessels A, Sielhorst H, Knipschild P. Ginkgo for elderly people with dementia and age-associated memory impairment: a randomised clinical trial. J Clin Epidemiol 2003; 56: 367-76.
326. Andrieu S, Gillette S, Amouyal K, Nourhashemi F, Reynish E, Ousset PJ, et al. EPIDOS study. Association of Alzheimer's disease onset with ginkgo biloba and other symptomatic cognitive treatments in a population of women aged 75 years and older from the EPIDOS study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2003; 58: 372-7.
327. Zhao BL, Li XJ, He RG, Cheng SJ, Xin WJ. Scavenging effect of extracts of green tea and natural antioxidants on active oxygen radicals. Cell Biophys 1989; 14: 175-85.
328. Sreejayan, Rao MN. Nitric oxide scavenging by curcuminoids. J Pharm Pharmacol 1997; 49: 105-7.
329. Lim GP, Chu T, Yang F, Beech W, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. J Neurosci 2001; 21: 8370-7.
330. Ganguli M, Chandra V, Kamboh Ml, Johnston JM, Dodge HH, Thelma BK, et al. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and Alzheimer disease: The Indo-US Cross-National Dementia Study. Arch Neurol 2000; 57: 824-30.
331. Chandra V, Pandav R, Dodge HH, Johnston JM, Belle SH, DeKosky ST, et al. Incidence of Alzheimer's disease in a rural community in India: the Indo-US study. Neurology 2001; 57: 985-9.
332. Hirai K, Hayako H, Kato K, Miyamoto M. Idebenone protects hippocampal neurons against amyloid beta-peptide-induced neurotoxicity in rat primary cultures. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 1998; 358: 582-5.
333. Weyer G, Babej-Dolle RM, Hadler D, Hofmann S, Herrmann WM. A controlled study of 2 doses of idebenone in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychobiology 1997; 36: 73-82.
334. Gutzmann H, Hadler D. Sustained efficacy and safety of idebenone in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: update on a 2-year double-blind multicentre study. J Neural Transm Suppl 1998; 54: 301-10.
335. Gutzmann H, Kuhl KP, Hadler D, Rapp MA. Safety and efficacy of idebenone versus tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease: results of a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group multicenter study. Pharmacopsychiatry 2002; 35: 12-8.
336. Thal LJ, Grundman M, Berg J, Ernstrom K, Margolin R, Pfeiffer E, et al. Idebenone treatment fails to slow cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 2003; 61: 1498-502.
337. Gandy S. Estrogen and neurodegeneration. Neurochem Res 2003; 28: 1003-8.
338. Moosmann B, Behl C. The antioxidant neuroprotective effects of estrogens and phenolic compounds are independent from their estrogenic properties. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 8867-72.
339. Haskell SG, Richardson ED, Horwitz RI. The effect of estrogen replacement therapy on cognitive function in women: a critical review of the literature. J Clin Epidemiol 1997; 50: 1249-64.
340. LeBlanc ES, Janowsky J, Chan BK, Nelson HD. Hormone replacement therapy and cognition: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2001; 285: 1489-99.
341. Hogervorst E, Yaffe K, Richards M, Huppert F. Hormone replacement therapy for cognitive function in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; (3): CD003122.
342. Rapp SR, Espeland MA, Shumaker SA, Henderson VW, Brunner RL, Manson JE, et al. Effect of estrogen plus progestin on global cognitive function in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: a randomised controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 289: 2663-72.
343. Skene DJ, Swaab DF. Melatonin rhythmicity: effect of age and Alzheimer's disease. Exp Gerontol 2003; 38: 199-206.
344. Liu RY, Zhou JN, van Heerikhuize J, Hofman MA, Swaab DF. Decreased melatonin levels in postmortem cerebrospinal fluid in relation to aging, Alzheimer's disease, and apolipoprotein E-epsilon4/4 genotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 323-7.
345. Mishima K, Tozawa T, Satoh K, Matsumoto Y, Hishikawa Y, Okawa M. Melatonin secretion rhythm disorders in patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer's type with disturbed sleep-waking. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 45: 417-21.
346. Brusco LI, Marquez M, Cardinali DP. Melatonin treatment stabilizes chronobiologic and cognitive symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroendocrinol Lett 2000; 21: 39-42.
347. Cardinali DP, Brusco LI, Liberezuk C, Furio AM. The use of melatonin in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroendocrinol Lett 2002; 23 Suppl 1: 20-3.
348. Pappolla MA, Sos M, Omar RA, Bick RJ, Hickson-Bick DL, Reiter RJ, et al. Melatonin prevents death of neuroblastoma cells exposed to the Alzheimer amyloid peptide. J Neurosci 1997; 17: 1683-90.
349. Shen YX, Xu SY, Wei W, Wang XL, Wang H, Sun X. Melatonin blocks rat hippocampal neuronal apoptosis induced by amyloid beta-peptide 25-35. J Pineal Res 2002; 32: 163-7.
350. Shen YX, Xu SY, Wei W, Sun XX, Liu LH, Yang J, et al. The protective effects of melatonin from oxidative damage induced by amyloid beta-peptide 25-35 in middle-aged rats. J Pineal Res 2002; 32: 85-9.
351. Matsubara E, Bryant-Thomas T, Pacheco Quinto J, Henry TL, Poeggeler B, Herbert D, et al. Melatonin increases survival and inhibits oxidative and amyloid pathology in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease.J Neurochem 2003; 85: 1101-1108.
352. Poeggeler B, Miravalle L, Zagorski MG, Wisniewski T, Chyan YJ, Zhang Y, et al. Melatonin reverses the profibrillogenic activity of apolipoprotein E4 on the Alzheimer amyloid Abeta peptide. Biochemistry 2001; 40: 14995-5001.
353. Pappolla M, Bozner P, Soto C, Shao H, Robakis NK, Zagorski M, et al. Inhibition of Alzheimer beta-fibrillogenesis by melatonin. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 7185-8.
354. Pappolla MA, Simovich MJ, Bryant-Thomas T, Chyan YJ, Poeggeler B, Dubocovich M, et al. The neuroprotective activities of melatonin against the Alzheimer beta-protein are not mediated by melatonin membrane receptors. J Pineal Res 2002; 32: 135-42.
355. Parmar P, Limson J, Nyokong T, Daya S. Melatonin protects against copper-mediated free radical damage. J Pineal Res 2002; 32: 237-42.
356. Esparza JL, Gomez M, Romeu M, Mulero M, Sanchez DJ, Mallol J, et al. Aluminum-induced pro-oxidant effects in rats: protective role of exogenous melatonin. J Pineal Res 2003; 35: 32-9.
357. Bush AI. Metal complexing agents as therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2002; 23: 1031-8.
358. Cherny RA, Atwood CS, Xilinas ME, Gray DN, Jones WD, McLean CA, et al. Treatment with a copper-zinc chelator markedly and rapidly inhibits beta-amyloid accumulation in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice. Neuron 2001; 30: 665-76.
359. Regland B, Lehmann W, Abedini I, Blennow K, Jonsson M, Karlsson I, et al. CG Treatment of Alzheimer's disease with clioquinol. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2001; 12: 408-14.
360. Savory J, Huang Y, Wills MR, Herman MM. Reversal by desferrioxamine of tau protein aggregates following two days of treatment in aluminum-induced neurofibrillary degeneration in rabbit: implications for clinical trials in Alzheimer's disease. Neurotoxicology 1998; 19: 209-14.
361. Crapper McLachlan DR, Dalton AJ, Kruck TP, Bell MY, Smith WL, et al. Intramuscular desferrioxamine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1991; 337: 1304-8.
362. Shin RW, Kruck TP, Murayama H, Kitamoto T. A novel trivalent cation chelator Feralex dissociates binding of aluminum and iron associated with hyperphosphorylated tau of Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 2003; 961: 139-46.
363. Shoda H, Miyata S, Liu BF, Yamada H, Ohara T, Suzuki K, et al. Inhibitory effects of tenilsetam on the Maillard reaction. Endocrinology 1997; 138: 1886-92.
364. Dukic-Stefanovic S, Schinzel R, Riederer P, Munch G. AGES in brain ageing: AGE-inhibitors as neuroprotective and anti-dementia drugs? Biogerontology 2001; 2: 19-34.
365. Floyd RA, Hensley K, Forster MJ, Kelleher-Andersson JA, Wood PL. Nitrones, their value as therapeutics and probes to understand aging. Mech Ageing Dev 2002; 123: 1021-31.
366. Asanuma M, Miyazaki I, Ogawa N. Neuroprotective effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on neurodegenerative diseases. Curr Pharm Design 2004: 10(6): 695-700.
367. Carreiras MC, Marco JL. Recent approaches to novel anti-Alzheimer therapy. Curr Pharm Design 2004; 10(25): 3167-75.
368. Dogrukol-Ak D, Tore F, Tuncel N. Passage of VIP/PACAP/ secretin family across the blood-brain barrier: therapeutic effects. Curr Pharm Design 2004; 10(12): 1325-40.