Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding

Journal of Applied Phycology

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 949-982

  Wells, Mark L ^a   Potin, Philippe ^b   Craigie, James S ^c   Raven, John A ^d,e   Merchant, Sabeeha S ^f   Helliwell, Katherine E ^g,h   Smith, Alison G ^g   Camire, Mary Ellen ^a   Brawley, Susan H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MAINE   (United States)

^b STATION BIOLOGIQUE DE ROSCOFF   (France)

^c NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL CANADA   (Canada)

^d SCOTTISH CROP RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY   (Australia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^h THE LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Algal foods; Antioxidants; Arsenosugars; Experimental design; Microalgal supplements; Nutritional minerals; Omega 3 fatty acids; Polysaccharides; Sea vegetables; Vitamins

Indexed keywords

EID: 84996590268     PISSN: 09218971     EISSN: 15735176     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10811-016-0974-5     Document Type: Review

References (451)

1. Aaronson S (1986) A role for algae as human food in antiquity. Food Foodways 1:311–315
2. Aarstad OA, Tondervik A, Sletta H, Skjak-Braek G (2012) Alginate sequencing: an analysis of block distribution in alginates using specific alginate degrading enzymes. Biomacromolecules 13:106–116
3. Abdul QA, Choi RJ, Jung HA, Choi JS (2016) Health benefit of fucosterol from marine algae: a review. J Sci Food Agric 96:1856–1866
4. Admassu H, Zhao W, Yang R, Gasmalla M, Alsir E (2015) Development of functional foods: seaweeds (algae) untouched potential and alternative resource—a review. Int J Sci Technol Res 4:108–115
5. Albanes D et al (1995) Effects of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on cancer incidence in the alpha-tocopherol beta-carotene cancer prevention study. Am J Clin Nutr 62:S1427–S1430
6. 12 and folate deficiency. Food Nutr Bull 29:S20–S34
7. Al-Masri MS, Mamish S, Budier Y (2003) Radionuclides and trace metals in eastern Mediterranean sea algae. J Environ Radioact 67:157–168
8. Almela C, Clemente MJ, Velez D, Montoro R (2006) Total arsenic, inorganic arsenic, lead and cadmium contents in edible seaweed sold in Spain. Food Chem Toxicol 44:1901–1908
9. Alves A, Sousa RA, Reis RL (2013) A practical perspective on ulvan extracted from green algae. J Appl Phycol 25:407–424
10. Anastyuk SD, Shevchenko NM, Ermakova SP, Vischuk OS, Nazarenko EL, Dmitrenok PS, Zvyagintseva TN (2012) Anticancer activity in vitro of a fucoidan from the brown alga Fucus evanescens and its low-molecular fragments, structurally characterized by tandem mass-spectrometry. Carbohydr Polym 87:186–194
11. Angell AR, Mata L, de Nys R, Paul NA (2016) The protein content of seaweeds: a universal nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of five. J Appl Phycol 28:511–524
12. Aquino RS, Landeira-Fernandez AM, Valente AP, Andrade LR, Mourão PAS (2005) Occurrence of sulfated galactans in marine angiosperms: evolutionary implications. Glycobiology 15:11–20
13. Arterburn LM, Oken HA, Hoffman JP, Bailey-Hall E, Chung G, Rom D, Hamersley J, McCarthy D (2007) Bioequivalence of docosahexaenoic acid from different algal oils in capsules and in a DHA-fortified food. Lipids 42:1011–1024
14. Arterburn LM, Oken HA, Hall EB, Hamersley J, Kuratko CN, Hoffman JP (2008) Algal-oil capsules and cooked salmon: nutritionally equivalent sources of docosahexaenoic acid. J Am Diet Assoc 108:1204–1209
15. Arul AB, Al Numair K, Al Saif M, Savarimuthu I (2012) Effect of dietary beta-sitosterol on fecal bacterial and colonic biotransformation enzymes in 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis. Turk J Med Sci 42:1307–1313
16. Baba M, Snoeck R, Pauwels R, deClerq E (1988) Sulfated polysaccharides are potent and selective inhibitors of various enveloped viruses, including herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, vesicular stomatitis virus and human immunodeficiency virus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 32:1742–1745
17. Bäckhed F, Ley RE, Sonnenburg JL, Peterson DA, Gordon JI (2005) Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine. Science 307:1915–1920
18. Bagchi D (2006) Nutraceuticals and functional foods regulations in the United States and around the world. Toxicology 221:1–3
19. Barahona T, Encinas MV, Mansilla A, Matsuhiro B, Zuniga EA (2012) A sulfated galactan with antioxidant capacity from the green variant of tetrasporic Gigartina skottsbergii (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). Carbohydr Res 347:114–120
20. Barclay W, Weaver C, Metz J, Hansen J (2010) Development of docosahexaenoic acid production technology using Schizochytrium. In: Cohen Z, Ratledg C (eds) Single cell oils. AOCS Press, Urbana, pp 75–96
21. Barclay W, Apt K, Dong X (2013) Commercial production of microalgae via fermentation. In: Richmond A, Hu Q (eds) Handbook of microalgal culture: applied phycology and biotechnology. Blackwell, Chichester, pp 134–145
22. Barlow S, Pascal G, Cressey P, Folmer D, Smith J (2015) Carrageenan (addendum). In: Safety evaluation of certain food additives, WHO food additives series, vol 70. World Health Organization, Geneva
23. Belay A (1997) Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors—The Earthrise Farms experience. In: Vonshak A (ed) Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): physiology, cell-biology and biotechnology. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London, pp 131–158
24. Belay A (2008) Spirulina (Arthrospira): production and quality assurance. In: Gershwin ME, Belay A (eds) Spirulina in human nutrition and health. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1–25
25. Ben-Amotz A, Levy Y (1996) Bioavailability of a natural isomer mixture compared with synthetic all-trans beta-carotene in human serum. Am J Clin Nutr 63:729–734
26. Ben-Amotz A, Yatziv S, Sela M, Greenberg S, Rachmilevich B, Shwarzman M, Weshler Z (1998) Effect of natural beta-carotene supplementation in children exposed to radiation from the Chernobyl accident. Radiat Environ Biophys 37:187–193
27. Benjama O, Masniyom P (2012) Biochemical composition and physicochemical properties of two red seaweeds (Gracilaria fisheri and G. tenuistipitata) from the Pattani Bay in southern Thailand. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol 34:223–230
28. Benkdad A, Laissaoui A, Tornero MV, Benmansour M, Chakir E, Garrido IM, Moreno JB (2011) Trace metals and radionuclides in macroalgae from Moroccan coastal waters. Environ Monit Assess 182:317–324
29. Bernstein AM, Ding EL, Willett WC, Rimm EB (2012) A meta-analysis shows that docosahexanaenoic acid from algal oil reduces serum triglycerides and increases HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in persons without coronary heart disease. J Nutr 142:99–104
30. Berteau O, Mulloy B (2003) Sulfated fucans, fresh perspectives: structures, functions, and biological properties of sulfated fucans and an overview of enzymes active toward this class of polysaccharide. Glycobiology 13:29R–40R
31. Bhattacharjee H, Mukhopadhyay R, Thiyagarajan S, Rosen BP (2008) Aquaglyceroporins: ancient channels for metalloids. J Biol 7:33.31–33.36
32. Bhattacharyya S, Liu H, Zhang Z, Jam M, Dudeja PK, Michel G, Linhardt RJ, Tobacman JK (2010) Carrageenan-induced innate immune response is modified by enzymes that hydrolyze distinct galactosidic bonds. J Nutr Biochem 21:906–913
33. Bhattacharyya S, O-Sullivan I, Katyal S, Unterman T, Tobacman JK (2012) Exposure to the common food additive carrageenan leads to glucose intolerance, insulin resistance and inhibition of insulin signaling in HepG2 cells and C57BL/6J mice. Diabetologia 55:194–203
34. Black WAP (1950) The seasonal variation in weight and chemical composition of the common British Laminariaceae. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 29:45–72
35. Blouin N, Calder BL, Perkins B, Brawley SH (2006) Sensory and fatty acid analyses of two Atlantic species of Porphyra (Rhodophyta). J Appl Phycol 18:79–85
36. Bobin-Dubigeon C, Lahaye M, Barry J-L (1997) Human colonic bacterial degradability of dietary fibres from sea-lettuce (Ulva sp). J Sci Food Agric 73:149–159
37. Bocanegra A, Bastida S, Benedí J, Ródenas S, Sánchez-Muniz FJ (2009) Characteristics and nutritional and cardiovascular-health properties of seaweeds. J Med Food 12:236–258
38. Boehlke C, Zierau O, Hannig C (2015) Salivary amylase—the enzyme of unspecialized euryphagous animals. Arch Oral Biol 60:1162–1176
39. Bohn JA, BeMiller JN (1995) (1→3)-β-D-Glucans as biological response modifiers: a review of structure-functional activity relationships. Carbohydr Polym 28:3–14
40. Bohn T, McDougall GJ, Alegría A, Alminger M, Arrigoni E, Aura A-M, Brito C, Cilla A, El SN, Karakaya S, Martínez-Cuesta MC, Santos CN (2015) Mind the gap—deficits in our knowledge of aspects impacting the bioavailability of phytochemicals and their metabolites—a position paper focusing on carotenoids and polyphenols. Mol Nutr Food Res 59:1323
41. Borowitzka MA (2013a) High-value products from microalgae—their development and commercialisation. J Appl Phycol 25:743–756
42. Borowitzka M (2013b) Dunaliella: biology, production, and markets. In: Richmond A, Hu Q (eds) Handbook of microalgal culture. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, pp 359–368
43. Bourgougnon N (2003) Anti-HIV compounds from red seaweeds. Biomaterials and bioprocessing, Vol. 9. Recent advances in marine biotechnology. Science Publishers, Enfield, pp 165–206
44. Bourgougnon N, Stiger-Pouvreau V (2011) Chemodiversity and bioactivity within red and brown macroalgae along the French coasts, metropol and overseas departments and territories. In: Kim S-E (ed) Handbook of marine macroalgae: biotechnology and applied phycology. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp 58–105
45. Boyer EW, Kearney S, Shannon MW, Quang L, Woolf A, Kemper K (2002) Poisoning from a dietary supplement administered during hospitalization. Pediatrics 109:e49
46. Branger B, Cadudal JL, Delobel M, Ouoba H, Yameogo P, Ouedraogo D, Guerin D, Valea A, Les Personnels des C, Zombre C, Ancel P (2003) Spiruline as a food supplement in case of infant malnutrition in Burkina-Faso (La spiruline comme complement alimentaire dans la malnutrition du nourrisson au Burkina-Faso.). Arch Pediatr 10:424–431
47. Braud J (2006) Continuous seaweed tank culture in France: from Chondrus crispus to co-culture of macroalge and the diatom Odontella aurita. In: Critchley A, Ohno M, Largo D (eds) Seaweed resources of the world. Int. Cooperation Agency, Japan
48. Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander PH (2004) Carotenoids: handbook. Birkhauser Verlag AG, Switzerland
49. Brown MR (1995) Effects of storage and processing on the ascorbic-acid content of concentrates prepared from Chaetoceros calcitrans. J Appl Phycol 7:495–500
50. Brown MT, Hodgkinson WM, Hurd CL (1998) Spatial and temporal variations in the copper and zinc concentrations of two green seaweeds from Otago Harbour, New Zealand. Mar Environ Res 47:1–10
51. Brownlee IA, Allen A, Pearson JP, Dettmar PW, Havler ME, Atherton MR, Onsoyen E (2005) Alginate as a source of dietary fiber. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 45:497–510
52. Butler MR (1936) Seasonal variations in Chondrus crispus. Biochem J 30:1338–1344
53. Cabrita ARJ, Maia MRG, Oliveira HM, Sousa-Pinto I, Almeida AA, Pinto E, Fonseca AJM (2016) Tracing seaweeds as mineral sources for farm-animals. J Appl Phycol 28:3135–3150
54. Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2012) Inorganic arsenic and hijiki seaweed consumption. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/information-for-consumers/fact-sheets-and-infographics/specific-products-andrisks/chemical-hazards/inorganic-arsenic/eng/1332268146718/1332268231124. (accessed 11/10/16)
55. Cantarel BL, Lombard V, Henrissat B (2012) Complex carbohydrate utilization by the healthy human microbiome. PLoS One 7:e28742
56. Carbonell-Capella JM, Buniowska M, Barba FJ, Esteve MJ, Frigola A (2014) Analytical methods for determining bioavailability and bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds from fruits and vegetables: a review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 13:155–171
57. Carlin DJ, Naujokas MF, Bradham KD, Cowden J, Heacock M, Henry HF, Lee JS, Thomas DJ, Thompson C, Tokar EJ, Waalkes MP, Birnbaum LS, Suk WA (2016) Arsenic and environmental health: state of the science and future research opportunities. Environ Health Perspect 124:890–899
58. Cases J, Vacchina V, Napolitano A, Caporiccio B, Besançon P, Lobinski P, Rouanet J-M (2001) Selenium from selenium-rich Spirulina is less bioavailable than selenium from sodium selenite and selenomethionine in selenium-deficient rats. J Nutr 131:2343–2350
59. Chacón-Lee TL, González-Mariño GE (2010) Microalgae for “healthy” foods—possibilities and challenges. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Safety 9:655–675
60. Chan JCC, Cheung PCK, Ang PO (1997) Comparative studies on the effect of three drying methods on the nutritional composition of seaweed Sargassum hemiphyllum (Turn) C Ag. J Agric Food Chem 45:3056–3059
61. Cheney D (2016) Toxic and harmful seaweeds. In: Fleurence J, Levine I (eds) Seaweeds in health and disease. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 407–421
62. Cheng F-C, Lin A, Feng J-J, Mizoguchi T, Takekoshi H, Kubota H, Kato Y, Naoki Y (2004) Effects of Chlorella on activities of protein tyrosine phosphatases, matrix metalloproteinases, caspases, cytokine release, B and T cell proliferations, and phorbol ester receptor binding. J Med Food 7:146–152
63. Choi BS, Choi SJ, Kim DW, Huang M, Kim NY, Park KS, Kim CY, Lee HM, Yum YN, Han ES, Kang TS, Yu IJ, Park JD (2010) Effects of repeated seafood consumption on urinary excretion of arsenic species by volunteers. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 58:222–229
64. Chrismadha T, Borowitzka MA (1994) Effect of cell-density and irradiance on growth, proximate composition and eicosapentaenoic acid production of Phaeodactylum tricornutum grown in a tubular photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 6:67–74
65. Cian RE, Drago SR, de Medina FS, Martinez-Augustin O (2015) Proteins and carbohydrates from red seaweeds: evidence for beneficial effects on gut function and microbiota. Mar Drugs 13:5358–5383
66. Ciferri O (1983) Spirulina, the edible microorganism. Microbiol Rev 47:551–578
67. Cofrades S, López-López I, Solas MT, Bravo L, Jiménez-Colmenero F (2008) Influence of different types and proportions of added edible seaweeds on characteristics of low-salt gel/emulsion meat systems. Meat Sci 79:767–776
68. Conquer JA, Holub BJ (1996) Supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid increases (n-3) fatty acid status and alters selected risk factors for heart disease in vegetarian subjects. J Nutr 126:3032–3039
69. Consumer-Reports (2012) Arsenic in your juice. Consumer reports magazine, January. ConsumerReports.org
70. Cooney RV, Mumma RO, Benson AA (1978) Arsonium phospholipid in algae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 75:4262–4264
71. Cornish ML, Garbary DJ (2010) Antioxidants from macroalgae: potential applications to human health and nutrition. Algae 25:155–171
72. Cornish ML, Critchley AT, Mouritsen OG (2015) A role for dietary macroalgae in the amelioration of certain risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease. Phycologia 54:649–666
73. Corona G, Ji Y, Anegboonlap P, Hotchkiss S, Gill C, Yaqoob P, Spencer JPE, Rowland I (2016) Gastrointestinal modifications and bioavailability of brown seaweed phlorotannins and effects on inflammatory markers. Brit J Nutr 115:1240–1253
74. Costa S, Crespo D, Henriques BMG, Pereira E, Duarte AC, Pardal AC (2011) Kinetics of mercury accumulation and its effects on Ulva lactuca growth rate at two salinities and exposure conditions. Water Air Soil Pollut 217:689–699
75. Costello EK, Stagaman K, Dethlefsen L, Bohannan BJM, Relman DA (2012) The application of ecological theory toward an understanding of the human microbiome. Science 336:1255–1261
76. Cottin SC, Sanders TA, Hall WL (2011) The differential effects of EPA and DHA on cardiovascular risk factors. Proc Nutr Soc 70:215–231
77. Courtois J (2009) Oligosaccharides from plants and algae: production and applications in therapeutics and biotechnology. Opin Microbiol 12:261–273
78. Craigie JS (2010) Seaweed extract stimuli in plant science and agriculture. J Appl Phycol 23:371–393
79. Croci DO, Cumashi A, Ushakova NA, Preobrazhenskaya ME, Piccoli A, Totani L, Ustyuzhanina NE, Bilan MI, Usov AI, Grachev AA, Morozevich GE, Berman AE, Sanderson CJ, Kelly M, Gregorio PD, Rossi C, Tinari N, Iacobelli S, Rabinovich GA, Nifantiev NE (2011) Fucans, but not fucomannanoglucuronans, determine the biological activities of sulfated polysaccharides from Laminaria saccharina brown seaweed. PLoS One 6:e17283
80. 12 through a symbiotic relationship with bacteria. Nature 438:90–93
81. Croft MT, Warren MJ, Smith AG (2006) Algae need their vitamins. Eukaryot Cell 5:1175–1183
82. Cumashi A, Ushakova NA, Preobrazhenskaya ME, D’Incecco A, Piccoli A, Totani L, Tinari N, Morozevich GE, Berman AE, Bilan MI, Usov AI, Ustyuzhanina NE, Grachev AA, Sanderson CJ, Kelly M, Rabinovich GA, Iacobelli S, Nifantiev NE (2007) A comparative study of the anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antiangiogenic, and antiadhesive activities of nine different fucoidans from brown seaweeds. Glycobiology 17:541–552
83. Cysewski G, Lorenz R (2004) Industrial production of microalgal cell-mass and secondary products-species of high potential: Haematococcus. In: Richmond A (ed) Microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 281–288
84. Dagnelie PC, Vanstaveren WA, Vandenberg H (1991) Vitamin B-12 from algae appears not to be bioavailable. Am J Clin Nutr 53:695–697
85. Dawczynski C, Schaefer U, Leiterer M, Jahreis G (2007) Nutritional and toxicological importance of macro, trace, and ultra-trace elements in algae food products. J Agric Food Chem 55:10470–10475
86. de Gaillande C, Payri C, Remoissenet G, Zubia M (2016) Caulerpa consumption, nutritional value and farming in the Indo-Pacific region. J Appl Phycol. doi:10.1007/s10811-016-0912-6:1-18
87. de Jesus Raposo FM, Bernado de Morais AM, Santos Costa de Morais RM (2015) Marine polysaccharides from algae with potential biomedical applications. Mar Drugs 13:2967–3028
88. de la Calle MB, Baer I, Robouch P, Cordeiro F, Emteborg H, Baxter MJ, Brereton N, Raber G, Velez D, Devesa V, Rubio R, Llorente-Mirandes T, Raab A, Feldmann J, Sloth JJ, Rasmussen RR, D’Amato M, Cubadda F (2012) Is it possible to agree on a value for inorganic arsenic in food? The outcome of IMEP-112. Anal Bioanal Chem 404:2475–2488
89. De Marco ER, Steffolani ME, Martinez CS, Leon AE (2014) Effects of spirulina biomass on the technological and nutritional quality of bread wheat pasta. LWT-Food Sci Technol 58:102–108
90. de Oliveira MN, Freitas ALP, Carvalho AFU, Sarnpaio TMT, Farias DF, Teixeira DIA, Gouveia ST, Pereira JG, de Sena M (2009) Nutritive and non-nutritive attributes of washed-up seaweeds from the coast of Ceara, Brazil. Food Chem 115:254–259
91. Delgado-Noguera MF, Calvache JA, Cosp XB, Kotanidou EP, Galli-Tsinopoulou A (2015) Supplementation with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) to breastfeeding mothers for improving child growth and development. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007901.pub3:72
92. Devesa V, Velez D, Montoro R (2008) Effect of thermal treatments on arsenic species contents in food. Food Chem Toxicol 46:1–8
93. Dhargalkar V (2015) Uses of seaweeds in the Indian diet for sustenance and well-being. Sci Cult 80:192–202
94. Dharmananda (2002) The nutritional and medicinal value of seaweeds used in Chinese medicine (2002) Institute for Traditional Medicine. http://www.imtonline.org/. Accessed 14 Oct 2016
95. Diaz O, Tapia Y, Munoz O, Montoro R, Velez D, Almela C (2012) Total and inorganic arsenic concentrations in different species of economically important algae harvested from coastal zones of Chile. Food Chem Toxicol 50:744–749
96. Dillehay TD, Ramirez C, Pino M, Collins MB, Rossen J, Pinot-Navarro JD (2008) Monte Verde: seaweed, food, medicine and the peopling of South America. Science 320:784–789
97. Druehl LD (1988) Cultivated edible kelp. In: Lembi CA, Waaland JR (eds) Algae and human affairs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 119–134
98. Druesne-Pecollo N, Latino-Martel P, Norat T, Barrandon E, Bertrais S, Galan P, Hercberg S (2010) Beta-carotene supplementation and cancer risk: a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Cancer 127:172–184
99. Duffy LC, Raiten DJ, Hubbard VS, Starke-Reed P (2015) Progress and challenges in developing metabolic footprints from diet in human gut microbial cometabolism. J Nutr 145:1123S–1130S
100. Durand M, Beaumatin P, Bulman B, Bernalier A, Grivet JP, Serezat M, Gramet G, Lahaye M (1997) Fermentation of green alga sea-lettuce (Ulva sp.) and metabolism of its sulphate by human colonic microbiota in a semi-continuous culture system. Reprod Nutr Dev 37:267–283
101. Eccles R, Meier C, Jawad M, Weinmüllner R, Grassauer A, Prieschl-Grassauer E (2010) Efficacy and safety of an antiviral iotacarrageenan nasal spray: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled exploratory study in volunteers with early symptoms of the common cold. Respir Res 11:108. doi:10.1186/1465-9921-11-108
102. EFSA (2010) Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre. Eur Food Safety Auth J 8:1–77
103. Eyster KM (2007) The membrane and lipids as integral participants in signal transduction: lipid signal transduction for the non-lipid biochemist. Adv Physiol Educ 31:5–16
104. Fabregas J, Herrero C (1990) Vitamin content of 4 marine microalgae—potential use as a source of vitamins in nutrition. J Indust Microbiol 5:259–264
105. Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Brown HA, Glass CK, Merrill AH, Murphy RC, Raetz CRH, Russell DW, Seyama Y, Shaw W, Shimizu T, Spener F, van Meer G, VanNieuwenhze MS, White SH, Witztum JL, Dennis EA (2005) A comprehensive classification system for lipids. J Lipid Res 46:839–861
106. FAO (2014) The state of the world fisheries and aquaculture 2014. FAO, Rome, p 223
107. FAO (2015) FAO Global Aquaculture Production database updated to 2013—Summary information. FAO, Rome
108. FAO (2016) The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016. Contribution to Food Security and Nutrition for All. Rome. 200 pp
109. FDA (2016) Summary: Substances Generally Regarded As Safe (Final Rule). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (HHS). http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/ReportsManualsForms/Reports/EconomicAnalyses/ucm517103.htm. Accessed 24 Oct 2016
110. Fernando WMADB, Ranaweera KKDS, Bamunuarachchi A, Brennan CS (2008) The influence of rice fibre fractions on the in vitro fermentation production of short chain fatty acids using human faecal micro flora. Int J Food Sci Technol 43:2237–2244
111. Ferraces-Casais P, Lage-Yusty MA, de Quiros ARB, Lopez-Hernandez J (2012) Evaluation of bioactive compounds in fresh edible seaweeds. Food Anal Methods 5:828–834
112. Finley JW, Finley JW, Ellwood K, Hoadley J (2014) Launching a new food product or dietary supplement in the United States: industrial, regulatory, and nutritional considerations. Annu Rev Nutr 34:421–447
113. Fitton JH (2011) Therapies from fucoidan; multifunctional marine polymers. Mar Drugs 9:1731–1760
114. Fitton J, Dell’Acqua G, Gardiner V-A, Karpiniec S, Stringer D, Davis E (2015) Topical benefits of two fucoidan-rich extracts from marine macroalgae. Cosmetics 2:66–81
115. Fleurence J (1999a) The enzymatic degradation of algal cell walls: a useful approach for improving protein accessibility? J Appl Phycol 11:313–314
116. Fleurence J (1999b) Seaweed proteins: biochemical, nutritional aspects and potential uses. Trends Food Sci Technol 10:25–28
117. Fleurence J, Levine I (eds) (2016) Seaweed in health and disease prevention. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 476
118. Foster P (1976) Concentrations and concentration factors of heavy metals in brown algae. Environ Pollut 10:45–54
119. Fournier E, Adam C, Massabuau J-C, Garnier-Laplace J (2005) Selenium bioaccumulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and subsequent transfer to Corbicula fluminea: role of selenium speciation and bivalve ventilation. Environ Toxicol Chem 25:2692–2699
120. Francesconi KA (2010) Arsenic species in seafood: origin and human health implications. Pure Appl Chem 82:373–381
121. Francois L, Fortin C, Campbell PGC (2007) pH modulates transport rates of manganese and cadmium in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii through non-competitive interactions: implications for an algal BLM. Aquat Toxicol 84:123–132
122. Fujiwara-Arasaki T, Mino N, Kuroda M (1984) The protein value in human nutrition of edible marine algae in Japan. Hydrobiologia 116/117:513–516
123. Gadd GM (2009) Biosorption: critical review of scientific rationale, environmental importance and significance for pollution treatment. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 84:13–28
124. Galland-Irmouli A-V, Fleurence J, Lamghari R, Lucon M, Rouxel C, Barbaroux O, Bronowicki J-P, Villaume C, Gueant J-L (1999) Nutritional value of proteins from edible seaweed Palmaria palmata (Dulse). J Nutr Biochem 10:353–359
125. Ganesan P et al (2011) Siphonaxanthin, a marine carotenoid from green algae, effectively induces apoptosis in human leukemia (HL-60) cells. Biochim Biophys Acta - Gen Subj 1810:497–503
126. Gantar M, Svircev Z (2008) Microalgae and cyanobacteria: food for thought. J Phycol 44:260–268
127. Garcia-Casal MN, Pereira AC, Leets I, Ramirez J, Quiroga ME (2007) High iron content and bioavailability in humans from four species of marine algae. J Nutr 137:2691–2695
128. Garcia-Casal MN, Ramirez J, Leets I, Pereira AC, Quiroga MF (2009) Antioxidant capacity, polyphenol content and iron bioavailability from algae (Ulva sp., Sargassum sp and Porphyra sp.) in human subjects. Br J Nutr 101:79–85
129. Garcia-Salgado S, Raber G, Raml R, Magnes C, Francesconi KA (2012) Arsenosugar phospholipids and arsenic hydrocarbons in two species of brown macroalgae. Environ Chem 9:63–66
130. Garcia-Sartal C, Taebunpakul S, Stokes E, Barciela-Alonso M, Bermejo-Barrera P, Goenaga-Infante H (2012) Two-dimensional HPLC coupled to ICP-MS and electrospray ionisation (ESI)-MS/MS for investigating the bioavailability in vitro of arsenic species from edible seaweed. Anal Bioanal Chem 402:3359–3369
131. Garnham GW, Codd GA, Gadd GM (1992) Kinetics of uptake and intracellular location of cobalt, manganese and zinc in the estuarine green-alga Chlorella salina. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 37:270–276
132. Gellenbeck KW (2012) Utilization of algal materials for nutraceutical and cosmeceutical applications—what do manufacturers need to know? J Appl Phycol 24:309–313
133. Georgianna DR, Mayfield SP (2012) Exploiting diversity and synthetic biology for the production of algal biofuels. Nature 488:329–335
134. Geppert J, Kraft V, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B (2005) Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in vegetarians effectively increases omega-3 index: a randomized trial. Lipids 40:807–814
135. Gobler CJ, Berry DL, Dyhrman ST, Wilhelm SW, Salamov A, Lobanov AV, Zhang Y, Collier JL, Wurch LL, Kustka AB, Dill BD, Shah M, VerBerkmoes NC, Kuo A, Terry A, Pangilinan J, Lindquist EA, Lucas S, Paulsen IT, Hattenrath-Lehmann TK, Talmage SC, Walker EA, Koch F, Burson AM, Alejandra-Marcoval Y-ZT M, LeCleir GR, Coyne KJ, Berg GM, Bertrand EM, Saito MA, Gladyshev VN, Grigoriev IV (2011) Niche of the harmful alga Aureococcus anophagefferens revealed through ecogenomics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108:4352–4357
136. Gordon JI (2012) Honor thy gut symbionts redux. Science 336:1251–1252
137. Graeve M, Kattner G, Wiencke C, Karsten U (2002) Fatty acid composition of Arctic and Antarctic macroalgae: indicator of phylogenetic and trophic relationships. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 231:67–74
138. Griffin J (2015) An investigative study into the beneficial use of seaweed in bread and the broader food industry. Dublin Institute of Technology, School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschcafdis. Accessed 05 Sept 2016
139. Gropper SS, Smith JL (2013) Advanced human nutrition and metabolism, 6th edn. Wadsworth, Belmont
140. Gubelit YI, Makhutova ON, Sushchik NN, Kolmakova AA, Kalachova GS, Gladyshev MI (2015) Fatty acid and elemental composition of littoral “green tide” algae from the Gulf of Finland, the Baltic Sea. J Appl Phycol 27:375–386
141. Guil-Guerrero JL (2007) Stearidonic acid (18:4 n-3): metabolism, nutritional importance, medical uses and natural sources. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 109:1226–1236
142. Gupta S, Abu-Ghannam N (2011a) Bioactive potential and possible health effects of edible brown seaweeds. Trends Food Sci Technol 22:315–326
143. Gupta S, Abu-Ghannam N (2011b) Recent developments in the application of seaweeds or seaweed extracts as a means for enhancing the safety and quality of foods. Food Sci Emerg Technol 12:600–609
144. Haddad EH, Berk LS, Kettering JD, Hubbard RW, Peters WR (1999) Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr 70:586S–593S
145. Hafting JT, Critchley AT, Cornish ML, Hubley SA, Archibald AF (2012) On-land cultivation of functional seaweed products for human usage. J Appl Phycol 24:385–392
146. Hafting JT, Craigie JS, Stengel DB, Loureiro RR, Buschmann AH, Yarish C, Edwards MD, Critchley AT (2015) Prospects and challenges for industrial production of seaweed bioactives. J Phycol 51:821–837
147. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC (2007) Free radicals in biology and medicine, 4th edn. Clarendon, Oxford
148. Hammann M, Rempt M, Pohnert G, Wang G, Boo SM, Weinberger F (2016) Increased potential for wound activated production of Prostaglandin E-2 and related toxic compounds in non-native populations of Gracilaria vermiculophylla. Harmful Algae 51:81–88
149. Hansen HR, Raab A, Francesconi KA, Feldmann J (2003) Metabolism of arsenic by sheep chronically exposed to arsenosugars as a normal part of their diet. 1. Quantitative intake, uptake, and excretion. Environ Sci Technol 37:845–851
150. Hansra P, Moran EL, Fornasier VL, Bogoch ER (2000) Carrageenan-induced arthritis in the rat. Inflammation 24:141–155
151. Hardy K, Brand-Miller J, Brown KD, Thomas MG, Copeland L (2015) The importance of dietary carbohydrate in human evolution. Q Rev Biol 90:251–268
152. Harnedy PA, FitzGerald RJ (2011) Bioactive proteins, peptides, and amino acids from macroalgae. J Phycol 47:218–232
153. Harnedy PA, FitzGerald RJ (2013) Extraction of protein from the macroalga Palmaria palmata. LWT-Food Sci Technol 51:375–382
154. Hasegawa T, Kimura Y, Hiromatsu K, Kobayashi N, Yamada A, Makino M, Okuda M, Sano T, Nomoto K, Yoshikai Y (1997) Effect of hot water extract of Chlorella vulgaris on cytokine expression patterns in mice with murine acquired immunodeficiency syndrome after infection with Listeria monocytogenes. Immunopharmacology 35:273–282
155. Haug IJ, Sagmo LB, Zeiss D, Olsen IC, Draget KI, Seternes T (2011) Bioavailability of EPA and DHA delivered by gelled emulsions and soft gel capsules. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 113:137–145
156. Hehemann J-H, Correc G, Barbeyron T, Helbert W, Czjzek M, Michel G (2010) Transfer of carbohydrate-active enzymes from marine bacteria to Japanese gut microbiota. Nature 464:908
157. Hehemann JH, Kelly AG, Pudlo NA, Martens EC, Boraston AB (2012) Bacteria of the human gut microbiome catabolize red seaweed glycans with carbohydrate-active enzyme updates from extrinsic microbes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:19786–19791
158. 12 auxotrophy from sequenced algal genomes. Mol Biol Evol 28:2921–2933
159. Helliwell KE, Wheeler GL, Smith AG (2013) Widespread decay of vitamin-related pathways: coincidence or consequence? Trends Genet 29:469–478
160. 12. Curr Biol 26:999–1008
161. Hernandez-Carmona G, Carrillo-Dominguez S, Arvizu-Higuera DL, Rodriguez-Montesinos YE, Murillo-Alvarez JI, Munoz-Ochoa M, Castillo-Dominguez RM (2009) Monthly variation in the chemical composition of Eisenia arborea JE Areschoug. J Appl Phycol 21:607–616
162. Heuzé V, Tran G, Giger-Reverdin S, Lessire M, Lebas F (2016) Seaweeds (marine macroalgae). Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. http://www.feedipedia.org/node/78. Accessed 04 Sept 2016
163. Higa T, Kuniyoshi M (2000) Toxins associated with medicinal and edible seaweeds. J Toxicol Toxin Rev 19:119–137
164. Hofer M, Pospíšil M (2011) Modulation of animal and human hematopoiesis by β-glucans. Molecules 16:7969–7979
165. Holdt SL, Kraan S (2011) Bioactive compounds in seaweed: functional food applications and legislation. J Appl Phycol 23:543–597
166. Holst B, Williamson G (2008) Nutrients and phytochemicals: from bioavailability to bioefficacy beyond antioxidants. Curr Opin Biotechnol 19:73–82
167. Hollriegl V, Rohmuss M, Oeh U, Roth P (2004) Strontium biokinetics in humans: influence of alginate on the uptake of ingested strontium. Health Phys 86:193–196
168. Holub BJ (2009) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Prostagl Leukotr Essent Fatty Acids 81:199–204
169. Honya M, Mori H, Anzai M, Araki Y, Nisizawa K (1999) Monthly changes in the content of fucans, their constituent sugars and sulphate in cultured Laminaria japonica. Hydrobiologia 398/399:411–416
170. Hsu H-Y, Jeyashoke N, Yeh C-H, Song Y-J, Hua KF, Chao LK (2010) Immunostimulatory bioactivity of algal polysaccharides from Chlorella pyrenoidosa activates macrophages via toll-like receptor-4. J Agric Food Chem 58:927–936
171. Hwang H, Chen T, Nines RG, Shin HC, Stoner GD (2006) Photochemoprevention of UVB-induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice by brown algae polyphenols. Int J Cancer 119:2742–2749
172. IARC (2012) Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts Vol. 100C a review of human carcinogens. IARC, Lyon, pp 1–99
173. Ichikawa S, Kamoshida M, Hanaoka K, Hamano M, Maitani T, Kaise T (2006) Decrease of arsenic in edible brown algae Hijikia fusiforme by the cooking process. Appl Organomet Chem 20:585–590
174. Imhoff-Kunsch B, Stein AD, Villalpando S, Martorell R, Ramakrishnan U (2011) Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation from mid-pregnancy to parturition influenced breast milk fatty acid concentrations at 1 month postpartum in Mexican women. J Nutr 141:1762–1762
175. Institute-of-Medicine (2001) Iron. In: Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, pp 290–378
176. Institute-of-Medicine (2005) Dietary, functional and total fiber. In: Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrates, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, pp 339–421
177. Iwai K (2008) Antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of polyphenols in brown alga Ecklonia stolonifera in genetically diabetic kk-a(y) mice. Plant Foods Human Nutr 63:163–169
178. Jassby A (1988) Spirulina: a model for microalgae as food. In: Lembi CA, Waaland JR (eds) Algae and human affairs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 149–179
179. Jensen A (1993) Present and future needs for algae and algal products. Hydrobiologia 261:15–23
180. Jensen CL, Voigt RG, Prager TC, Zou YLL, Fraley JK, Rozelle JC, Turcich MR, Llorente AM, Anderson RE, Heird WC (2005) Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants. Am J Clin Nutr 82:125–132
181. Jensen CL, Voigt RG, Llorente AM, Peters SU, Prager TC, Zou YLL, Rozelle JC, Turcich MR, Fraley JK, Anderson RE, Heird WC (2010) Effects of early maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on neuropsychological status and visual acuity at five years of age of breast-fed term infants. J Pediatrics 157:900–905
182. Jiang HM, Chen F (2000) Effects of temperature and temperature shift on docosahexanenoic acid production by the marine microalga Crypthecodinium cohnii. JAOCS 77:613–617
183. Jiang HM, Gao KS (2004) Effects of lowering temperature during culture on the production of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bacillariophyceae). J Phycol 40:651–654
184. Jiao G, Yu G, Zhang J, Ewart HS (2011) Chemical structures and bioactivities of sulfated polysaccharides from marine algae. Mar Drugs 9:196–123
185. Jimenez-Escrig A, Jimenez-Jimenez I, Pulido R, Saura-Calixto F (2001) Antioxidant activity of fresh and processed edible seaweeds. J Sci Food Agric 81:530–534
186. Johnson RB, Kim JK, Armbruster LC, Yarish C (2014) Nitrogen allocation of Gracilaria tikvahiae grown in urbanized estuaries of Long Island Sound and New York City, USA: a preliminary evaluation of ocean farmed Gracilaria for alternative fish feeds. Algae 29:227–235
187. Jones JM (2014) CODEX-aligned dietary fiber definitions help to bridge the ‘fiber gap’. Nutr J 13:14
188. Kadam SU, Tiwari BK, O’Donnell CP (2015) Extraction, structure and biofunctional activities of laminarin from brown algae. Int J Food Sci Technol 50:24–31
189. Kaeffer B, Bénard C, Lahaye M, Blottière HM, Cherbut C (1999) Biological properties of ulvan, a new source of green seaweed sulfated polysaccharides, on cultured normal and cancerous colonic epithelial cells. Planta Med 65:527–531
190. Kawai T, Zhang ZW, Moon CS, Shimbo S, Watanabe T, Matsuda-Inoguchi N, Higashikawa K, Ikeda M (2002) Comparison of urinary bromide levels among people in East Asia, and the effects of dietary intakes of cereals and marine products. Toxicol Lett 134:285–293
191. Kawamura-Konishi Y, Watanabe N, Saito M, Nakajima N, Sakaki T, Katayama T, Enomoto T (2012) Isolation of a new phlorotannin, a potent inhibitor of carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes, from the brown alga Sargassum patens. J Agric Food Chem 60:5565–5570
192. Kay RA (1991) Microalgae as food and supplement. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 30:555–573
193. Kim S-K, Li Y-X (2011) Medicinal benefits of sulfated polysaccharides from sea vegetables. Adv Food Nutr Res 64:391–402
194. Kim S-K, Wijesekara I (2011) Anticoagulant effect of marine algae. Adv Food Nutr Res 64:235–244
195. Knauer K, Behra R, Sigg L (1997) Adsorption and uptake of copper by the green alga Scenedesmus subspicatus (Chlorophyta). J Phycol 33:596–601
196. Komiyama K, Hirokawa Y, Morota T, Umezawa T (1986) An acidic polysaccharide Chlon A, from Chlorella pyrenoidosa. 2. Anti-tumor activity and immunological responses. Chemotherapy (Tokyo) 34:302–307
197. Kralovec JA (2005) Chlorella composition having high molecular weight polysaccharides and polysaccharide complexes.
198. Kralovec JA, Power MR, Liu F, Maydanski E, Ewart HS, Watson LV, Barrow CJ, Lin TJ (2005) An aqueous Chlorella extract inhibits IL-5 production by mast cells in vitro and reduces ovalbumin-induced eosinophil infiltration in the airways of mice in vivo. Int Immunopharmacol 5:689–698
199. Kulshreshtha A, Zacharia AJ, Jarouliya U, Bhadauriya P, Prasad GBKS, Bisen PS (2008) Spirulina in health care management. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 9:400–405
200. Kulshreshtha G, Rathgeber B, Stratton G, Thomas N, Evans F, Critchley A, Hafting J, Prithiviraj B (2014) Feed supplementation with red seaweeds, Chondrus crispus and Sarcodiotheca gaudichaudii, affects performance, egg quality, and gut microbiota of layer hens. Poult Sci 93:2991–3001
201. Kumar M, Kumari P, Trivedi N, Shukla MK, Gupta V, Reddy CRK, Jha B (2011) Minerals, PUFAs and antioxidant properties of some tropical seaweeds from Saurashtra coast of India. J Appl Phycol 23:797–810
202. Kumari P, Kumar M, Gupta V, Reddy CRK, Jha B (2010) Tropical marine macroalgae as potential sources of nutritionally important PUFAs. Food Chem 120:749–757
203. Kusaykin M, Bakunina I, Sova V, Ermakova S, Kuznetsova T, Besednova N, Zaporozhets T, Zvyagintseva T (2008) Structure, biological activity, and enzymatic transformation of fucoidans from the brown seaweeds. Biotechnol J 3:904–915
204. Kwak JH, Baek SH, Woo Y, Han JK, Kim BG, Kim OY, Lee JH (2012) Beneficial immunostimulatory effect of short-term Chlorella supplementation: enhancement of natural killer cell activity and early inflammatory response (randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial). Nutr J 11:8
205. Lage-Yusty MA, Alvarado G, Ferraces-Casais P, Lopez-Hernandez J (2014) Modification of bioactive compounds in dried edible seaweeds. Int J Food Sci Technol 49:298–304
206. Lahaye M (1991) Marine algae as sources of fibres: determination of soluble and insoluble dietary fibre contents in some ‘sea vegetables’. J Sci Food Agric 54:587–594
207. Lane K, Derbyshire E, Li WL, Brennan C (2014) Bioavailability and potential uses of vegetarian sources of omega-3 fatty acids: a review of the literature. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 54:572–579
208. Larson M, Webb G, Kennington S, Kellerher N, Sheppard J, Kuo J, Enisworth-White J (2002) Mannitol in cardioplegia as an oxygen free radical scavenger measured by malondialdehyde. Perfusion 17:51–55
209. Le TM, Knulst AC, Rockmann H (2014) Anaphylaxis to Spirulina confirmed by skin prick test with ingredients of Spirulina tablets. Food Chem Toxicol 74:309–310
210. Leal MCF, Vasconcelos MT, Sousa-Pinto I, Cabral JPS (1997) Biomonitoring with benthic macroalgae and direct assay of heavy metals in seawater of the Oporto Coast (Northwest Portugal). Mar Pollut Bull 34:1006–1015
211. Ledford HK, Niyogi KK (2005) Singlet oxygen and photo-oxidation stress management in plants and algae. Plant Cell Environ 28:1037–1045
212. Ledford HK, Chin BL, Niyogi KK (2007) Acclimation to singlet oxygen stress in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Eukaryot Cell 6:919–930
213. Lee HJ, Kim HC, Vitek L, Nam CM (2010) Algae consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: Korean national health and nutrition examination survey in 2005. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol 56:13–18
214. Legezynska J, Kedra M, Walkusz W (2014) Identifying trophic relationships within the high Arctic benthic community: how much can fatty acids tell? Mar Biol 161:821–836
215. Lehtovaara BC, Gu FX (2011) Pharmacological, structural, and drug delivery properties and applications of 1,3-β-glucans. J Agric Food Chem 59:6813–6682
216. Leiro JM, Castro R, Arranz JA, Lamas J (2007) Immunomodulating activities of acidic sulphated polysaccharides obtained from the seaweed Ulva rigida C. Agardh. Int Immunopharmacol 7:879–888
217. Levendosky K, Mizenina O, Martinelli E, Jean-Pierre N, Kizima L, Rodriguez A, Kleinbeck K, Bonnaire T, Robbiani M, Zydowsky TM, O’Keefe BR, Fernández-Romero JA (2015) Griffithsin and carrageenan combination to target herpes simplex virus 2 and human papillomavirus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59:7290–7298
218. Li B, Lu F, Wei X, Zhao R (2008) Fucoidan: structure and bioactivity. Molecules 13:1671–1695
219. Li J, Pawitwar SS, Rosen BP (2016) The organoarsenical biocycle and the primordial antibiotic methylarsenite. Metallomics 8:1047–1055
220. Li MHH, Robinson EH, Tucker CS, Manning BB, Khoo L (2009) Effects of dried algae Schizochytrium sp., a rich source of docosahexaenoic acid, on growth, fatty acid composition, and sensory quality of channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Aquaculture 292:232–236
221. Li YX, Lee SH, Qiam ZJ, SKKS K (2010) Inhibitors of oxidation and matrix metalloproteinases, floridoside and D-isofloridoside from marine red alga Laurencia undulata. J Agric Food Chem 38:578–586
222. Li C, Gao Y, Xing Y, Zhu H, Shen J, Tian J (2011) Fucoidan, a sulfated polysaccharide from brown algae, against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats via regulating the inflammation response. Food Chem Toxicol 49:2090–2095
223. Lightowler HJ, Davies GJ (2002) Assessment of iodine intake in vegans: weighed dietary record vs duplicate portion technique. Eur J Clin Nutr 56:765–770
224. Ling ALM, Yasir S, Matanjun P, Abu Bakar MF (2015) Effect of different drying techniques on the phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of Kappaphycus alvarezii. J Appl Phycol 27:1717–1723
225. Liu JH, Kandasamy S, Zhang JZ, Kirby CW, Karakach T, Hafting J, Critchley AT, Evans F, Prithiviraj B (2015) Prebiotic effects of diet supplemented with the cultivated red seaweed Chondrus crispus or with fructo-oligo-saccharide on host immunity, colonic microbiota and gut microbial metabolites. BMC Complement Altern Med 15:279. doi:10.1186/s12906-015-0802-5
226. Lordan S, Ross RP, Stanton C (2011) Marine bioactives as functional food ingredients: potential to reduce the incidence of chronic diseases. Mar Drugs 9:1056–1100
227. Lourenço SO, Barbarino E, De-Paula JC, Pereira LODS, Marquez UML (2002) Amino acid composition, protein content and calculation of nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors for 19 tropical seaweeds. Phycol Res 50:233–241
228. Lovegrove A, Edwards C, De Noni I, Patel H, El S, Grassby T, Zielke C, Ulmius M, Nilsson L, Butterworth P, Ellis P, Shewry P (2015) Role of polysaccharides in food, digestion and health. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. doi:10.1080/10408398.2014.939263
229. Lubitz J (1963) The protein quality, digestibililty and composition of algae, Chlorella 71105. J Food Sci 28:229–241
230. Luo Z, Tian D, Zhou M, Xiao W, Zhang Y, Li M, Sui B, Wang W, Guan H, Chen H, Fu ZF, Zhao L (2015) Lambda-Carrageenan P32 is a potent inhibitor of rabies virus infection. PLoS One 10(10):e0140586
231. Mabeau S, Fleurence J (1993) Seaweed in food products: biochemical and nutritional aspects. Trends Food Sci Technol 4:103–107
232. MacArtain P, Gill CIR, Brooks M, Campbell R, Rowland IR (2007) Nutritional value of edible seaweeds. Nutr Rev 65:535–543
233. MacFarlane GT, MacFarlane S (2012) Bacteria, colonic fermentation, and gastrointestinal health. J AOAC Int 95:50–60
234. Maehre HK, Malde MK, Eilertsen KE, Elvevoll EO (2014) Characterization of protein, lipid and mineral contents in common Norwegian seaweeds and evaluation of their potential as food and feed. J Sci Food Agric 94:3281–3290
235. Maehre HK, Edvinsen GK, Eilertsen KE, Elvevoll EO (2016) Heat treatment increases the protein bioaccessibility in the red seaweed dulse (Palmaria palmata), but not in the brown seaweed winged kelp (Alaria esculenta). J Appl Phycol 28:581–590
236. Magura J, Moodley R, Jonnalagadda SB (2016) Chemical composition of selected seaweeds from the Indian Ocean, KwaZulu-Natal coast, South Africa. J Environ Sci Health, Part B 51:525–533
237. Mak W, Hamid N, Liu T, Lu J, White WL (2013) Fucoidan from New Zealand Undaria pinnatifida: monthly variations and determination of antioxidant activities. Carbohydr Polym 95:606–614
238. Makkar HPS, Tran G, Heuze V, Giger-Reverdin S, Lessire M, Lebas F, Ankers P (2016) Seaweeds for livestock diets: a review. Anim Feed Sci Technol 212:1–17
239. Mao W, Zang X, Li Y, Zhang H (2006) Sulfated polysaccharides from marine green algae Ulva conglobata and their anticoagulant activity. J Appl Phycol 18:9–14
240. Mao W-J, Fang F, Li H-Y, Qi X-H, Sun H-H, Chen Y, Guo S-D (2008) Heparinoid-active two sulfated polysaccharides isolated from marine green algae Monostroma nitidum. Carbohydr Polym 74:834–839
241. Mardsen AD, De Wreede RE (2000) Marine macroalgal community structure, metal content and reproductive function near an acid mine drainage overflow. Environ Pollut 110:431–440
242. Marrion O, Schwertz A, Fleurence J, Gueant JL, Villaume C (2003) Improvement of the digestibility of the proteins of the red alga Palmaria palmata by physical processes and fermentation. Nahrung 47:339–344
243. Marrion O, Fleurence J, Schwertz A, Guéant J-L, Mamelouk L, Ksouri J, Villaume C (2005) Evaluation of protein in vitro digestibility of Palmaria palmata and Gracilaria verrucosa. J Appl Phycol 17:99–102
244. Martin C, Butelli E, Petroni K, Tonelli C (2011) How can research on plants contribute to promoting human health? Plant Cell 23:1685–1699
245. Matanjun P, Mohamed S, Mustapha NM, Muhammad K (2009) Nutrient content of tropical edible seaweeds, Eucheuma cottonii, Caulerpa lentillifera and Sargassum polycystum. J Appl Phycol 21:75–80
246. Matloub AA, El-Sherbini M, Borai IH, Ezz MK, Rizk MZ, Aly HF, Fouad GI (2013) Assessment of anti-hyperlipidemic effect and physico-chemical characterization of water soluble polysaccharides from Ulva fasciata Delile. J Appl Sci Res 9:2983–2993
247. McCarty MF (2007) Clinical potential of Spirulina as a source of phycocyanobilin. J Med Food 10:566–570
248. McCauley JI, Meyer BJ, Winberg PC, Ranson M, Skropeta D (2015) Selecting Australian marine macroalgae based on the fatty acid composition and anti-inflammatory activity. J Appl Phycol 27:2111–2121
249. McDermid KJ, Stuercke B (2003) Nutritional composition of edible Hawaiian seaweeds. J Appl Phycol 15:513–524
250. McDermid KJ, Stuercke B, Haleakala OJ (2005) Total dietary fiber content in Hawaiian marine algae. Bot Mar 48:437–440
251. McHugh DJ (2003) Seaweeds as human food. In: McHugh DJ (ed) A guide to the seaweed industry, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 411. pp 73–90
252. McKim JM (2014) Food additive carrageenan: part I: a critical review of carrageenan in vitro studies, potential pitfalls, and implications for human health and safety. Crit Rev Toxicol 44:211–243
253. Medeiros DM, Wildman REC (2015) Advanced human nutrition. Jones & Bartlett, Burlington
254. Meharg AA, Sun GX, Williams PN, Adomako E, Deacon C, Zhu YG, Feldmann J, Raab A (2008) Inorganic arsenic levels in baby rice are of concern. Environ Pollut 152:746–749
255. 2+ by Chlorella vulgaris: influence of pH, temperature, culture age, and cations. J Environ Sci Health A 37:399–414
256. Melhuus A, Seip KL, Seip HM (1978) A preliminary study of the use of benthic algae as biological indicators of heavy metal pollution in Sørfjorden, Norway. Environ Pollut 15:101–107
257. Mendes A, Reis A, Vasconcelos R, Guerra P, da Silva TL (2009) Crypthecodinium cohnii with emphasis on DHA production: a review. J Appl Phycol 21:199–214
258. MHLW (2014) The National Health and Nutrition Survey in Japan, 2004–2014. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/kenkou/kenkou_eiyou_chousa.html
259. Michel C, MacFarlane GT (1996) Digestive fates of soluble polysaccharides from marine macroalgae: involvement of the colonic microflora and physiological consequences for the host. J Appl Bacteriol 80:349–369
260. Michikawa T, Inoue M, Shimazu T, Sawada N, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Yamaji T, Tsugane S, Japan Public Hlth Ctr B (2012) Seaweed consumption and the risk of thyroid cancer in women: the Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study. Eur J Cancer Prev 21:254–260
261. Minguez-Mosquera MI, Hornero-Mendez D, Perez-Galvez A (2008) Carotenoids and provitamin a in functional foods. In: Hurst WJ (ed) Methods of analysis for functional foods and nutraceuticals, 2nd edn. CCR Press, Boca Raton, pp 277–335
262. Mishra VK, Temelli F, Ooraikul B, Shacklock PF, Craigie JS (1993) Lipids of the red alga, Palmaria palmata. Bot Mar 36:169–174
263. Miyai K, Tokushige T, Kondo M, Iodine Res G (2008) Suppression of thyroid function during ingestion of seaweed “kombu” (Laminaria japonica) in normal Japanese adults. Endocr J 55:1103–1108
264. 12 compounds from Korean purple laver (Porphyra sp.) products. J Agric Food Chem 57:2793–2796
265. Molin M, Ulven SM, Meltzer HM, Alexander J (2015) Arsenic in the human food chain, biotransformation and toxicology—Review focusing on seafood arsenic. J Trace Elem Med Biol 31:249–259
266. Moreda-Pineiro J, Moreda-Pineiro A, Romaris-Hortas V, Moscoso-Perez C, Lopez-Mahia P, Muniategui-Lorenzo S, Bermejo-Barrera P, Prada-Rodriguez D (2011) In-vivo and in-vitro testing to assess the bioaccessibility and the bioavailability of arsenic, selenium and mercury species in food samples. Trends Anal Chem 30:324–345
267. Moreda-Pineiro J, Moreda-Pineiro A, Romaris-Hortas V, Dominguez-Gonzalez R, Alonso-Rodriguez E, Lopez-Mahia P, Muniategui-Lorenzo S, Prada-Rodriguez D, Bermejo-Barrera P (2012) Trace metals in marine foodstuff: bioavailability estimation and effect of major food constituents. Food Chem 134:339–345
268. Mouritsen OG (2013) Seaweeds: edible, available, and sustainable. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
269. Mouritsen OG, Dawczynski C, Duelund L, Jahreis G, Vetter W, Schroder M (2013) On the human consumption of the red seaweed dulse (Palmaria palmata (L.) Weber & Mohr). J Appl Phycol 25:1777–1791
270. Mueller A, Raptis J, Rice PJ, Kalbfleisch JH, Stout RD, Ensley HE, Browder W, Williams DL (2000) The influence of glucan polymer structure and solution conformation on binding to (1→3)-β-D-glucan receptors in a human monocyte-like cell line. Glycobiology 10:339–346
271. Mulvaney WJ, Jahangard S, Ingram BA, Turchini GM, Winberg PC (2015) Recovery of omega-3 profiles of cultivated abalone by dietary macroalgae supplementation. J Appl Phycol 27:2163–2171
272. Munda IM, Hudnik V (1991) Trace metal content in some seaweeds from the northern Adriatic. Bot Mar 34:241–249
273. Nagayama J, Noda K, Uchikawa T, Maruyama I, Shimomura H, Miyahara M (2014) Effect of maternal Chlorella supplementation on carotenoid concentration in breast milk at early lactation. Int J Food Sci Nutr 65:573–576
274. Nakamura Y, Narukawa T, Yoshinaga J (2008) Cancer risk to Japanese population from the consumption of inorganic arsenic in cooked hijiki. J Agric Food Chem 56:2536–2540
275. Nauroth JM, Liu YC, Van Elswyk M, Bell R, Hall EB, Chung G, Arterburn LM (2010) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA n-6) algal oils reduce inflammatory mediators in human peripheral mononuclear cells in vitro and paw edema in vivo. Lipids 45:375–384
276. Navarro G, Cummings S, Lee J, Moss N, Glukhov E, Valeriote FA, Gerwick L, Gerwick WH (2015) Isolation of polycavernoside d from a marine cyanobacterium. Environ Sci Technol Lett 2:166–170
277. Neff LM, Culiner J, Cunningham-Rundles S, Seidman C, Meehan D, Maturi J, Wittkowski KM, Levine B, Breslow JL (2011) Algal docosahexaenoic acid affects plasma lipoprotein particle size distribution in overweight and obese adults. J Nutr 141:207–213
278. Newton L (1951) Seaweed utilization. Sampson Low, London
279. Neyrinck AM, Mouson A, Delzenne NM (2007) Dietary supplementation with laminaran, a fermentable marine ß(1–3) glucan, protects against hepatoxicity induced by LPS in rat by modulating immune response in the hepatic tissue. Int Immunopharmacol 7:1497–1506
280. Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Kinross J, Burcelin R, Gibson G, Jia W, Pettersson S (2012) Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science 336:1262–1267
281. Ninomiya K (2002) Umami: a universal taste. Food Rev Int 18:23–38
282. Nitschke U, Stengel DB (2016) Quantification of iodine loss in edible Irish seaweeds during processing. J Appl Phycol. doi:10.1007/s10811-016-0868-6
283. Niwa K, Furuita H, Yamamoto T (2008) Changes of growth characteristics and free amino acid content of cultivated Porphyra yezoensis Ueda (Bangiales Rhodophyta) blades with the progression of the number of harvests in a nori farm. J Appl Phycol 20:687–693
284. NOAA (2011) The future of aquafeeds. Office of Aquaculture—NOAA Fisheries—National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NMFS F/SPO-124. December 2011. www.nmfs.noaa.gov/Aquaculture. Accessed 05 Sept 2016
285. Noguchi T, Matsui T, Miyazawa K, Asakawa M, Iijima N, Shida Y, Fuse M, Hosaka Y, Kirigaya C, Watabe K, Usui S, Fukagawa A (1994) Poisoning by the red-alga-ogonori (Gracilaria-verrucosa) on the Nojima coast, Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Toxicon 32:1533–1538
286. Norziah MH, Ching CY (2000) Nutritional composition of edible seaweed Gracilaria changgi. Food Chem 68:69–76
287. Novak M, Vetvica V (2008) β-Glucans, history, and the present: immunomodulatory aspects and mechanisms of action. J Immunotoxicol 5:47–57
288. NRC (2013) Critical aspects of EPA’s IRIS assessment of inorganic arsenic: interim report. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 117 pp
289. Nwosa F, Morris J, Lund JA, Stewart D, Ross HA, McDougall GJ (2011) Anti-proliferatice and potential anti-diabetic effects of phenolic-rich extracts from ebible marine algae. Food Chem 126:1006–1012
290. Nylund GM, Weinberger F, Rempt M, Pohnert G (2011) Metabolomic assessment of induced and activated chemical defence in the invasive red alga Gracilaria vermiculophylla. PLoS One 6(12):e29359
291. O’Sullivan L, Murphy B, McLoughlin P, Duggan P, Lawlor PG, Hughes H, Gardiner GE (2010) Prebiotics from marine macroalgae for human and animal health applications. Mar Drugs 8:2038–2064
292. Okada Y, Ishikura M, Maoka T (2009) Bioavailability of astaxanthin in Haematococcua algal extract: the effects of timing of diet and smoking habits. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 73:1928–1932
293. Olsen EK, Hansen E, Isaksson J, Andersen JH (2013) Cellular antioxidant effect of four bromophenols from the red algae Vertebrata lanosa. Mar Drugs 11:2769–2784
294. Oren A, Gunde-Cimerman N (2007) Mycosporines and mycosporine-like amino acids: UV protectants or multipurpose secondary metabolites? FEMS Microbiol Lett 269:1–10
295. Ortiz J, Romero N, Robert P, Araya J, Lopez-Hernández J, Bozzo C, Navarrete E, Osorio A, Rios A (2006) Dietary fiber, amino acid, fatty acid and tocopherol contents of the edible seaweeds Ulva lactuca and Durvillaea antarctica. Food Chem 99:98–104
296. Ortiz J, Uquiche E, Robert P, Romero N, Quitral V, Llanten C (2009) Functional and nutritional value of the Chilean seaweeds Codium fragile, Gracilaria chilensis and Macrocystis pyrifera. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 111:320–327
297. Painter TJ (1983) Algal polysaccharides. In: Aspinall GO (ed) The polysaccharides, vol 2. Academic, New York, pp 195–285
298. Pal A, Kamthania M, Kumar A (2014) Bioactive compounds and properties of seaweeds—a review. Open Access Libr J 1:e752. doi:10.4236/oalib1100752, accessed 09 Sept 2016
299. Pangestuti R, Kim SK (2011) Biological activities and health benefit effects of natural pigments derived from marine algae. J Funct Foods 3:255–266
300. Pasco D, Pugh N (2010) Potent immunostimulatory extracts from microalgae.
301. Pasquet V, Ulmann L, Mimouni V, Guiheneuf F, Jacquette B, Morant-Manceau A, Tremblin G (2014) Fatty acids profile and temperature in the cultured marine diatom Odontella aurita. J Appl Phycol 26:2265–2271
302. Paulsen BS, Barsett H (2005) Bioactive pectic polysaccharides. In: Heinze T (ed) Polysaccharides 1: structure, characterization and use. Springer, Berlin, pp 69–101
303. Pell A, Kokkinis G, Malea P, Pergantis SA, Rubio R, Lopez-Sanchez JF (2013) LC-ICP-MS analysis of arsenic compounds in dominant seaweeds from the Thermaikos Gulf (Northern Aegean Sea, Greece). Chemosphere 93:2187–2194
304. Peng J, Yuan JP, Wu CF, Wang JH (2011) Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human health. Mar Drugs 9:1806–1828
305. Percival E, McDowell RH (1967) Chemistry and enzymology of marine algal polysaccharides. Academic, London
306. Pereira L (2011) A review of the nutrient composition of selected edible seaweeds. In: Ponin VH (ed) Seaweeds: ecology, nutrient composition and medicinal uses. Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, p 30
307. Pereira CMP, Nunes CFP, Zambotti-Villela L, Streit NM, Dias D, Pinto E, Gomes CB, Colepicolo P (2016) Extraction of sterols in brown macroalgae from Antarctica and their identification by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. J Appl Phycol. doi:10.1007/s10811-016-0905-5:1-7
308. Perez AA, Farias SS, Strobl AM, Perez LB, Lopez CM, Pineiro A, Roses O, Fajardo MA (2007) Levels of essential and toxic elements in Porphyra columbina and Ulva sp from San Jorge Gulf, Patagonia Argentina. Sci Total Environ 376:51–59
309. Peters BA, Hall MN, Liu X, Parvez F, Shanchez TR, van Geen A, Mey JL, Siddique AB, Shahriar H, Uddin MN, Islam T, Balac O, Ilieveki V, Factor-Litvak P, Graziano JH, Gamble MV (2015) Folic acid and creatine as therapeutic approaches to lower blood arsenic: a randomized controlled trial. Environ Health Perspect 123:1294–1301
310. Phaneuf D, Cote I, Dumas P, Ferron LA, LeBlanc A (1999) Evaluation of the contamination of marine algae (seaweed) from the St. Lawrence River and likely to be consumed by humans. Environ Res 80:S175–S182
311. Pielesz A, Biniaś W (2010) Cellulose acetate membrane electrophoresis and FTIR spectroscopy as methods of identifying a fucoidan in Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus. Carbohydr Res 345:2676–2682
312. Plaza M, Herrero M, Cifuentes A, Ibáñez E (2009) Innovative natural functional ingredients from microalgae. J Agric Food Chem 57:7159–7170
313. Pomin VH (2009) An overview about the structure-function relationship of marine sulfated homopolysaccharides with regular chemical structures. Biopolymers 91:601–609
314. Pomin VH (2012) Structure and use of algal sulfated fucans and galactans. In: Kim S-E (ed) Handbook of marine macroalgae: biotechnology and applied phycology. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp 229–261
315. Pomin VH, Mourão PA (2008) Structure, biology, evolution, and medical importance of sulfated fucans and galactose. Glycobiology 18:1016–1027
316. Popper ZA, Michel G, Hervé C, Domozych DS, Willats WGT, Tuohy MG, Kloareg B, Stengel DB (2011) Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants. Annu Rev Plant Biol 62:8.1–8.24
317. Prajapati VD, Maheriya PM, Jani GK, Solanki HK (2014) Carrageenan: a natural seaweed polysaccharide and its applications. Carbohydr Polym 105:97–112
318. Pulz O, Gross W (2004) Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 65:635–648
319. Quigg A, Irwin AJ, Finkel ZV (2011) Evolutionary inheritance of elemental stoichiometry in phytoplankton. Proc Roy Soc London B 278:526–536
320. Ragan MA, Globitza KW (1986) Phlorotannins, brown algal polyphenols. Progr Phycol Res 4:129–241
321. Rajauria G (2015) Seaweeds: a sustainable feed source for livestock and aquaculture. In: Tiwari B, Troy D (eds) Seaweed sustainability: food and non-food applications. Academic, Amsterdam, pp 389–420
322. Ramberg JE, Nelson ED, Sinnott RA (2010) Immunomodulatory dietary polysaccharides: a systematic review of the literature. Nutr J 9:54
323. Raml R, Goessler W, Traar P, Ochi T, Francesconi KA (2005) Novel thioarsenic metabolites in human urine after ingestion of an arsenosugar, 2′,3′-dihydroxypropyl 5-deoxy-5-dimethylarsinoyl-β-D-riboside. Chem Res Toxicol 18:1444–1450
324. Raml R, Raber G, Rumpler A, Bauernhofer T, Goessler W, Francesconi KA (2009) Individual Variability in the human metabolism of an arsenic-containing carbohydrate, 2′,3′-dihydroxypropyl 5-deoxy-5-dimethylarsinoyl-β-D-riboside, a naturally occurring arsenical in seafood. Chem Res Toxicol 22:1534–1540
325. Ramsey UP, Bird CJ, Shacklock PF, Laycock MV, Wright JLC (1994) Kainic acid and 1’hydroxykainic acid from Palmariales. Nat Toxins 2:286–292
326. Rauma AL, Torronen R, Hanninen O, Mykkanen H (1995) Vitamin B-12 status of long-term adherents of a strict uncooked vegan diet (“living food diet”) is compromised. J Nutr 125:2511–2515
327. Read BA, Kegel J, Klute MJ, Kuo A et al (2013) Pan genome of the phytoplankton Emiliania underpins its global distribution. Nature 499:209–213
328. Řezanaka T, Sigler K (2007) Structural analysis of a polysaccharide from Chlorella kessleri by means of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of its saccharide alditols. Folia Microbiol 52:246–252
329. Řezanka T, Petránková M, Cepák V, Přibyl P, Sigler K, Cajthaml T (2010) Trachydiscus minutus, a new biotechnological source of eicosapentaenoic acid. Folia Microbiol 55:265–269
330. Rhatigan P (2009) Irish seaweed kitchen; the comprehensive guide to healthy everyday cooking with seaweeds. Booklink
331. Riosmena-Rodríguez R, Talavera-Sáenz A, Acosta-Vargas B, Gardner SC (2010) Heavy metals dynamics in seaweeds and seagrasses in Bahía Magdalena, B.C.S., México. J Appl Phycol 22:283–291
332. Rioux L-E, Turgeon S (2015) Seaweed carbohydrates. In: Tiwari B, Troy D (eds) Seaweed sustainability: food and non-food applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 141–192
333. Rioux L-E, Turgeon SL, Beaulieu M (2009) Effect of season on the composition of bioactive polysaccharides from the brown seaweed Saccharina longicruris. Phytochemistry 70:1069–1075
334. Richards JT, Kern ER, Glasgow LA, Overall JC Jr, Deigh EF, Hatch MT (1978) Antiviral activity of extracts from marine algae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 14:24–30
335. Rioux L-E, Turgeon SL, Beaulieu M (2010) Structural characterization of laminaran and galactofucan extracted from the brown seaweed Saccharina longicruris. Phytochemistry 71:1586–1595
336. Rose M, Lewis J, Langford N, Baxter M, Origgi S, Barber M, MacBain H, Thomas K (2007) Arsenic in seaweed—forms, concentration and dietary exposure. Food Chem Toxicol 45:1263–1267
337. Rossoll D, Bermudez R, Hauss H, Schulz KG, Riebesell U, Sommer U, Winder M (2012) Ocean acidification-induced food quality deterioration constrains trophic transfer. PLoS One 7(4):e34737
338. Ruperez P, Saura-Calixto F (2001) Dietary fibre and physicochemical properties of edible Spanish seaweeds. Eur Food Res Technol 212:349–354
339. 12-mediated transport of nanoparticles across Caco-2 cells. Int J Pharm 179:247–255
340. Rutherfurd SM, Fanning AC, Miller BJ, Moughan PJ (2015) Protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores and digestible indispensable amino acid scores differentially describe protein quality in growing male rats. J Nutr 145:372–379
341. Sachindra NM, Sato E, Maeda H, Hosokawa M, Niwano Y, Kohno M, Miyashita K (2007) Radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching activity of marine carotenoid fucoxanthin and its metabolites. J Agric Food Chem 55:8516–8522
342. Safi C, Charton M, Pignolet O, Silvestre F, Vaca-Garcia C, Pontalier PY (2013) Influence of microalgae cell wall characteristics on protein extractability and determination of nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors. J Appl Phycol 25:523–529
343. Safi C, Zebib B, Merah O, Pontalier PY, Vaca-Garcia C (2014) Morphology, composition, production, processing and applications of Chlorella vulgaris: a review. Renew Sust Energy Rev 35:265–278
344. Saiki T (1906) The digestibility and utilization of some polysaccharide carbohydrates derived from lichens and marine algae. J Biochem, Tokyo 2:251–265
345. Sayanova O, Haslam RP, Caleron MV, Ruiz-Lopez N, Worthy C, Rooks P, Allen MJ, Napier JA (2011) Identification and functional characterisation of genes encoding the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthetic pathway from the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. Phytochemistry 72:594–600
346. Schiener P, Black KD, Stanley MS, Green DH (2015) The seasonal variation in the chemical composition of the kelp species Laminaria digitata, Laminaria hyperborea, Saccharina latissima and Alaria esculenta. J Appl Phycol 27:363–373
347. Schmid M, Guiheneuf F, Stengel DB (2014) Fatty acid contents and profiles of 16 macroalgae collected from the Irish Coast at two seasons. J Appl Phycol 26:451–463
348. Schuchardt JP, Schneider I, Meyer H, Neubronner J, von Schacky C, Hahn A (2011) Incorporation of EPA and DHA into plasma phospholipids in response to different omega-3 fatty acid formulations—a comparative bioavailability study of fish oil vs. krill oil. Lipids Health Dis 10:7
349. Sensoy I (2014) A review on the relationship between food structure, processing, and bioavailability. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 54:902–909
350. Shanmugam M, Mody KH (2000) Heparinoid-active sulphated polysaccharides from marine algae as potential blood anticoagulant agents. Curr Sci 79:1672–1683
351. Shen B, Jones RG, Bohnert HJ (1997) Mannitol protects against oxidation by hydroxyl radicals. Plant Physiol 115:527–532
352. Sheng J, Yu F, Xin Z, Zhao L, Zhu X, Hu Q (2007) Preparation, identification and their antitumor activities in vitro of polysaccharides from Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Food Chem 105:533–539
353. Shibata T, Ishimaru K, Kawaguchi S, Yoshikawa H, Hama Y (2007) Antioxidant activities of phlorotannins isolated from Japanese Laminariaceae. J Appl Phycol 20:705–711
354. Shimoda Y, Suzuki Y, Endo Y, Kato K, Tachikawa M, Endo G, Yamanaka K (2010) Speciation analysis of arsenics in commercial hijiki by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem-mass spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J Health Sci 56:47–56
355. Shuuluka D, Bolton JJ, Anderson RJ (2013) Protein content, amino acid composition and nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors of Ulva rigida and Ulva capensis from natural populations and Ulva lactuca from an aquaculture system, in South Africa. J Appl Phycol 25:677–685
356. Signes-Pastor AJ, Deacon C, Jenkins RO, Haris PI, Carbonell-Barrachina AA, Meharg AA (2009) Arsenic speciation in Japanese rice drinks and condiments. J Environ Monit 11:1930–1934
357. Skriptsova AV, Shevchenko NM, Zvyagintseva TN, Imbs TI (2010) Monthly changes in the content and monosaccharide composition of fucoidan from Undaria pinnatifida (Laminariales, Phaeophyta). J Appl Phycol 22:79–86
358. Skrovankova S (2011) Seaweed vitamins as nutraceuticals. In: Kim SK (ed) Marine medicinal foods: implications and applications, macro and microalgae. Elsevier, San Diego, pp 357–369
359. Smirnoff N, Cumber QJ (1989) Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of compatible solutes. Phytochemistry 28:1057–1060
360. Spindler SR, Mote PL, Flegal JM (2014) Dietary supplementation with Lovaza and krill oil shortens the life span of long-lived F1 mice. Age 36:1345–1352
361. 12 eficiency as a worldwide problem. Annu Rev Nutr 24:299–326
362. Stengel DB, Dring MJ (2000) Copper and iron concentrations in Ascophyllum nodosum (Fucales, Phaeophyta) from different sites in Ireland and after culture experiments in relation to thallus age and epiphytism. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 246:145–161
363. Stengel DB, Macken A, Morrison L, Morley N (2004) Zinc concentrations in marine macroalgae and a lichen from western Ireland in relation to phylogenetic grouping, habitat and morphology. Mar Pollut Bull 48:902–909
364. Stengel DB, Connan S, Popper ZA (2011) Algal chemodiversity and bioactivity: sources of natural variability and implications for commercial application. Biotechnol Adv 29:483–501
365. Stiger-Pouvreau V, Bourgougnon N, Deslandes E (2016) Carbohydrates from seaweeds. In: Fleurence J, Levine I (eds) Health and disease prevention. Academic, San Diego, pp 223–274
366. 12 or 5-hydroxybenzimidazolyl-cobamide are the corrinoids found in methanogenic bacteria. Arch Microbiol 149:268–271
367. 12 binding proteins intrinsic factor, transcobalamin and haptocorrin. Eur J Biochem 199:299–303
368. Suárez ER, Kralovec JA, Grindley TB (2010) Isolation of phosphorylated polysaccharides from algae: the immunostimulatory principle of Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Carbohydr Res 345:1190–1204
369. Sunda W, Kieber DJ, Kiene RP, Huntsman S (2002) An antioxidant function for DMSP and DMS in marine algae. Nature 418:317–320
370. Switzer L (1980) Spirulina: the whole food revolution, 2nd edn. Proteus Corp, Berkeley
371. Szabo NJ, Matulka RA, Chan T (2013) Safety evaluation of whole algalin protein (wap) from Chlorella protothecoides. Food Chem Toxicol 59:34–45
372. Taboada C, Millan R, Miguez I (2010) Composition, nutritional aspects and effect on serum parameters of marine algae Ulva rigida. J Sci Food Agric 90:445–449
373. Taboada MC, Millán R, Miguez MI (2013) Nutritional value of the marine algae wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) and nori (Porphyra purpurea) as food supplements. J Appl Phycol 25:1271–1276
374. 12 status. Br J Nutr 85:699–703
375. Takeshi S, Yumiko Y-S, Joko S (2005) Mineral components and anti-oxidant activities of tropical seaweeds. J Ocean Univ China 4:205–208
376. Talarico LB, Noseda MD, Ducatti DRB, Duarte MER, Damonte EB (2011) Differential inhibition of dengue virus infection in mammalian and mosquito cells by iota-carrageenan. J Gen Virol 92:1332–1342
377. Taylor VF, Jackson BP (2016) Concentrations and speciation of arsenic in New England seaweed species harvested for food and agriculture. Chemosphere 163:6–13
378. Teas J, Hebert JR, Fitton JH, Zimba PV (2004a) Algae—a poor man’s HAART? Med Hypotheses 62:507–510
379. Teas J, Pino S, Critchley A, Braverman LE (2004b) Variability of iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds. Thyroid 14:836–841
380. Telfer A, Bishop SM, Phillips D, Barber J (1994a) Isolated photosystem II reaction centers of photosystem II as a sensitizer for the formation of singlet oxygen. Detection and quantum yield determination using a chemical trapping technique. J Biol Chem 269:13244–13253
381. Telfer A, Dhami S, Bishop SM, Phillips D, Barber J (1994b) β-carotene quenches singlet oxygen formed by isolated photosystem II reaction centres. Biochemistry 33:14469–14474
382. Terada A, Hara H, Mitsuoka T (1995) Effect of dietary alginate on the faecal microbiota and faecal metabolic activity in humans. Microb Ecol Health Dis 8:259–266
383. The nutritional and medicinal value of seaweeds used in Chinese medicine (2002) Institute for Traditional Medicine. www.imtonline.org
384. Thomas F, Barbeyron T, Tonon T, Genicot S, Czjzek M, Michel G (2012) Characterization of the first alginolytic operons in a marine bacterium: from their emergence in marine Flavobacteria to their independent transfers to marine Proteobacteria and human gut Bacteroides. Environ Microbiol 14:2379–2394
385. Tibbetts SM, Milley JE, Lall SP (2016) Nutritional quality of some wild and cultivated seaweeds: nutrient composition, total phenolic content and in vitro digestibility. J Appl Phycol. doi:10.1007/s10811-016-0863-y:1-11
386. Tiwari B, Troy D (eds) (2015) Seaweed sustainability: food and non-food applications. Academic, London
387. Tobacman JK (2001) Review of harmful gastrointestinal effects of carrageenan in animal experiments. Environ Health Perspect 109:983–994
388. Tseng CK (1981) Commercial cultivation. In: Lobban CS, Wynne MJ (eds) The biology of seaweeds. Blackwell Science Publications, Oxford, pp 680–725
389. Turner NJ (2003) The ethnobotany of edible seaweed (Porphyra abbottae and related species; Rhodophyta: Bangiales) and its use by First Nations on the Pacific Coast of Canada. Can J Bot 81:283–293
390. Turner A, Pedroso SS, Brown MT (2008) Influence of salinity and humic substances on the uptake of trace metals by the marine macroalga Ulva lactuca: experimental observations and modelling using WHAM. Mar Chem 110:176–184
391. Turner A, Pollock H, Brown MT (2009) Accumulation of Cu and Zn from antifouling paint particles by the marine macroalga, Ulva lactuca. Environ Pollut 157:2314–2319
392. Tuzen M, Verep B, Ogretmen AO, Soylak M (2009) Trace element content in marine algae species from the Black Sea, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 151:363–368
393. UK Food Standards Agency (2016) Trade Information Sheet 8. https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/tradeinfo08.pdf accessed 11 October 2016
394. Umezawa I, Komiyama K (1985) A new acidic polysaccharide CH-1 isolated from a culture of cells of the algae Chlorella pyrenoidosa.
395. Urbano MG, Goni I (2002) Bioavailability of nutrients in rats fed on edible seaweeds, Nori (Porphyra tenera) and Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), as a source of dietary fibre. Food Chem 76:281–286
396. Ursu AV, Marcati A, Sayd T, Sante-Lhoutellier V, Djelveh G, Michaud P (2014) Extraction, fractionation and functional properties of proteins from the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris. Bioresour Technol 157:134–139
397. Ushakova NA, Morozevich GE, Ustyuzhanina NE, Bilan MI, Usov AI, Preobrazhenskaya NE (2009) Anticoagulant activity of fucoidans from brown algae. Biochemistry (Moscow) Suppl Ser B 3:77–83
398. Ustyuzhanina NE, Ushakova NA, Zyuzina KA, Bilan MI, Elizarova AL, Somonova OV, Madzhuga AV, Krylov VB, Preobrazhenskaya ME, Usov AI, Kiselevskiy MV, Nifantiev NE (2013) Influence of fucoidans on hemostatic system. Mar Drugs 11:2444–2458
399. Ustyuzhanina NE, Bilan MI, Ushakova NA, Usov AI, Kiselevskiy MV, Nifantiev NE (2014) Fucoidans: pro- or antiangiogenic agents? Glycobiology 24:1265–1274
400. Valera B, Suhas E, Counil E, Poirier P, Dewailly E (2014) Influence of polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure, resting heart rate and heart rate variability among french polynesians. J Am Coll Nutr 33:288–296
401. Van Blervliet S, Devos M, Delhaye T, Van Biervliet JP, Robberecht E, Christophe A (2008) Oral DHA supplementation in ΔF508 homozygous cystic fibrosis patients. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids 78:109–115
402. van Ginneken VJT, Helsper J, de Visser W, van Keulen H, Brandenburg WA (2011) Polyunsaturated fatty acids in various macroalgal species from north Atlantic and tropical seas. Lipids Health Dis 10:104
403. Vedros NA (1993) Topical demulcent for viral and inflammatory diseases of the skin.
404. Viso AC, Marty JC (1993) Fatty-acids from 28 marine microalgae. Phytochemistry 34:1521–1533
405. Vo T-S, Ngo D-H, Ta QV, Kim S-K (2011) Marine organisms as a therapeutic source against herpes simplex virus infection. Eur J Pharm Sci 44:11–20
406. Wagner-Döbler I, Ballhausen B, Berger M, Brinkhoff T, Buchholz I, Bunk B, Cypionka H, Daniel R, Drepper T, Gerdts G, Hahnke S, Han C, Jahn D, Kalhoefer D, Kiss H, Klenk HP, Kyrpides N, Liebl W, Liesegang H, Meincke L, Pati A, Petersen J, Piekarski T, Pommerenke C, Pradella S, Pukall R, Rabus R, Stackebrandt E, Thole S, Thompson L, Tielen P, Tomasch J, von Jan M, Wanphrut N, Wichels A, Zech H, Simon M (2010) The complete genome sequence of the algal symbiont Dinoroseobacter shibae: a hitchhiker’s guide to life in the sea. Isme J 4:61–77
407. Waldmann A, Koschizke JW, Leitzmann C, Hahn A (2004) Homocysteine and cobalamin status in German vegans. Public Health Nutr 7:467–472
408. Wang CC, Harris WS, Chung M, Lichtenstein AH, Balk EM, Kupelnick B, Jordan HS, Lau J (2006) N-3 fatty acids from fish or fish-oil supplements, but not alpha-linolenic acid, benefit cardiovascular disease outcomes in primary- and secondary-prevention studies: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 84:5–17
409. Wang T, Jonsdottir R, Olafsdottir G, Kristinsson HG (2014) Antioxidant properties of marine macroalgae. In: Kristinsson HG (ed) Antioxidants and functional components in aquatic foods. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester
410. Wang C, Yatsuya H, Li Y, Ota A, Tamakoshi K, Fujino Y, Mikami H, Iso H, Tamakoshi A (2016) Prospective study of seaweed consumption and thyroid cancer incidence in women: the Japan collaborative cohort study. Eur J Cancer Prev 25:239–245
411. Warrand J (2006) Healthy polysaccharides. The next chapter in food products. Food Technol Biotechnol 44:355–370
412. 12). Nat Prod Rep 19:390–412
413. 12 from edible algae—from food science to molecular biology. Vitamins (Kyoto) 81:49–55
414. 12 sources and bioavailability. Exp Biol Med 232:1266–1274
415. Watanabe S, Seto A (1989) Ingredient effective for activating immunity obtained from Chlorella minutissima.
416. 12 is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, Spirulina tablets. J Agric Food Chem 47:4736–4741
417. 12 but less of dietary iodine relative to other edible seaweeds. J Agric Food Chem 47:2341–2343
418. Watson DB (2008) Public health and carrageenan regulation: a review and analysis. J Appl Phycol 20:505–513
419. Weiner ML (2014) Food additive carrageenan: part II: a critical review of carrageenan in vivo safety studies. Crit Rev Toxicol 44:244–269
420. Weiner ML, Nuber D, Blakemore WR, Harriman JF, Cohen SM (2007) A 90-day dietary study on kappa carrageenan with emphasis on the gastrointestinal tract. Food Chem Toxicol 45:98–106
421. Weiner ML, Ferguson HE, Thorsrud BA, Nelson KG, Blakemore WR, Zeigler B, Cameron MJ, Brant A, Cochrane L, Pellerin M, Mahadevan B (2015) An infant formula toxicity and toxicokinetic feeding study on carrageenan in preweaning piglets with special attention to the immune system and gastrointestinal tract. Food Chem Toxicol 77:120–131
422. Weintraub HS (2014) Overview of prescription omega-3 fatty acid products for hypertriglyceridemia. Postgrad Med 126:12
423. Wells ML (2002) Marine colloids and trace metals. In: Dennis AH, Carlson CA (eds) Biogeochemistry of marine dissolved organic matter. Academic, San Diego, pp 367–404
424. Wen X, Peng C, Zhou H, Lin Z, Lin G (2000) Nutritional composition and assessment of Gracilaria lemaneiformis Bory. J Integr Plant Biol 48:1047–1053
425. WHO (1989) Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. WHO, Geneva
426. WHO (2010) Exposure to Arsenic: a major public health concern. www.who.int/ipcs/features/arsenic.pdf accessed 14 October 2016
427. WHO (2016) Arsenic Fact Sheet. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs372/en/ accessed 11 October 2016
428. Wijesekara I, Pangestuti R, Kim SK (2011) Biological activities and potential health benefits of sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae. Carbohydr Polym 84:14–21
429. Wijesinghe W, Jeon YJ (2012) Biological activities and potential industrial applications of fucose rich sulfated polysaccharides and fucoidans isolated from brown seaweeds: a review. Carbohydr Polym 88:13–20
430. Wijesinghe WAJP, Athukorala Y, Jeon Y-J (2011) Effect of anticoagulative sulfated polysaccharide purified from enzyme-assistant extract of a brown seaweed Ecklonia cava on Wistar rats. Carbohydr Polym 86:917–921
431. Wilke T, Faulkner S, Murphy L, Kealy L, Kraan S, Brouns F (2015) Seaweed enrichment of feed supplied to farm-raised Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is associated with higher total fatty acid and LC n-3 PUFA concentrations in fish flesh. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 117:767–772
432. Williams DL, Lowman DW, Ensley HE (2005) Introduction to the chemistry and immunobiology of β-glucans. In: Young S-H, Castranova V (eds) Toxicology of 1→3-beta glucans: glucans as a marker for fungal exposure. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 65–93
433. Wolfe-Simon F, Grzebyk D, Schofield O, Falkowski PG (2005) The role and evolution of superoxide dismutases in algae. J Phycol 41:453–465
434. Wong KH, Cheung PCK (2003) Effect of fiber-rich brown seaweeds on protein bioavailability of casein in growing rats. Int J Food Sci Nutr 54:269–279
435. Woolf PJ, Fu LL, Basu A (2011) vProtein: identifying optimal amino acid complements from plant-based foods. PLoS One 6:e18836
436. 12). Int J Vitam Nutr Res 69:412–418
437. Yavorska N (2012) Sodium alginate—a potential tool for weight management: effect on subjective appetite, food intake, and glycemic and insulin regulation. J Undergrad Life Sci 6:66–69
438. Yotsu-Yamashita M, Abe K, Seki T, Fujiwara K, Yasumoto T (2007) Polycavernoside C and C2, the new analogs of the human lethal toxin polycavernoside A, from the red alga, Gracilaria edulis. Tetrahedron Lett 48:2255–2259
439. Young S-H, Castranova V (2005) Animal model of (1→3)-β-D-glucan-induced pulmonary inflammation in rats. In: Young S-H, Castranova V (eds) Toxicology of 1→3-beta glucans: glucans as a marker for fungal exposure. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 65–93
440. Yu PZ, Li N, Liu XG, Zhou GF, Zhang QB, Li PC (2003) Antihyperlipidemic effects of different molecular weight sulfated polysaccharides from Ulva pertusa (Chlorophyta). Pharmacol Res 48:543–549
441. Yuan H, Song J, Li X, Li N, Dai J (2006) Immunomodulation and antitumor activity of κ-carrageenan oligosaccharides. Cancer Lett 243:228–234
442. Yuan H, Song J, Li X, Li N, Liu S (2011) Enhanced immunostimulatory and antitumor activity of different derivatives of κ-carrageenan oligosaccharides from Kappaphycus striatum. J Appl Phycol 23:59–65
443. Zeller S (2005) Safety evaluation of single cell oils and the regulatory requirements for use as food ingredients. In: Cohen Z, Ratledge C (eds) Single cell oils. AOCS Press, Urbana, pp 161–181
444. Zhang H-J, Mao W-J, Fang F, Li H-Y, Sun H-H, Chen Y, Qi X-H (2008) Chemical characteristics and anticoagulant activities of a sulfated polysaccharide and its fragments from Monostroma latissimum. Carbohydr Polym 71:428–434
445. Zhang Z, Wang F, Wang X, Liu X, Hou Y, Zhang Q (2010) Extraction of the polysaccharides from five algae and their potential antioxidant activity in vitro. Carbohydr Polym 82:118–121
446. Zhao FJ, McGrath SP, Meharg AA (2010) Arsenic as a food chain contaminant: mechanisms of plant uptake and metabolism and mitigation strategies. Annu Rev Plant Biol 61:535–559
447. Zhao X, Li B, Xue C, Sun L (2012) Effect of molecular weight on the antioxidant property of low molecular weight alginate from Laminaria japonica. J Appl Phycol 24:295–300
448. Zhou G, Sun Y, Xin H, Zhang Y, Li Z, Xu Z (2004) In vivo antitumor and immunomodulation activities of different molecular weight lambda-carrageenans from Chondrus ocellatus. Pharmacol Res 50:47–53
449. Zhou C, Xu X, Zhang Y, He R, Ma H (2012) Ultrasonic degradation, purification and analysis of structure and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from Porphyra yexoensis Udea. Carbohydr Polym 87:2046–2051
450. Zhu Y-G, Yoshinga MY, Zhao F-J, Rosen BP (2014) Earth abides arsenic transformations. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 42:443–467
451. Zvyagintseva TN, Shevchenko NM, Chizhov AO, Krupnova TN, Sundukova EV, Isakov VV (2003) Water-soluble polysaccharides of some far-eastern brown seaweeds. Distribution, structure, and their dependence on the developmental conditions. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 294:1–13