Carrageenan: A natural seaweed polysaccharide and its applications

Carbohydrate Polymers

Volumn 105, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 97-112

  Prajapati, Vipul D ^a   Maheriya, Pankaj M ^a   Jani, Girish K ^a   Solanki, Himanshu K ^a  

^a SSR College of Pharmacy   (India)

Author keywords

Applications; Carrageenan; Polysaccharide; Properties

Indexed keywords

CARRAGEENAN; FOOD ADDITIVE; PLANT EXTRACT; POLYSACCHARIDE;

ANIMAL; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; CHEMISTRY; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; SEAWEED;

ANIMALS; CARRAGEENAN; FOOD ADDITIVES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; PLANT EXTRACTS; POLYSACCHARIDES; SEAWEED;

EID: 84894069066     PISSN: 01448617     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.01.067     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. R. Abraham, L. Golberg, and F. Coulston Uptake and storage of degraded carrageenan in lysosomes of reticuloendothelial cells of the rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta Experimental and Molecular Pathology 17 1972 77 93
2. N.S. Anderson, J.W. Campbell, M.M. Harding, D.A. Rees, and J.W.B. Samuel X-ray diffraction studies of polysaccharide sulphates: Double helix models for κ- and ι-carrageenans Journal of Molecular Biology 45 1 1969 85 97
3. S. Arakawa, M. Ito, and S. Tejima Promoter function of carrageenan on development of colonic tumours induced by 1, 2-dimethylhydrazine in rats Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 34 1988 577 585
4. M.L. Asanza-Teruel, E. Gontier, C. Bienaime, J.E. Nava-Saucedo, and J.N. Barbotin Response surface analysis of chlortetracycline and tetracycline production with κ-carrageenan immobilized Streptomyces aureofaciens Enzyme and Microbial Technology 21 1997 314 320
5. M. Baba, R. Snoeck, R. Pauwels, and E. de Clercq Sulfated polysaccharides are potent and selective inhibitors of various enveloped viruses, including herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, vesicular stomatitis virus, and human immunodeficiency virus Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 32 1988 1742 1745
6. R. Baeza Comparison of technologies to control the physiological, biochemical and nutritional changes of fresh cut fruit 2007 A report for completion of the Masters of Science degree, Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas
7. Ballard, A. D. (2001). Process for making toothpaste using low levels of carrageenan. US 6,187,293, FMC Corporation.
8. C. Benard, A. Cultrone, C. Michel, C. Rosales, J.P. Segain, and M. Lahaye Degraded carrageenan causing colitis in rats induces TNF secretion and ICAM-1 upregulation in monocytes through NF-κB activation PLoS ONE 5 1 2010 8666
9. D.J. Benford Carrageenan and processed Eucheuma seaweed (addendum) WHO Food Additive Series: 48. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants 2001 2002 Prepared by the Fifty-seventh meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives (JECFA), World Health Organization Geneva
10. D.J. Benford, R.A. Harrison, S. Strobel, J. Schlatter, and P. Verger Carrageenan and processed Eucheuma seaweed (addendum) WHO Food Additive Series: 59. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants 2008 Prepared by the Sixty-eighth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives (JECFA), World Health Organization Geneva
11. S.L.S. Bico, M.F.J. Rapaso, R.M.S.C. Morais, and A.M.M.B. Morais Combined effects of chemical dip and/or carrageenan coating and/or controlled atmosphere on quality of fresh-cut banana Food Control 20 5 2009 508 514
12. Bixler, H. J., & Sanchez-Zaballero, G. (2002). Semi-refined carrageenan dentifrice binder. US 6,387,354, Shemberg Marketing Corporation.
13. A. Borthakur, S. Bhattacharyya, P.K. Dudeja, and J.K. Tobacman Carrageenan induces interleukin-8 production through distinct Bcl10 pathway in normal human colonic epithelial cells American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver 292 3 2007 G829 G838
14. R.M. Botting Mechanism of action of acetaminophen: Is there a cyclooxygenase 3? Clinical Infectious Diseases 31 2000 202 210
15. Brown, C. R., & Norton, I. T. (1991). Aqueous gel comprising carrageenan. US 5,002,934, Van Den Bergh Foods Co., Division of Conopco, Inc.
16. C.B. Buck, C.D. Thompson, J.N. Roberts, M. Muller, D.R. Lowy, and J.T. Schiller Carrageenan is a potent inhibitor of papillomavirus infection PLoS Pathogens 2 7 2006 671 680
17. P. Burtin Nutritional value of seaweeds Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2 4 2003 498 503
18. P.J. Caceres, M.J. Carlucci, E.B. Damonte, B. Matsuhiro, and E.A. Zuniga Carrageenans from Chilean samples of Stenogramme interrupta (Phyllophoraceae): Structural analysis and biological activity Phytochemistry 53 2000 81 86
19. V.L. Campo, D.F. Kawano, D.B. da Silva, and I. Carvalho Carrageenans: Biological properties, chemical modifications and structural analysis Carbohydrate Polymers 77 2009 167 180
20. P.L. Carey The digestibility of polysaccharides by rats (Thesis) 1958 Purdue University Submitted to WHO by Gray, R. J. H. International Food Additives Council, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, and P. Couchoud, Marinalg, Paris, France
21. M.J. Carlucci, C.A. Pujol, M. Ciancia, M.D. Noseda, M.C. Matulewicz, and E.B. Damonte et al. Antiherpetic and anticoagulant properties of carrageenans from the red seaweed Gigartina skottsbergii and their cyclized derivatives: Correlation between structure and biological activity International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 20 1997 97 105
22. M.J. Carlucci, L.A. Scolaro, and E.B. Damonte Inhibitory action of natural carrageenans on herpes simplex virus infection of mouse astrocytes Chemotherapy 45 1999 429 436
23. M.J. Carlucci, L.A. Scolaro, M.D. Noseda, A.S. Cerezo, and E.B. Da-monte Protective effect of a natural carrageenan on genital herpes simplex virus infection in mice Antiviral Research 64 2004 137 141
24. M.B. Cassidy, K.W. Shaw, H. Lee, and J.T. Trevors Enhanced mineralization of pentachlorophenol by k-carrageenan-encapsulated Pseudomonas sp. UG30 Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 47 1997 108 113
25. Y.P. Chao, H. Fu, T.E. Lo, P.T. Chen, and J.J. Wang One-step production of d-p-hydroxyphenylglycine by recombinant Escherichia coli strains Biotechnology Progress 15 1999 1039 1045
26. J. Chen, D.W. Appleby, P. Weber, and R. Abraham Detection of a carrageenan in rat liver homogenates after feeding in the diet Toxicologist 1 Abstr 1981 133
27. L.C.M. Chen, J. McLachlan, A.C. Neish, and P.F. Shackloch The ratio of kappa and lambda carrageenan in nuclear phases of the Rhodophycean algae, Chondrus crispus and Gigartina stellata Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 53 1973 11 16
28. +- κ-carrageenan as a weak gel Carbohydrate Polymers 50 2002 109 116
29. D.P. Cheney, A.H. Luiston, and P.M. Brailey Carrageenan analysis of tissue culture and whole plant of Agardhiella subulata Hydrobiologica 151/152 1987 161 166
30. A. Chiovitti, A. Bacic, D.J. Craik, G.T. Kraft, M.L. Liao, and R. Falshaw et al. A pyruvated carrageenan from Australian specimens of the red alga Sarconema filiforme Carbohydrate Research 310 1988 77 83
31. Codex Alimentarius Commission GSFA Online: Food Additive Details, Carrageenan 2010 407
32. I.J. Colquhoun, A.J. Jay, J. Eagles, V.J. Morris, K.J. Edwards, and A.M. Griffin et al. Structure and conformation of a novel genetically engineered polysaccharide P2 Carbohydrate Research 330 2001 325 333
33. Comer, F. W. & Strong, C. H. G. (1976). Clear, elastic, water gels based on carrageenan. US 3,962,482, Uniroyal, Ltd.
34. F. Coulston, L. Golberg, R. Abraham, K.F. Benitz, and W. Ford Carrageenans (Hercules Incorporated). Safety evaluation. Nine-month study 1975 Unpublished interim progress report from Institute of Comparative and Human Toxicology, Center of Experimental Pathology and Toxicology, Albany Medical College Albany, NY, USA Submitted to WHO by Gray, R. J. H., International Food Additives Council, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, and Couchoud, P., Marinalg, Paris, France
35. T. Coviello, P. Matricardi, C. Marianecci, and F. Alhaique Polysaccharide hydrogels for modified release formulations Journal of Control Release 119 2007 5 24
36. S. Cuzzocrea, L. Sautebin, G. De Sarro, G. Costantino, L. Rombola, and E. Mazzon et al. Role of IL-6 in the pleurisy and lung injury caused by carrageenan Journal of Immunology 163 1999 5094 5104
37. G.G. D'Ayala, M. Malinconico, and P. Laurienzo Marine derived polysaccharides for biomedical applications: Chemical modification approaches Molecules 13 2008 2069 2106
38. P.C. De SF-Tischer, L.B. Talarico, M.D. Noseda, S.M.P.B. Guimaraes, E.B. Damonte, and M.E.R. Duarte Chemical structure and antiviral activity of carrageenans from Meristiella gelidium against herpes simplex and dengue virus Carbohydrate Polymers 63 2006 459 465
39. E.T. Dewar, and M.L. Maddy Faecal excretion of degraded and native carrageenan by the young rat Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 22 1970 791 793
40. V.A.P.M. Dos Santos, M. Bruijnse, J. Tramper, and R.H. Wijffels The magic-bead concept: An integrated approach to nitrogen removal with co-immobilized micro-organisms Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 45 1996 447 453
41. V.A.P.M. Dos Santos, J. Tramper, and R.H. Wijffels Dynamic modelling of an integrated nitrogen removal system using co-immobilized microorganisms immobilized cells Progress in Biotechnology 11 1996 486 493
42. EC SCF (European Commission Scientific Committee on Food) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on carrageenan 2003 SCF/CS/ADD/EMU/199 Final
43. R. Eccles, Ch. Meier, M. Jawad, R. Weinmüllner, A. Grassauer, and E. Prieschl-Grassauer Efficacy and safety of an antiviral iota-carrageenan nasal spray: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled exploratory study in volunteers with early symptoms of the common cold Respiratory Research 11 2010 1 10
44. L.G. Ekstrom Molecular-weight-distribution and the behaviour of kappa-carrageenan on hydrolysis. Part II Carbohydrate Research 135 1985 283 289
45. L.G. Ekstrom, and J. Kuivinen Molecular weight distribution and hydrolysis behaviour of carrageenans Carbohydrate Research 116 1983 89 94
46. B. Elsenhans, R. Blume, and W.F. Caspary Long-term feeding of unavailable carbohydrate gelling agents. Influence of dietary concentration and microbiological degradation on adaptive responses in the rat American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34 1981 1837 1848
47. M. Engster, and R. Abraham Cecal response to different molecular weights and types of carrageenan in the guinea pig Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 38 1976 265 282
48. E.C. Epifanio, R.L. Veroy, F. Uyenco, G.J.B. Cajipe, and E.C. Laserna Carageenan from Eucheuma spiratum in bacteriological media Applied and Environmental Microbiology 41 1981 155 163
49. J. Estakhr, N. Sanchooli, S.H. Najafi, and N. Javdan Anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic extract of Physalis alkekengi Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences 2 2011 421 425
50. FAO FAO JECFA Monographs 4. Specifications: Carrageenan 2007 available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/jecfa-additives/details.html?id=830
51. H. Gardin, and A. Pauss Kappa-carrageenan/gelatin gel beads for the co-immobilization of aerobic and anaerobic microbial communities degrading 2,4,6-trichlorophenol under air-limited conditions Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 56 2001 517 523
52. S. Girond, J.M. Crance, H. Van Cuyck-Gandre, J. Renaudet, and R. Deloince Antiviral activity of carrageenan on hepatitis A virus replication in cell culture Research in Virology 142 1991 261 270
53. M. Glicksman Gelling Hydrocolloids in Food Product Application J.M.V. Blanshard, J.R Michell, Polysaccharides in Food 1979 Butterworths Boston
54. M.E. Gonzalez, B. Alarcon, and L. Carrasco Polysaccharides as antiviral agents: Antiviral activity of carrageenan Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31 1987 1388 1393
55. K. Gopakumar Seaweed farming and utilization in Philippines Proc. Workshop, National Aquaculture Week 1997 64 69
56. Gordon, A. L., Jones, J. J., & Pike, L. F. (1966). Preparation of carrageenan having improved water dispersibility. US 3,280,102, National Dairy Products Corporation.
57. A. Grassauer, R. Weinmuellner, C. Meier, A. Pretsch, E. Prieschl-Grassauer, and H. Unger Iota-carrageenan is a potent inhibitor of rhinovirus infection Virology Journal 5 2008 1 13
58. P. Grasso, M. Sharratt, F.M.B. Carpanini, and S.D. Gangolli Studies on carrageenan and large-bowel ulceration in mammals Food and Cosmetics Toxicology 11 1973 555 564
59. 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy Botinica Marina 27 1984 473 478
60. J. Guay, K. Bateman, R. Gordon, J. Mancini, and D. Riendeau Carrageenan-induced paw edema in rat elicits a predominant prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) response in the central nervous system associated with the induction of microsomal PGE2 synthase-1 Journal of Biological Chemistry 279 2004 24866 24872
61. Guiseley, K. B. (1978). Modified Kappa-carrageenan. US 4,096,327, FMC Corporation.
62. Guiseley, K. B. (1984). Modified extractive of Eucheuma cottonii seaweed and composition containing same. US 4,443,486, FMC Corporation.
63. J.H. Guo, G.W. Skinner, W.W. Harcum, and P.E. Barnum Pharmaceutical application of naturally occurring water soluble polymers PSTT 1 1998 254 261
64. A. Hagiwara, K. Miyashita, T. Nakanishi, M. Sano, S. Tamano, and I. Asai et al. Lack of tumor promoting effects of carrageenan on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine- induced colorectal carcinogenesis in male F344 rats Journal of Toxicology and Pathology 14 2001 37 43
65. R.L.C. Handy, and P.K. Moore A comparison of the effects of l-NAME, 7-NI and l-NIL on carrageenan-induced hindpaw oedema and NOS activity British Journal of Pharmacology 123 1998 1119 1126
66. W.W. Hawkins, and V.G. Leonard Antithrombic activity of carrageenan in human blood Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology 41 5 1963 1325 1327
67. W.W. Hawkins, and W. Yaphe Carrageenan as a dietary constituent for the rat: Faecal excretion, nitrogen absorption, and growth Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology 43 1965 479 484
68. I. Heertje Structure and function of food products: A review Food Structure 12 1993 343 364
69. M.G.M.O. Henriques, P.M.R. Silva, M.A. Martins, C.A. Flores, F.Q. Cunha, and J. Assreuy-Filho et al. Mouse paw oedema. A new model for inflammation? Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 20 1987 243 249
70. A. Hoefler Carrageenan: Chemistry, functionality, and applications 2001 Oxford PA 1 14
71. A.S. Hoffman Hydrogel for biomedical applications Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 43 2002 3 12
72. R.A. Hoffmann, A.R. Russell, and M.J. Gidley Molecular weight distribution of carrageenans G.O. Phillips, P.J. Williams, D.J. Wedlock, Gums & stabilisers for the food industry Vol. 8 1996 IRL Press at the Oxford University Press Oxford 137 148
73. L.F. Hood, and J.E. Allen Ultrastructure of carrageenan-milk sols and gels Journal of Food Science 42 1977 1062 1065
74. A.P. Imeson Ch. 5: Carrageenan G.O. Phillips, P.A. Williams, Handbook of Hydrocolloids Vol. 740 2000 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 87 102
75. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans Vol. 31 1983 World Health Organization 79 94
76. International Food Additives Council Unpublished monograph prepared by the International Food Additives Council, Washington, DC 1997 Submitted to WHO by Gray, R.J.H., International Food Additives Council, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, and Couchoud, P., Marinalg, Paris, France
77. N.K. Jain, C.S. Patil, A. Singh, and S.K. Kulkarni A simple technique to evaluate inflammatory pain along with anti-inflammatory studies in carrageenan-induced paw edema Indian Journal of Pharmacology 33 2001 114 115
78. JECFA Carrageenan and processed Eucheuma seaweed (addendum). Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants 2002 WHO Food Additives Series: 48 Prepared by the 57th Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, World Health Organization Geneva pp. 91-101
79. Ji Ming Hou Processing and extraction of phycocolloids. Report on the regional workshop on the culture and utilization of seaweeds Vol. II 1990 NACA Bangkok, Thailand 89 92
80. N. Kaliaperumal Report on the training in eucheuma culture at the Marine Sciences Center 1984 University of the Philippines Manila pp. 1-25
81. S. Kara, C. Tamerler, H. Bermek, and O. Pekcan Cation effects on sol-gel and gel-sol phase transitions of κ-carrageenan-water system International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 31 2003 177 185
82. G. Kindness, W.F. Long, and F.B. Williamson Anticoagulant effects of sulphated polysaccharides in normal and antithrombin III-deficient plasmas British Journal of Pharmacology 69 1980 675 677
83. G. Kindness, F.B. Williamson, and W.F. Long Involvement of antithrombin III in anticoagulant effects of sulphated polysaccharides Biochemical Society Transactions 8 1980 82 83
84. G. Kindness, F.B. Williamson, and W.F. Long Effect of polyanetholesulphonic acid and xylan sulphate on antithrombin III activity Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 13 88 1979 1062 1068
85. R.E. Kirk, and D.F. Othmer J.I. Kroschwitz, M. Howe-Grant, Encyclopedia of chemical technology Vol. 4 1992 John Wiley & Sons New York 942
86. J. Kost, and R. Goldbart Natural and modified polysaccharides A.J. Domb, J. Kost, D.M. Wiseman, Handbook of biodegradable polymers 1997 Harwood Academic Publisher Amsterdam 275 289
87. M. Kumar, and B.D. Sharma The storage stability and textural, physico-chemical and sensory quality of low-fat ground pork patties with carrageenan as a fat replacer International Journal of Food Science and Technology 39 1 2003 31 42
88. Larsen, P. F. (1996). Carrageenan product and a method of producing same. US 5,502,179, Grinsted Products A/S (Danisco A/S).(Copenhagen, DK).
89. P. Laurienzo Marine polysaccharides in pharmaceutical applications: An overview Marine Drugs 8 2010 2435 2465
90. A. Leibbrandt, Ch. Meier, M. Konig-Schuster, R. Weinmullner, D. Kalthoff, and B. Pflugfelder et al. Iota-carrageenan is a potent inhibitor of influenza a virus infection PLoS ONE 5 2010 1 12
91. M. Luescher-Mattli Algae, a possible source for new drugs in the treatment of HIV and other viral diseases Current Medicinal Chemistry 2 2003 219 225
92. G. Lynch, L. Low, S. Li, A. Sloane, S. Adams, and C. Parish et al. Sulfated polyanions prevent HIV infection of lymphocytes by disruption of the CD4-gp120 interaction, but do not inhibit monocyte infection Journal of Leukocyte Biology 56 1994 266 272
93. P. MacArtain, J.C. Jaacquier, and K.A. Dawson Physical characteristics of calcium induced κ-carrageenan networks Carbohydrate Polymers 53 2003 395 400
94. A.K. Mallett, A. Wise, and I.R. Rowland Hydrocolloid food additives and rat caecal microbial enzyme activities Food and Chemical Toxicology 22 1984 415 418
95. M.R. Mangione, D. Giacomazza, D. Bulone, V. Martorana, and P.L. Biario Thermoreversible gelation of κ-carrageenan: Relation between conformational transition and aggregation Biophysical Chemistry 104 2003 95 105
96. R. Mankes, and R. Abraham Lysosomal dysfunction in colonic submucosal macrophages of rhesus monkeys caused by degraded iota carrageenan Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 150 1975 166 170
97. M. Marchetti, S. Pisani, V. Pietropaolo, L. Seganti, R. Nicoletti, and N. Orsi Inhibition of herpes simplex virus infection by negatively charged and neutral carbohydrate polymers Journal of Chemotherapy 7 1995 90 96
98. A.J. Marcus, and J. Watts Ulcerative colitis in the guinea-pig caused by seaweed extract Journal of Pharmaceutical sciences and Pharmacology 21 1969 187
99. E.L. McCandles, J.A. West, and M.D. Guiry Carrageenan patterns in the Phyllophoraceae Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 10 1982 275 284
100. E.L. McCandles, J.A. West, and M.D. Guiry Carrageenan patterns in gigartinaece Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 11 1983 175 182
101. D.J. McHugh Ch. 7: Carrageenan A guide to the seaweed industry: FAO fisheries technical paper 441 2003 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome
102. A.L. Moirano Sulfated seaweed polysaccharides H. Graham, Food Colloids 1977 AVI Publishing Westport
103. Moirano, A. L. & Mountainside, N. J. (1981). Composition and method for preparing dessert gel. US 4,307,124, FMC Corporation.
104. J.C. Mollet, A. Rahaoui, and Y. Lemoine Yield, chemical composition and gel strength of agarocolloids of Gracilaria gracilis, Gracilariopsis longissima and the newly reported Gracilaria vermiculophylla from Roscoff, France Journal of Applied Phycology 10 1988 59 66
105. J. Mollion Exploitation of algal carrageenans: Global situation and perspectives in Senegal J.M. kornprobst, Marine chemistry for development 1983 84 95
106. M.J. Mollion, S. Moreau, and D. Christian Isolation of a new type of carrageenan from Rissoeulla verruculosa (Bert) J. Agardh (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) Botinica Marina 29 1986 549 552
107. E. Murano, R. Toffanin, E. Cecere, R. Rizzo, and S.H. Knutsen Investigation of the carrageenans extracted from Solieria filiformis and Agardhiella subulata from Mar. Piccolo. Taran Marine Chemistry 58 1977 319 325
108. V. Nagalakshmi, and J.S. Pai Immobilisation of penicillin acylase producing E. coli cells with κ-carrageenan Indian Journal of Microbiology 37 1997 17 20
109. F. Nantel, D. Denis, R. Gordon, A. Northey, M. Cirino, and K.M. Metters et al. Distribution and regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 in carrageenan-induced inflammation British Journal of Pharmacology 28 1999 853 859
110. P.J. Naude, A.D. Cromarty, and C.E. Van Rensburg Potassium humate inhibits carrageenan-induced paw oedema and a graft-versus-host reaction in rats Inflammopharmacology 18 2010 33 39
111. M. Nayouf Étude rhéologique et structurale de la qualité texturante du système amidon/kappa-carraghénane en relation avec le traitement thermomécanique (Thèse de Doctorat) 2003 École Nationale des Ingénieurs des Techniques des Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires Nantes, France
112. S. Nicklin, and K. Miller Effect of orally administered food-grade carrageenans on antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immunity in the inbred rat Food and Chemical Toxicology 22 1984 615 621
113. S. Nicklin, K. Baker, and K. Miller Intestinal uptake of carrageenan: Distribution and effects on humoral immune competence Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 237 1988 813 820
114. K. Nishinari, and R. Takahashi Interaction in polysaccharide solutions and gels Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 8 2003 396 400
115. G.U. Ochuba, and V.L. Von Riesen Fermentation of polysaccharides by Klebsiellae and other facultative bacteria Applied and Environmental Microbiology 39 1980 988 992
116. K. Omote, K. Hazama, T. Kawamata, M. Kawamata, Y. Nakayaka, and M. Toriyabe et al. Peripheral nitric oxide in carrageenan-induced inflammation Brain Research 912 2001 171 175
117. Y. Oohashi, T.T. Ishioka, K. Wakabayashi, and N. Kuwabara A study of carcinogenesis induced by degraded carrageenan arising from squamous metaplasia of the rat colorectum Cancer Letters 14 1981 267 272
118. L.N. Panlasigui, O.Q. Baello, J.M. Dimatangal, and D.B. Dumelod Blood cholesterol and lipid-lowering effects of carrageenan on human volunteers Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 12 2003 209 214
119. R.G. Parekh, Y.A. Doshi, A.V. Rao, and V.D. Chauhan Phycocolloid from marine red alga, Hypnea musciformis (wulf.) Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 17 1988 242 243
120. R.G. Parekh, S.K. Garg, B.R. Mehta, and D.J. Mehta Studies on extraction of κ-carrageenan from hypnea and its characterization International symposium on algae of the Indian Ocean region Bhavnagar 1979 42
121. R.G. Parekh, A.V. Rao, and V.D. Chauhan Carrageenan from marine red alga, Hypnea valentiae (Turn.) Mont Phykos 26 1988 146 151
122. M.S. Paschapur, M.B. Patil, R. Kumar, and S.R. Patil Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic extract of Borassus flabellifer L. male flowers (inflorescences) in experimental animals Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2 2009 49 54
123. M. Petersson, U. Wiberg, T. Lundeberg, and K. Uvnas-Moberg Oxytocin decreases carrageenan induced inflammation in rats Peptides 22 2001 1479 1484
124. L. Piculell Chapter 8: Gelling carrageenans A.M. Stephen, G.O. Phillips, P.A. Williams, Food polysaccharides and their applications 2nd ed. 2006 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 239 288
125. K.A. Pittman, L. Golberg, and F. Coulston Carrageenan: The effect of molecular weight and polymer type on its uptake, excretion and degradation in animals Food and Cosmetics Toxicology 14 1976 85 93
126. A. Plotto, J. Narciso, E.A. Baldwin, and N. Rattanapanone Edible coatings and other surface treatments to maintain color of lychee fruit in storage Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 119 2006 323 331
127. A. Plotto, J. Narciso, N. Rattanapanone, and E.A. Baldwin Surface treatments and coatings to maintain fresh-cut mango quality in storage Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 90 2010 2333 2341
128. G.G. Porto, B.C. Vasconcelos, V.A. Silva-Junior, and E.S. Souza Andrade The use of carrageenan for limiting the mandibular movement in rats: A preliminary experimental study Medicina Oral, Patologia Orally Cirugia Bucal 15 2010 653 657
129. I. Posadas, M. Bucci, F. Roviezzo, A. Rossi, L. Parente, and L. Sautebin et al. Carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema is biphasic, age-weight dependent and displays differential nitric oxide cyclooxygenase-2 expression British Journal of Pharmacology 142 2004 331 338
130. P. Poupin, N. Mazure, and N. Truffaut Morpholine degradation by strain Mycobacterium aurum MOI: Improvement of cells growth and morpholine degradation rate by cells immobilization Progress in Biotechnology 11 1996 770 776
131. R. Radhakrishnan, M.K.H. Bement, D. Skyba, and K.A. Sluka Models of muscle pain: Carrageenan model and acidic saline model Current Protocols in Pharmacology 25 2004 1 28
132. A. Ramirez Fast food lightens up but sales are often thin New York Times 1991 March 19
133. Randive, V. B. & Gadkari, V. K. (2008). A toothpaste composition. Indian Patent 215567.
134. B.S. Reddy, K. Watanabe, and A. Sheinfil Effect of dietary wheat bran, alfalfa, pectin and carrageenan on plasma cholesterol and fecal bile acid and neutral sterol excretion in rats Journal of Nutrition 110 1980 1247 1254
135. D.A. Rees Structure, conformation and mechanism in the formation of polysaccharide gels and networks M.L. Wolfrom, R.S. Tipson, D. Horton, Advances in carbohydrate chemistry and Biochemistry Vol. 24 1969 Academic Press London
136. M.C. Rocha de Souza, C.T. Marques, C.M.G. Dore, F.R.F. da Silva, H.A.O. Rocha, and E.L. Leite Antioxidant activities of sulfated polysaccharides from brown and red sea-weeds Journal of Applied Phycology 19 2007 153 160
137. C. Rochas Etude de la transition sol-gel du kappa-carraghenane. These Docteur es Sciences Physiques 1982 Universite Scientifique et Medicale et Institute National Polytechnique de Grenoble Grenoble, France
138. C. Rochas, M. Rinaudo, and S. Landry Relation between the molecular structure and mechanical properties of carrageenan gels Carbohydrate Polymer 10 1989 115 127
139. A. Rosen, T. Lundeberg, B. Bytner, and I. Nylander Central changes in nociceptin dynorphin B and Met-enkephalin-Arg-Phe in different models of nociception Brain Research 857 2000 212 218
140. Roy, S., & Ryan, A. L. (2002). Gel products with carrageenan. US 6,458,405, General Mills, Inc.
141. Roy, S., & Ryan, A. L. (2003). Method of preparing food products with carrageenan. US 6,663,910, General Mills, Inc.
142. D. Saha, and S. Bhattacharya Hydrocolloids as thickening and gelling agents in foods: A critical review Journal of Food Science and Technology 47 6 2010 587 597
143. D. Salvemini, S.Q. Wang, P.S. Wyatt, D.M. Bourdon, M.H. Marino, and P.T. Manning et al. Nitric oxide: A key mediator in the early and late phase of carrageenan-induced rat paw inflammation British Journal of Pharmacology 118 1996 829 838
144. A.A. Salyers, S.E.H. West, J.R. Vercellotti, and T.D. Wilkins Fermentation of mucins and plant polysaccharides by anaerobic bacteria from the human colon Applied and Environmental Microbiology 34 1977 529 533
145. Scott, G. V. (1984a). Dentifrice packaging process. US 4,473,988, Colgate-Palmolive Company.
146. Scott, G. V. (1984b). Increasing viscosity of carrageenan-containing compositions with microwave radiation. US 4,474,818, Colgate-Palmolive Company.
147. Scott, G. V. (1984c). Stabilization of carrageenan-containing toothpaste. US 4,457,908, Colgate-Palmolive Company.
148. A.K. Sen, A.K. Das, N. Banerji, A.K. Siddhanta, K.H. Mody, and B.K. Ramavat et al. A new sulfated polysaccharide with potent blood anti-coagulant activity from the red seaweed Grateloupia Indica International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 16 5 1994 279 280
149. Sewell, C. J., Riley, P. J., & Blakemore, W. R. (2010). Homogeneous, thermoreversible gel containing reduced viscosity carrageenan and products made therefrom. US 4,096,327, FMC Corporation.
150. M. Shanmugam, and K.H. Mody Heparinoid-active sulphated polysaccharides from marine algae as potential blood anticoagulant agents Current Science 79 12 2000 1672 1683
151. F.R.F. Silva, C.M.P.G. Dore, C.T. Marques, M.S. Nascimento, N.M.B. Benevides, and H.A.O. Rocha et al. Anticoagulant activity, paw edema and pleurisy induced carrageenan: Action of major types of commercial carrageenans Carbohydrate Polymers 79 2010 26 33
152. J.M. Sini, A.H. Yaro, L.O. Ayanwuyi, O.M. Aiyelero, S.M. Mallum, and K.S. Gamaniel Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of the aqueous extract of the root bark of Combretum sericeum in rodents African Journal of Biotechnology 9 2010 8872 8876
153. T.H.M. Snoeren Kappa-carrageenan. A study of its physico-chemical properties, sol-gel transition and interactions with milk 1976 (PhD Thesis), Wageningen, The Netherlands
154. R. Spieler Seaweed compound's anti-HIV efficacy will be tested in southern Africa Lancet 359 9318 2002 1675
155. D.J. Stancioff, and D.W. Renn Physiological effects of carrageenan American Cancer Society Symposium Series 15 1975 1 12
156. N.F. Stanley Carrageenans D.J. McHugh, Production and utilization of products from commercial seaweeds 1987 FAO Fisheries Technical Papers Australia ISBN: 9251026122
157. J. Stiles, L. Guptill-Yoran, G.E. Moore, and R.M. Pogranichniy Effects of κ-carrageenan on in vitro replication of feline herpesvirus and on experimentally induced herpetic conjunctivitis in cats Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 49 2008 1496 1501
158. L. Stoloff Carrageenan R.I. Whistler, Industrial Gums 1959 Academic Press New York
159. Strong, C. H. G. (1975). Process of extracting carrageenan from seaweed. US 3,907,770, Uniroyal Ltd.
160. E. Sugishita, S. Amagaya, and Y. Ogihara Antiinflammatory testing methods: Comparative evaluation of mice and rats Journal of Pharmacobiodynamics 8 1981 565 575
161. A. Swain, K.V. Waterhouse, W.A. Venables, A.G. Callely, and S.E. Lowe Biochemical studies of morpholine catabolism by an environmental mycobacterium Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 35 1 1991 110 114
162. H.E. Swaisgood Chemistry of milk protein P.F. Fox, Developments in dairy chemistry Vol. 1 1982 Applied Science Publishers London, New York 1 59
163. S. Takamatsu, and T. Tosa Production of l-alanine and d-aspartic acid Bioprocess Technology 16 1993 25 35
164. M. Takemesa, and A. Chiba Gelatin mechanism of k and i-Carrageenan investigated by correlation between the strain-optical coefficient and the dynamic shear modulus Macromolecules 34 2001 7427 7434
165. J.K. Tobacman Review of harmful gastrointestinal effects of carrageenan in animal experiments Environmental Health Perspectives 109 10 2001 983 994
166. J.K. Tobacman, and K.S. Walters Carrageenan-induced inclusions in mammary myoepithelial cells Cancer Detection and Prevention 25 6 2001 520 526
167. R.M. Tomarelli, W.D. Tucker Jr., L.M. Bauman, S. Savini, and J.R. Weaber Nutritional qualities of processed milk containing carrageenan Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 22 1974 819 824
168. Trudso, J. E. (2010a). Process for treatment of kappa carrageenan. EP 2181115A1, CP Kelco U.S., Inc.
169. Trudso, J. E. (2010b). Carrageenan. EP 2181116A1, CP Kelco U.S., Inc.
170. Trudso, J. E. (2010c). Kappa carrageenan. EP 2183264A1, CP Kelco U.S., Inc.
171. Tsai, A. G., et al. (2002). Production of carrageenan and carrageenan products. US 6,479,649, FMC Corporation.
172. Tsai, A. G., et al. (2006). Semi-refined carrageenan. US Patent 7,018,635, FMC Corporation.
173. U.S. Pharmacopeia 2010-2011 Food Chemical Codex 7th ed. 2010 The United States Pharmacopeial Convention Rockville, MD
174. J.N. Udall, P. Harmatz, G. Vachino, J. Galdabini, and W.A. Walker Intestinal transport and liver uptake of a food additive present in infant formulas (Abstract) Pediatric Research 15 1981 549
175. F. Van de Velde, N.D. Lourenco, H.M. Pinheiro, and M. Bakkerd Carrageenan: A food-grade and biocompatible support for immobilisation techniques Advanced Synthesis and Catalysis 344 2002 815 835
176. I.F. Van de Velde, and G.A. De Ruiter Chapter 9: Carrageenan S. De Baets, E.J. Vandamme, A. Steinbuchel, Biopolymers, Volume 6, Polysaccharides II: Polysaccharides from Eukaryotes 2002 Weinheim, Germany Wiley-VCH 245 273
177. K. Wakabayashi, T. Inagaki, Y. Fujimoto, and Y. Fukuda Induction by degraded carrageenan of colorectal tumors in rats Cancer Letters 4 1978 171 176
178. J.L. Wang, P. Li, H. Shi, and Y. Qian Immobilization of microorganisms using carrageenan gels coated with chitosan and application to biodegradation of 4-chlorophenol Journal of Environmental Sciences 9 1997 283 287
179. D.B. Watson Public health and carrageenan regulation: A review and analysis Journal of Applied Phycology 20 5 2008 505 513
180. J. Watt, and R. Marcus Carrageenan-induced ulceration of the large intestine in the guinea pig Gut 12 1971 164 171
181. M.L. Weiner, D. Nuber, W.R. Blakemore, J.F. Harriman, and S.M. Cohen A 90-day dietary study on 824 kappa carrageenan with emphasis on the gastrointestinal tract Food and Chemical Toxicology 45 1 2007 98 106
182. I. Wijesekara, R. Pangestuti, and S.K. Kim Biological activities and potential health benefits of sulfated polysaccharides derived from marine algae Carbohydrate Polymers 84 2011 14 21
183. M. Witvrouw, and E. DeClercq Sulfated polysaccharides extracted from sea algae as potential antiviral drugs General Pharmacology: The Vascular System 29 4 1997 497 511
184. P. Wunderwald, W.J. Schrenk, and H. Port Antithrombin BM from human plasma: An antithrombin binding moderately to heparin Thrombosis Research 15 1979 49 60
185. I. Yamamoto, H. Maruyama, M. Takahashi, and K. Komiyama The effect of dietary or intraperitoneally injected seaweed preparations on the growth of sarcoma-180 cells subcutaneously implanted into mice Cancer Letters 30 1986 125 131
186. H. Yuan, J. Song, X. Li, N. Li, and J. Dai Immunomodulation and antitumor activity of κ-carrageenan oligosaccharides Pharmacological Research 50 2004 47 53
187. H. Yuan, J. Song, X. Li, N. Li, and J. Dai Immunomodulation and antitumor activity of κ-carrageenan oligosaccharides Cancer Letters 243 2006 228 234
188. Y. Yuguchi, T.T. Thu Thuy, H. Urakawa, and K. Kajiwara Structural characteristics of carrageenan gels: Temperature and concentrations dependence Food Hydrocolloids 16 2002 515 522
189. Y. Yuguchi, H. Urakawa, and K. Kajiwara Structural characteristics of carrageenan gels: Various types of counter ions Food Hydrocolloids 17 2003 481 485
190. V.R. Zacharopoulos, and D.M. Phillips Vaginal formulations of carrageenan protect mice from herpes simplex virus infection Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 4 1997 465 468
191. L. Zeitlin, K.J. Whaley, T.A. Hegarty, T.R. Moench, and R.A. Cone Tests of vaginal microbicides in the mouse genital herpes model Contraception 56 5 1997 329 335
192. G. Zhou, W. Sheng, W. Yao, and Ch. Wang Effect of low molecular-carrageenan from Chondrus ocellatus on antitumor H-22 activity of 5-Fu Pharmacological Research 53 2006 129 134
193. G. Zhou, Y.P. Sun, X. Xin, Y. Zhang, L. Li, and Z. Xu In vivo antitumor and immunomodulation activities of different molecular weight lambda-carrageenans from Chondrus ocellatus Pharmacological Research 50 2004 47 53