Activation of mammalian Toll-like receptors by endogenous agonists

Critical Reviews in Immunology

Volumn 23, Issue 1-2, 2003, Pages 15-44

  Johnson, Geoffrey B ^a   Brunn, Gregory J ^a,b   Platt, Jeffrey L ^a,b  

^a MAYO GRADUATE SCHOOL   (United States)

^b MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

Coagulation; Degradation; Drosophila cascades; Endogenous; Heparan sulfate; Hyaluronic acid; Immunology; Infection; Inflammation; Innate immunity; Lipopolysaccharide; Mammalian; Matrix; Necrosis; Polysaccharides; R genes; Toll; Toll like receptors

Indexed keywords

HEPARAN SULFATE; HYALURONIC ACID; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE; POLYSACCHARIDE; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR;

AGONIST; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD CLOTTING; DROSOPHILA; GENE ACTIVATION; GRAFT REJECTION; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY; IMMUNOSURVEILLANCE; INFECTION; INFLAMMATION; ISCHEMIA; MAMMAL; METASTASIS; NECROSIS; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

ANIMALS; EVOLUTION; GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS; HUMANS; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES; MEMBRANE GLYCOPROTEINS; NECROSIS; RECEPTORS, CELL SURFACE; TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS;

EID: 0038454645     PISSN: 10408401     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1615/CritRevImmunol.v23.i12.20     Document Type: Review

References (346)

1. Medzhitov, R., and Janeway, C. A., Jr., Decoding the patterns of self and nonself by the innate immune system. Science 2002; 296(5566):298-300.
2. Akira, S., Mammalian Toll-like receptors. Curr Opin Immunol 2003; 15(1):5-11.
3. Beg, A. A., Endogenous ligands of Toll-like receptors: implications for regulating inflammatory and immune responses. Trends Immunol 2002; 23(11):509-512.
4. Johnson, G. B., Brunn, G. J., Tang, A. H., and Platt, J. L., Evolutionary clues to the functions of the Toll-like family as surveillance receptors. Trends Immunol 2003; 24(1):19-24.
5. Morisato, D., and Anderson, K. V., Signaling pathways that establish the dorsal-ventral pattern of the Drosophila embryo. Annu Rev Genet 1995; 29:371-399.
6. Matzinger, P., The danger model: a renewed sense of self. Science 2002; 296(5566):301-305.
7. Anderson, K. V., Jurgens, G., and Nusslein-Volhard, C., Establishment of dorsal-ventral polarity in the Drosophila embryo: genetic studies on the role of the Toll gene product. Cell 1985; 42(3):779-789.
8. Anderson, K. V., Bokla, L., and Nusslein-Volhard, C., Establishment of dorsal-ventral polarity in the Drosophila embryo: the induction of polarity by the Toll gene product. Cell 1985; 42(3):791-798.
9. Whitham, S., Dinesh-Kumar, S. P., Choi, D., Hehl, R., Corr, C., and Baker, B., The product of the tobacco mosaic virus resistance gene N: similarity to Toll and the interleukin-1 receptor. Cell 1994; 78(6):1101-1115.
10. Belvin, M. P., and Anderson, K. V., A conserved signaling pathway: the Drosophila Toll-dorsal pathway. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 1996; 12:393-416.
11. Gay, N. J. and Keith, F. J., Drosophila Toll and IL-1 receptor. Nature 1991; 351(6325):355-356.
12. Heguy, A., Baldari, C. T., Macchia, G., Telford, J. L., and Melli, M., Amino acids conserved in interleukin-1 receptors (IL-1Rs) and the Drosophila Toll protein are essential for IL-1R signal transduction. J Biol Chem 1992; 267(4):2605-2609.
13. Lemaitre, B., Nicolas, E., Michaut, L., Reichhart, J., and Hoffmann, J. A., The dorsoventral regulatory gene cassette spatzle/Toll/cactus controls the potent antifungal response in Drosophila adults. Cell 1996; 86:973-983.
14. Medzhitov, R., Preston-Hurlburt, P., and Janeway, C. A., Jr., A human homologue of the Drosophila Toll protein signals activation of adaptive immunity. Nature 1997; 388(6640):394-397.
15. Rock, F. L., Hardiman, G., Timans, J. C., Kastelein, R. A., and Bazan, J. F., A family of human receptors structurally related to Drosophila Toll. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 95:588-593.
16. Akira, S., Takeda, K., and Kaisho, T., Toll-like receptors: critical proteins linking innate and acquired immunity. Nat Immunol 2001; 2:675-680.
17. Underhill, D. M., and Ozinsky, A., Toll-like receptors: key mediators of microbe detection. Curr Opin Immunol 2002; 14(1):103-110.
18. Sieling, P. A., and Modlin, R. L., Toll-like receptors: mammalian "taste receptors" for a smorgasbord of microbial invaders. Curr Opin Microbiol 2002; 5(1):70-75.
19. Beutler, B., Toll-like receptors: how they work and what they do. Curr Opin Hematol 2002; 9(1):2-10.
20. Janeway, C. A., The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self. Immunol Today 1992; 13(1):11-16.
21. Medzhitov, R., and Janeway, C. A., Innate immunity: impact on the adaptive immune response. Curr Opin Immunol 1997; 9:4-9.
22. Beutler, B., Tlr4: central component of the sole mammalian LPS sensor. Curr Opin Immunol 2000; 12:20-26.
23. Yethon, J. A., and Whitfield, C., Lipopolysaccharide as a target for the development of novel therapeutics in Gram-negative bacteria. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 2001; 1(2):91-106.
24. Hemmi, H., Takeuchi, O., Kawai, T., Kaisho, T., Sato, S., Sanjo, H., Matsumoto, M., Hoshino, K., Wagner, H., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., A Toll-like receptor recognizes bacterial DNA. [See comments.] [Erratum appears in Nature 2001 Feb 1;409 (6820):646.]. Nature 2000; 408(6813):740-745.
25. Alexopoulou, L., Holt, A. C., Medzhitov, R., and Flavell, R. A., Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature 2001; 413(6857):732-738.
26. Takeuchi, O., Kaufmann, A., Grote, K., Kawai, T., Hoshino, K., Morr, M., Muhlradt, P. F., and Akira, S., Cutting edge: preferentially the R-stereoisomer stercoisomer of the mycoplasmal lipopeptide macrophage-activating lipopeptide-2 activates immune cells through a Toll-like receptor 2- and MyD88-dependent signaling pathway. J Immunol 2000; 164(2):554-557.
27. Takeuchi, O., Kawai, T., Muhlradt, P. F., Morr, M., Radolf, J, D., Zychlinsky, A., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., Discrimination of bacterial lipoproteins by Toll-like receptor 6. Int Immunol 2001; 13(7):933-940.
28. Johnson, G. B., Brunn, G. J., Tang, A. H., and Platt, J. L., Evolutionary dues to the functions of the Toll-like family as surveillance receptors, Trends Immunol 2003; 24(1):19-24.
29. Wallin, R. P., Lundqvist, A., More, S. H., von Bonin, A., Kiessling, R., and Ljunggren, H. G., Heat-shock proteins as activators of the innate immune system. Trends Immunol 2002; 23(3):130-135.
30. De Gregorio, E., Spellman, P. T., Tzou, P., Rubin, G. M., and Lemaitre, B., The Toll and Imd pathways are the major regulators of the immune response in Drosophila. EMBO J 2002; 21(11):2568-2579.
31. Hoffmann, J. A., and Reichhart, J. M., Drosophila innate immunity: an evolutionary perspective. Nat Immunol 2002; 3(2):121-126.
32. Fallon, P. G., Allen, R. L., and Rich, T., Primitive Toll signalling-bugs, flies, worms and man. Trends Immunol 2001; 22(2):63-66.
33. Kimbrell, D. A., and Beutler, B., The evolution and genetics of innate immunity. Nat Rev Genet 2001; 2(4):256-267.
34. O'Neill, L., The Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain: a molecular switch for inflammation and host defence. Biochem Soc Trans 2000; 28(5):557-563.
35. Holt, B. F., Hubert, D. A., and Dangl, J. L., Resistance gene signaling in plants - complex similarities to animal innate immunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2003; 15(1):20-25.
36. Kaisho, T., and Akira, S., Toll-like receptors as adjuvant receptors. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002; 1589 (1):1-13.
37. Krutzik, S. R., Sieling, P. A., and Modlin, R. L., The role of Toll-like receptors in host defense against microbial infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2001; 13:104-108.
38. Beutler, B., Endotoxin, Toll-like receptor 4, and the afferent limb of innate immunity. Curr Opin Microbiol 2000; 3(1):23-28.
39. Agnese, D. M., Calvano, J. E., Hahm, S. J., Coyle, S. M., Corbett, S. A., Calvano, S. E., and Lowry, S. F., Human Toll-like receptor 4 mutations but not CD14 polymorphisms are associated with an increased risk of Gram-negative infections. J Infect Dis 2002; 186(10):1522-1525.
40. O'Brien, A. D., Weinstein, D. A., Soliman, M. Y., and Rosenstreich, D. L., Additional evidence that the Lps gene locus regulates natural resistance to S. typhimurium in mice. J Immunol 1985; 134(5):2820-2823.
41. O'Brien, A. D., Rosenstreich, D. L., Scher, I., Campbell, G. H., MacDermott, R. P., and Formal, S. B., Genetic control of susceptibility to Salmonella typhimurium in mice: role of the LPS gene. J Immunol 1980; 124(1):20-24.
42. Rutschmann, S., Kilinc, A., and Ferrandon, D., Cutting edge: the Toll pathway is required for resistance to Gram-positive bacterial infections in Drosophila. J Immunol 2002; 168(4):1542-1546.
43. Qureshi, S, T., Gros, P., and Malo, D., The Lps locus: genetic regulation of host responses to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Inflamm Res 1999; 48(12):613-620.
44. Beutler, B., Sepsis begins at the interface of pathogen and host. Biochem Soc Trans 2001; 29(Pt 6):853-859.
45. Beutler, B., Sepsis begins at the interface of pathogen and host. Biochem Soc Trans 2001; 29:853-859.
46. b. Rietschel, E. T. and Westphal, O., Endotoxins in health and disease. In: Brade, H., Opal, S. M., Vogel, S. N., and Morrison, D. C., editors. Basel: Marcel Dekker, 1999:1-30.
47. Lee, H. K., Lee, J., and Tobias, P. S., Two lipoproteins extracted from Escherichia coli K-12 LCD25 lipopolysaccharide are the major components responsible for Toll-like receptor 2-mediated signaling. J Immunol 2002; 168(8):4012-4017.
48. Hirschfeld, M., Ma, Y., Weis, J. H., Vogel, S. N., and Weis, J. J., Cutting edge: repurification of lipopolysaccharide eliminates signaling through both human and murine Toll-like receptor 2. J Immunol 2000; 165(2):618-622.
49. Wenzel, R. P., Pinsky, M. R., Ulevitch, R. J., and Young, L., Current understanding of sepsis. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22(3):407-412.
50. Rietschel, E. T., Brade, H., Holst, O., Brade, L., Muller-Loennies, S., Mamat, U., Zahringer, U., Beckmann, F., Seydel, U., Brandenburg, K., Ulmer, A. J., Mattern, T., Heine, H., Schletter, J., Loppnow, H., Schonbeck, U., Flad, H. D., Hauschildt, S., Schade, U. F., Di Padova, F., Kusumoto, S., and Schumann, R. R., Bacterial endotoxin: chemical constitution, biological recognition, host response, and immunological detoxification. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1996; 216:39-81.
51. Heumann, D., Glauser, M. P., and Calandra, T., Molecular basis of host-pathogen interaction in septic shock. Curr Opin Microbiol 1998; 1(1):49-55.
52. Angus, D. C., Linde-Zwirble, W. T., Lidicker, J., Clermont, G., Carcillo, J., and Pinsky, M. R., Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001; 29(7):1303-1310.
53. Arbour, N. C., Lorenz,E., Schutte,B. C., Zabner, J., Kline, J. N., Jones, M., Frees, K., Watt, J. L., and Schwartz, D. A., TLR4 mutations are associated with endotoxin hyporesponsiveness in humans. Nat Genet 2000; 25:187-191.
54. Hotchkiss, R. S., and Karl, I. E., The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med 2003; 348 (2):138-150.
55. Erridge, C., Bennett-Guerrero, E., and Poxton, I. R., Structure and function of lipopolysaccharides. Microbes Infect 2002; 4(8):837-851.
56. Cryz, S. J., Jr., Pitt, T. L., Furer, E., and Germanier, R., Role of lipopolysaccharide in virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Immun 1984; 44(2):508-513.
57. Caroff, M., Brisson, J., Martin, A., and Karibian, D., Structure of the Bordetella pertussis 1414 endotoxin. FEBS Lett 2000; 477(1-2):8-14.
58. Tanamoto, K., Zahringer, U., McKenzie, G. R., Galanos, C., Rietschel, E. T., Luderitz, O., Kusumoto, S., and Shiba, T., Biological activities of synthetic lipid A analogs: pyrogenicity, lethal toxicity, anticomplement activity, and induction of gelation of Limulus amoebocyte lysate. Infect Immun 1984; 44(2):421-426.
59. Scott, M. G., Vreugdenhil, A. C., Buurman, W. A., Hancock, R. E., and Gold, M. R., Cutting edge: cationic antimicrobial peptides block the binding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to LPS binding protein. J Immunol 2000; 164(2):549-553.
60. Hancock, R. E., and Lehrer, R., Cationic peptides: a new source of antibiotics. Trends Biotechnol 1998; 16(2):82-88.
61. Hammond, S. M., Claesson, A., Jansson, A. M., Larsson, L. G., Pring, B. G., Town, C. M., and Ekstrom, B., A new class of synthetic antibacterials acting on lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis. Nature 1987; 327(6124):730-732.
62. Yang, R. B., Mark, M. R., Gurney,A. L., and Godowski, P. J., Signaling events induced by lipopolysaccharide-activated Toll-like receptor 2. J Immunol 1999; 163(2):639-643.
63. Kirschning, C. J., Wesche, H., Merrill Ayres, T., and Rothe, M., Human Toll-like receptor 2 confers responsiveness to bacterial Epopolysaccharide. J Exp Med 1998; 188(11):2091-2097.
64. Yang, R. B., Mark, M. R., Gray, A., Huang, A., Xie, M. H., Zhang, M., Goddard, A., Wood, W. I., Gurney, A. L., and Godowski, P. J., Toll-like receptor-2 mediates lipopolysaccharide-induced cellular signalling. Nature 1998; 395(6699):284-288.
65. Heine, H., Kirschning, C.J., Lien, E., Monks, B. G., Rothe, M., and Golenbock, D. T., Cutting edge: cells that carry a null allele for Toll-like receptor 2 are capable of responding to endotoxin. J Immunol 1999; 162(12):6971-6975.
66. Girard, R., Pedron, T., Uematsu, S., Balloy, V., Chignard, M., Akira, S., and Chaby, R., Lipopolysaccharides from Legionella and Rhizobium stimulate mouse bone marrow granulocytes via Toll-like receptor 2. J Cell Sci 2003; 116(Pt 2):293-302.
67. Muta, T., and Takeshige, K., Essential roles of CD14 and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein for activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 as well as TLR4 reconstitution of TLR2- and TLR4-activation by distinguishable ligands in LPS preparations. Eur J Biochem 2001; 268(16):4580-4589.
68. Qureshi, S. T., Lariviere, L., Sebastiani, G., Clermont, S., Skamene, E., Gros, P., and Malo, D., A high-resolution map in the chromosomal region surrounding the Lps locus. Genomics 1996; 31(3):283-294.
69. Poltorak, A., Smirnova, I., He, X., Liu, M. Y., Van Huffel, C., McNally, O., Birdwell, D., Alejos, E., Silva, M., Du, X., Thompson, P., Chan, E. K., Ledesma, J., Roe, B., Clifton, S., Vogel, S. N., and Beutler, B., Genetic and physical mapping of the Lps locus: identification of the Toll-4 receptor as a candidate gene in the critical region. [Erratum appears in Blood Cells Mol Dis 1999 Feb; 25(1):78.]. Blood Cells Mol Dis 1998; 24(3):340-355.
70. Poltorak, A., He,X., Smimova, I., Liu, M. Y., Huffel, C. V., Du, X., Birdwell, D., Alejos, E., Silva, M., Galanos, C., Freudenberg, M., Ricciasdi-Castagnoli, P., Layton, B., and Beutler, B., Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4 gene. Science 1998; 282:2085-2088.
71. Hoshino, K., Takeuchi, O., Kawai, T., Sanjo, H., Ogawa, T., Takeda, Y., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., Cutting edge: Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-deficient mice are hyporesponsive to lipopolysaccharide: evidence for TLR4 as the Lps gene product. J Immunol 1999; 162:3749-3752.
72. Bihl, F., Lariviere, L., Qureshi, S. T., Flaherty, L., and Malo, D., LPS-hyporesponsiveness of mnd mice is associated with a mutation in Toll-like receptor 4. Genes Immun 2001;2(1):56-59.
73. Visintin, A., Mazzoni, A., Spitzer, J. A., and Segal, D. M., Secreted MD-2 is a large polymeric protein that efficiently confers lipopolysaccharide sensitivity to Toll-like receptor 4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98(21):12156-12161.
74. Shimazu, R., Akashi, S., Ogata, H., Nagai, Y., Fukudome, K., Miyake, K., and Kimoto, M., MD-2, a molecule that confers lipopolysaccharide responsiveness on Toll-like receptor 4. J Exp Med 1999; 189:1777-1782.
75. Yang, H., Young, D. W., Gusovsky, F., and Chow, J. C., Cellular events mediated by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated Toll-like receptor 4. MD-2 is required for activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and Elk-1. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:20861-20866.
76. Nagai, Y., Akashi, S., Nagafuku, M., Ogata, M., Iwakura, Y., Akira, S., Kitamura, T., Kosugi, A., Kimoto, M., and Miyake, K., Essential role of MD-2 in LPS responsiveness and TLR4 distribution. Nat Immunol 2002; 3(7):667-672.
77. Akashi, S., Nagai, Y., Ogata, H., Oikawa, M., Fukase, K., Kusumoto, S., Kawasaki, K., Nishijima, M., Hayashi, S., Kimoto, M., and Miyake, K., Human MD-2 confers on mouse Toll-like receptor 4 species-specific lipopolysaccharide recognition. Int Immunol 2001; 13(12):1595-1599.
78. Viriyakosol, S., Kirkland, T., Soldau, K., and Tobias, P., MD-2 binds to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J Endotoxin Res 2000; 6(6):489-491.
79. da Silva Correia, J., and Ulevitch, R. J., MD-2 and TLR4 N-linked glycosylations are important for a functional lipopolysaccharide receptor. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(3):1845-1854.
80. Poltorak, A., Ricciardi-Castagnoli, P., Citterio, S., and Beutler, B., Physical contact between lipopolysaccharide and Toll-like receptor 4 revealed by genetic complementation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:2163-2167.
81. Lien, E., Means, T. K., Heine, H., Yoshimura, A., Kusumoto, S., Fukase, K., Fenton, M. J., Oikawa, M., Qureshi, N., Monks, B., Finberg, R. W., Ingalls, R. R., and Golenbock, D. T., Toll-like receptor 4 imparts ligand-specific recognition of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J Clin Invest 2000; 105(4):497-504.
82. da Silva Correia, C. J., Soldau, K., Christen, U., Tobias, P. S., and Ulevitch, R. J., Lipopolysaccharide is in close proximity to each of the proteins in its membrane receptor complex transfer from CD14 to TLR4 and MD-2. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(24):21129-21135.
83. Du, X., Poltorak, A., Silva, M., and Beutler, B., Analysis ofTlr4-mediated LPS signal transduction in macrophages by mutational modification of the receptor. [Erratum appears in Blood Cells Mol Dis 2000 Feb; 26(1):9.] Blood Cells Mol Dis 1999; 25(5-6):328-338.
84. Dziarski, R., Wang, Q. Miyake, K., Kirschning, C. J., and Gupta, D., MD-2 enables Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)-mediated responses to lipopolysaccharide and enhances TLR2-mediated responses to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and their cell wall components. J Immunol 2001; 166:1938-1944.
85. Wright, S. D., Ramos, R. A., Tobias, P. S., Ulevitch, R. J., and Mathison, J. C., CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein. Science 1990; 249:1431-1433.
86. Haziot, A., Ferrero, E., Kontgen, F., Hijiya, N., Yamamoto, S., Silver, J., Stewart, C. L., and Goyert, S. M., Resistance to endotoxin shock and reduced dissemination of Gram-negative bacteria in CD14-deficient mice. Immunity 1996; 4:407-414.
87. Perera, P. Y., Vogel, S. N., Detore, G. R., Haziot, A., and Goyert, S. M., CD14-dependent and CD14-independent signaling pathways in murine macrophages from normal and CD14 knockout mice stimulated with lipopolysaccharide or taxol. J Immunol 1997; 158(9):4422-4429.
88. Akashi, S., Ogata, H., Kirikae, F., Kirikae, T., Kawasaki, K., Nishijima, M., Shimazu, R., Nagai, Y., Fukudome, K., Kimoto, M., and Miyake, K., Regulatory roles for CD14 and phosphatidylinositol in the signaling via Toll-like receptor 4-MD-2. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 2000; 268(1):172-177.
89. Jiang, Q., Akashi, S., Miyake, K., and Petty, H. R., Lipopolysaccharide induces physical proximity between CD14 and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) prior to nuclear translocation of NF-kappa B. J Immunol 2000; 165 (7):3541-3544.
90. Wuffel, M. M., and Wright, S. D., Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein and soluble CD14 transfer lipopolysaccharide to phospholipid bilayers: preferential interaction with particular classes of lipid. J Immunol 1997; 158(8):3925-3934.
91. Wright, S. D., Tobias, P. S., Ulevitch, R. J., and Ramos, R. A., Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binding protein opsonizes LPS-bearing particles for recognition by a novel receptor on macrophages. J Exp Med 1989; 170:1231-1242.
92. Gallay, P., Barras, C., Tobias, P. S., Calandra, T., Glauser, M. P., and Heumann, D., Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein in human serum determines the tumor necrosis factor response of monocytes to LPS. J Infect Dis 1994; 170(5):1319-1322.
93. Hailman, E., Lichenstein, H. S., Wurfel, M. M., Miller, D. S., Johnson, D. A., Kelley, M., Busse, L. A., Zukowski, M. M., and Wright, S. D., Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein accelerates the binding of LPS to CD14. J Exp Med 1994; 179 (1):269-277.
94. Wurfel, M. M., Monks, B. G., Ingalls, R. R., Dedrick, R. L., Delude, R., Zhou, D., Lamping, N., Schumann, R. R., Thieringer, R., Fenton, M. J., Wright, S. D., and Golenbock, D., Targeted deletion of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein gene leads to profound suppression of LPS responses ex vivo, whereas in vivo responses remain intact. J Exp Med 1997; 186(12):2051-2056.
95. Moore, K. J., Andersson, L. P., Ingalls, R. R., Monks, B. G., Li, R., Arnaout, M. A., Golenbock, D. T., and Freeman, M. W., Divergent response to LPS and bacteria in CD14-deficient murine macrophages. J Immunol 2000; 165:4272-4280.
96. Heinrich, J. M., Bernheiden, M., Minigo, G., Yang, K. K., Schutt, C., Mannel, D. N., and Jack, R. S., The essential role of lipopolysaccharide-binding protein in protection of mice against a peritoneal Salmonella infection involves the rapid induction of an inflammatory response. J Immunol 2001; 167(3):1624-1628.
97. Jack, R. S., Fan, X., Bernheiden, M., Rune, G., Ehlers, M., Weber, A., Kirsch, G., Mentel, R., Furll, B., Freudenberg, M., Schmitz, G., Stelter, F., and Schutt, C., Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is required to combat a murine Gram-negative bacterial infection. Nature 1997; 389(6652):742-745.
98. Schutt, C., Fighting infection: the role of lipopolysaccharide binding proteins CD14 and LBP. Pathobiology 1999; 67(5-6):227-229.
99. Le Roy, D., Di Padova, F., Adachi, Y., Glauser, M. P., Calandra, T., and Heumann, D., Critical role of lipopolysaccharide-binding protein and CD14 in immune responses against Gram-negative bacteria. J Immunol 2001; 167(5):2759-2765.
100. Wurfel, M. M., Hallman, E., and Wright, S. D., Soluble CD14 acts as a shuttle in the neutralization of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by LPS-binding protein and reconstituted high density lipoprotein. J Exp Med 1995; 181(5):1743-1754.
101. Lamping, N., Dettmer, R., Schroder, N. W., Pfeil, D., Hallatschek, W., Burger, R., and Schumann, R. R., LPS-binding protein protects mice from septic shock caused by LPS or Gram-negative bacteria. J Clin Invest 1998; 101(10):2065-2071.
102. Netea, M. G., van Deuren, M., Kullberg, B. J., Cavaillon, J. M., and Van der Meer, J. W., Does the shape of lipid A determine the interaction of LPS with Toll-like receptors? Trends Immunol 2002; 23 (3):135-139.
103. Alexander, C., and Rietschel, E. T., Bacterial lipopolysaccharides and innate immunity. J Endotoxin Res 2001; 7(3):167-202.
104. Magnuson, D. K., Weintraub, A., Pohlman, T. H., and Maier, R. V., Human endothelial cell adhesiveness for neutrophils, induced by Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide in vitro, is inhibited by Bacteroides fragilis lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol 1989; 143(9):3025-3030.
105. Delahooke, D. M., Barclay, G. R., and Poxton, I. R., Tumor necrosis factor induction by an aqueous phenol-extracted lipopolysaccharide complex from Bacteroides species. Infect Immun 1995; 63(3):840-846.
106. Guo, L., Lim, K. B., Gunn, J. S., Bainbridge, B., Darveau, R. P., Hackett, M., and Miller, S. I., Regulation of lipid A modifications by Salmonella typhimurium virulence genes phoP-phoQ. Science 1997; 276(5310):250-253.
107. Hirschfeld, M., Weis, J.J., Toshchakov, V., Salkowski, C. A., Cody, M. J., Ward, D. C., Qureshi, N., Michalek, S. M., and Vogel, S. N., Signaling by Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 agonists results in differential gene expression in murine macrophages. Infect Immun 2001; 69(3):1477-1482.
108. Werts, C., Tapping, R. I., Mathison, J. C., Chuang, T. H., Kravchenko, V., Saint Girons, I., Haake, D. A., Godowski, P. J., Hayashi, F., Ozinsky, A., Underhill, D. M., Kirschning, C. J., Wagner, H., Aderem, A., Tobias, P. S., and Ulevitch, R.J., Leptospiral lipopolysaccharide activates cells through a TLR2-dependent mechanism. [See comments.] Nat. Immunol 2001; 2 (4):346-352.
109. Rosen, G., Sela, M. N., Naor, R., Halabi, A., Barak, V., and Shapira, L., Activation of murine macrophages by lipoprotein and lipooligosaccharide of Treponema denticola. Infect Immun 1999; 67(3):1180-1186.
110. Backhed, F., Meijer, L., Normark, S., and Richter-Dahlfors, A., TLR4-dependent recognition of lipopolysaccharide by epithelial cells requires sCD14. Cell Microbiol 2002; 4(8):493-501.
111. Frendeus, B., Wachtler, C., Hedlund, M., Fischer, H., Samuelsson, P., Svensson, M., and Svanborg, C., Escherichia coli P. fimbriae utilize the Toll-like receptor 4 pathway for cell activation. Mol Microbiol 2001; 40(1):37-51.
112. Abreu, M. T., Vora, P., Faure, E., Thomas, L. S., Arnold, E. T., and Arditi, M., Decreased expression of Toll-like receptor-4 and MD-2 correlates with intestinal epithelial cell protection against dysregulated proinflammatory gene expression in response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol 2001; 167(3):1609-1616.
113. Naik, S., Kelly, E. J., Meijer, L., Pettersson, S., and Sanderson, I. R., Absence of Toll-like receptor 4 explains endotoxin hyporesponsiveness in human intestinal epithelium. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2001; 32(4):449-453.
114. Schilling, J. D., Mulvey, M. A., Vincent, C. D., Lorenz, R. G., and Hultgren, S. J., Bacterial invasion augments epithelial cytokine responses to Escherichia coli through a lipopolysaccharide-dependent mechanism. J Immunol 2001; 166(2):1148-1155.
115. Cario, E., Brown, D., McKee, M., Lynch-Devaney, K., Gerken, G., and Podolsky, D. K., Commensal-associated molecular patterns induce selective Toll-like receptor-trafficking from apical membrane to cytoplasmic compartments in polarized intestinal epithelium. Am J Pathol 2002; 160(1):165-173.
116. Means, T. K., Golenbock, D. T., and Fenton, M. J., Structure and function of Toll-like receptor proteins. Life Sci 2000; 68:241-258.
117. Qureshi, S. T., Lariviere, L., Leveque, G., Clermont, S., Moore, K. J., Gros, P., and Malo, D., Endotoxin-tolerant mice have mutations in Toll-like receptor 4 (Tlr4). J Exp Med 1999; 189:615-625.
118. Xu, Y., Tao, X., Shen, B., Horng, T., Medzhitov, R., Manley, J. L., and Tong, L., Structural basis for signal transduction by the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domains. Nature 2000; 408(6808):111-115.
119. Horng, T., Barton, G. M., and Medzhitov, R., TIRAP: an adapter molecule in the Toll signaling pathway. Nat Immunol 2001; 2:835-841.
120. Fitzgerald, K A., Palsson-McDermott, E. M., Bowie, A. G., Jefferies, C. A., Mansell, A. S., Brady, G., Brint, E., Dunne, A., Gray, P., Harte, M. T., McMurray, D., Smith, D. E., Sims, J. E., Bird, T. A., and O'Neill, L. A. J., Mal (MyD88-adapter-like) is required for Toll-like receptor-4 signal transduction. Nature 2001; 413:78-83.
121. Janssens, S., and Beyaert, R., A universal role for MyD88 in TLR/IL-1R-mediated signaling. Trends Biochem Sci 2002; 27(9):474-482.
122. Yamamoto, M., Sato, S., Mori, K., Hoshino, K., Takeuchi, O., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., Cutting edge: a novel Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adapter that preferentially activates the IFN-beta promoter in the Toll-like receptor signaling. J Immunol 2002; 169(12):6668-6672.
123. Takeuchi, O., and Akira, S., MyD88 as a bottle neck in Toll/IL-1 signaling. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2002; 270:155-167.
124. Horng, T., Barton, G. M., Flavell, R. A., and Medzhitov, R., The adaptor molecule TIRAP provides signalling specificity for Toll-like receptors. Nature 2002; 420(6913):329-333.
125. Yamamoto, M., Sato, S., Hemmi, H., Sanjo, H., Uematsu, S., Kaisho, T., Hoshino, K., Takeuchi, O., Kobayashi, M., Fujita, T., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., Essential role for TIRAP in activation of the signalling cascade shared by TLR2 and TLR4. Nature 2002; 420(6913):324-329.
126. Kaisho, T., Takeuchi, O., Kawai, T., Hoshino, K., and Akira, S., Endotoxin-induced maturation of MyD88-deficient dendritic cells. J Immunol 2001; 166:5688-5694.
127. Kawai, T., Takeuchi, O., Fujita, T., Inoue, J., Muhlradt, P. F., Sato, S., and Hoshino, K., Lipopolysaccharide stimulates the MyD88-independent pathway and results in activation of IFN-regulatory factor 3 and the expression of a subset of lipopolysaccharide-inducible genes. J Immunol 2001; 167(10):5887-5894.
128. Vogel, S. N., Johnson, D., Perera, P. Y., Medvedev, A., Lariviere, L., Qureshi, S. T., and Malo, D., Cutting edge: functional characterization of the effect of the C3H/HeJ defect in mice that lack an Lpsn gene: in vivo evidence for a dominant negative mutation. J Immunol 1999; 162(10):5666-5670.
129. Hayashi, F., Smith, K. D., Ozinsky, A., Hawn, T. R., Yi, E. C., Goodlett, D. R., Eng, J. K., Akira, S., Underhill, D. M., and Aderem, A., The innate immune response to bacterial flagellin is mediated by Toll-like receptor 5. Nature 2001; 410:1099-1103.
130. Hajjar, A. M., O'Mahony, D. S., Ozinsky, A., Underhill, D. M., Aderem, A., Klebanoff, S. J., and Wilson, C. B., Cutting edge: functional interactions between Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR1 or TLR6 in response to phenol-soluble modulin. J Immunol 2001; 166(1):15-19.
131. Bulut, Y., Faure, E., Thomas, L., Equils, O., and Arditi, M., Cooperation of Toll-like receptor 2 and 6 for cellular activation by soluble tuberculosis factor and Borrelia burgdorferi outer surface protein A lipoprotein: role of Toll-interacting protein and IL-1 receptor signaling molecules in Toll-like receptor 2 signaling. J Immunol 2001; 167(2):987-994.
132. Ogata, H., Su, I., Miyake, K., Nagai, Y., Akashi, S., Mecklenbrauker, I., Rajewsky, K., Kimoto, M., and Tarakhovsky, A., The Toll-like receptor protein RP105 regulates lipopolysaccharide signaling in B cells. J Exp Med 2000; 192:23-29.
133. Miyake, K., Ogata, H., Nagai, Y., Akashi, S., and Kimoto, M., Innate recognition of lipopolysaccharide by Toll-like receptor 4/MD-2 and RP105/MD-1. J Endotoxin Res 2000; 6(5):389-391.
134. Miyake, K., Yamashita, Y., Ogata, M., Sudo, T., and Kimoto, M., RP105, a novel B cell surface molecule implicated in B cell activation, is a member of the leucine-rich repeat protein family. J Immunol 1995; 154(7):3333-3340.
135. Miura, Y., Miyake, K., Yamashita, Y., Shimazu, R., Copeland, N. G., Gilbert, D. J., Jenkins, N. A., Inazawa, J., Abe, T., and Kimoto, M., Molecular cloning of a human RP105 homologue and chromosomal localization of the mouse and human RP105 genes (Ly64 and LY64). Genomics 1996; 38(3):299-304.
136. Miyake, K., Yamashita, Y., Hitoshi, Y., Takatsu, K., and Kimoto, M., Murine B cell proliferation and protection from apoptosis with an antibody against a 105-kD molecule: unresponsiveness of X-linked immunodeficient B cells. J Exp Med 1994; 180:1217-1224.
137. Miyake, K., Shimazu, R., Kondo, J., Niki,T., Akashi, S., Ogata, H., Yamashita, Y., Miura, Y., and Kimoto, M., Mouse MD-1, a molecule that is physically associated with RP105 and positively regulates its expression. J Immunol 1998; 161:1348-1353.
138. Miura, Y., Shimazu, R., Miyake, K., Akashi, S., Ogata, H., Yamashita, Y., Narisawa, Y., and Kimoto, M., RP105 is associated with MD-1 and transmits an activation signal in human B cells. Blood 1998; 92(8):2815-2822.
139. Perera, P. Y., Mayadas, T. N., Takeuchi, O., Akira, S., Zaks-Zilberman, M., Goyert, S. M., and Vogel, S. N., CD11b/CD18 acts in concert with CD14 and Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 to elicit full lipopolysaccharide and taxol-inducible gene expression. J Immunol 2001; 166(1):574-581.
140. Triantafilou, M., and Triantafilou, K., Lipopolysaccharide recognition: CD14, TLRs and the LPS-activation cluster. Trends Immunol 2002; 23(6):301-304.
141. Triantafilou, M., Miyake, K., Golenbock, D. T., and Triantafilou, K., Mediators of innate immune recognition of bacteria concentrate in lipid rafts and facilitate Epopolysaccharide-induced cell activation. J Cell Sci 2002; 115(Pt 12):2603-2611.
142. Pfeiffer, A., Bottcher, A., Orso, E., Kapinsky, M., Nagy, P., Bodnar, A., Spreitzer, I., Liebisch, G., Drobnik, W., Gempel, K., Horn, M., Holmer, S., Hartung, T., Multhoff, G., Schutz, G., Schindler, H., Ulmer, A. J., Heine, H., Stelter, F., Schutt, C., Rothe, G., Szollosi, J., Damjanovich, S., and Schmitz, G., Lipopolysaccharide and ceramide docking to CD14 provokes ligand-specific receptor clustering in rafts. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31(11):3153-3164.
143. Thieblemont, N., and Wright, S. D., Mice genetically hyporesponsive to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exhibit a defect in endocytic uptake of LPS and ceramide. J Exp Med 1997; 185(12):2095-2100.
144. Hornef, M. W., Frisan, T., Vandewalle, A., Normark, S., and Richter-Dahlfors, A., Toll-like receptor 4 resides in the Golgi apparatus and colocalizes with internalized lipopolysaccharide in intestinal epithehai cells. J Exp Med 2002; 195(5):559-570.
145. Thieblemont, N., Thieringer, R., and Wright, S. D., Innate immune recognition of bacterial lipopolysaccharide: dependence on interactions with membrane lipids and endocytic movement. Immunity 1998; 8(6):771-777.
146. Underhill, D; M., Ozinsky, A., Hajjar, A. M., Stevens, A., Wilson, C. B., Bassetti, M., and Aderem, A., The Toll-like receptor 2 is recruited to macrophage phagosomes and discriminates between pathogens. [See comments.] Nature 1999; 401(6755):811-815.
147. Iwami, K. I., Matsuguchi, T., Masuda, A., Kikuchi, T., Musikacharoen, T., and Yoshikai, Y., Cutting edge: naturally occurring soluble form of mouse Toll-like receptor 4 inhibits lipopolysaccharide signaling. J Immunol 2000; 165(12):6682-6686.
148. O'Neill, L. A., and Greene, C., Signal transduction pathways activated by the IL-1 receptor family: ancient signaling machinery in mammals, insects, and plants. J Leukoc Biol 1998; 63(6):650-657.
149. Medzhitov, R., Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2001;1:135.
150. Takeuchi, O., and Akira, S., Toll-like receptors; their physiological role and signal transduction system. Int Immunopharmacol 2001; 1(4):625-635.
151. Martin, M. U., and Wesche, H., Summary and comparison of the signaling mechanisms of the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor family. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002; 1592(3):265-280.
152. Birchler,T., Seibl,R., Buchner, K., Loeliger, S., Seger, R., Hossle, J. P., Aguzzi, A., and Lauener, R. P., Human Toll-like receptor 2 mediates induction of the antimicrobial peptide human beta-defensin 2 in response to bacterial lipoprotein. Eur J Immunol 2001; 31(11):3131-3137.
153. Schnare,M., Barton, G. M., Holt, C. A., Takeda, K., Akira, S., and Medzhitov, R., Toll-like receptors control activation of adaptive immune responses. Nat Immunol 2001; 2:947-950.
154. Hoffmann, J. A., Kafatos, F. C., Janeway, C. A., and Ezekowitz, R. A., Phylogenetic perspectives in innate immunity. Science 1999; 284(5418):1313-1318.
155. Medzhitov, R., and Janeway, C. A., Jr., Innate immune recognition and control of adaptive immune responses. Semin Immunol 1998; 10:351-353.
156. Ricciardi-Castagnoli, P., and Granucci, F., Opinion: interpretation of
157. Freudenberg, M. A., and Galanos, C., Induction of tolerance to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-D-galactosamine lethality by pretreatment with LPS is mediated by macrophages. Infect Immun 1988; 56(5):1352-1357.
158. Adib-Conquy, M., and Cavaillon, J. M., Gamma interferon and granulocyte/monocyte colony-stimulating factor prevent endotoxin tolerance in human monocytes by promoting interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase expression and its association to MyD88 and not by modulating TLR4 expression. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(31):27927-27934.
159. Kobayashi, K., Hernandez, L. D., Galan, J. E., Janeway, C. A., Jr., Medzhitov, R., and Flavell, R. A., IRAK-M is a negative regulator of Toll-like receptor signaling. Cell 2002; 110(2):191-202.
160. Coffee, K. A., Halushka, P. V., Ashton, S. H., Tempel, G. E., Wise, W. C., and Cook, J. A., Endotoxin tolerance is associated with altered GTP-binding protein function. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73:1008-1013.
161. Kinjyo, I., Hanada,T.,Inagaki-Ohara, K., Mori, H., Aki, D., Ohishi, M., Yoshida, H., Kubo, M., and Yoshimura,A., SOCS1/JAB is a negative regulator of LPS-induced macrophage activation. Immunity 2002; 17(5):583-591.
162. Medvedev, A. E., Henneke, P., Schromm, A., Lien, E., Ingalls, R., Fenton, M. J., Golenbock, D. T., and Vogel, S. N., Induction of tolerance to lipopolysaccharide and mycobacterial components in Chinese hamster ovary/CD14 cells is not affected by overexpression of Toll-like receptors 2 or 4. J Immunol 2001; 167(4):2257-2267.
163. Zhang, G., and Ghosh, S., Negative regulation of Toll-like receptor-mediated signaling by Tollip. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(9):7059-7065.
164. Nomura, F., Akashi, S., Sakao, Y., Sato, S., Kawai, T., Matsumoto, M., Nakanishi, K., Kimoto, M., Miyake, K., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., Cutting edge: endotoxin tolerance in mouse peritoneal macrophages correlates with down-regulation of surface Toll-like receptor 4 expression. J Immunol 2000; 164:3476-3479.
165. Medvedev, A. E., Lentschat, A., Wahl, L. M., Golenbock, D. T., and Vogel, S. N., Dysregulation of LPS-induced Toll-like receptor 4-MyD88 complex formation and IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 activation in endotoxin-tolerant cells. J Immunol 2002; 169(9):5209-5016.
166. Dobrovolskaia, M. A., and Vogel, S. N., Toll receptors, CD14, and macrophage activation and deactivation by LPS. Microbes Infect 2002; 4(9):903-914.
167. Medvedev, A. E., Kopydlowski, K. M., and Vogel, S. N., Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced signal transduction in endotoxin-tolerized mouse macrophages: dysregulation of cytokine, chemokine, and Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 gene expression. J Immunol 2000; 164(11):5564-5574.
168. Sato, S., Nomura, F., Kawai, T., Takeuchi, O., Muhlradt, P. F., Takeda, K., and Akira, S., Synergy and cross-tolerance between Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2- and TLR4-mediated signaling pathways. J Immunol 2000; 165(12):7096-7101.
169. Spitzer, J. H., Visintin, A., Mazzoni, A., Kennedy, M. N., and Segal, D. M., Toll-like receptor I inhibits Toll-like receptor 4 signaling in endothelial cells. Eur J Immunol 2002; 32(4):1182-1187.
170. Alves-Rosa, F., Vulcano, M., Beigier-Bompadre, M., Fernandez, G., Palermo, M., and Isturiz, M. A., Interleukin-1 beta induces in vivo tolerance to lipopolysaccharide in mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 128(2):221-228.
171. Yamashina, S., Wheeler, M. D., Rusyn, I., Ikejima, K., Sato, N., and Thurman, R. G., Tolerance and sensitization to endotoxin in Kupffer cells caused by acute ethanol involve interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 277(3):686-690.
172. Raetz, C. R., and Whitfield, C., Lipopolysaccharide endotoxins. Annu Rev Biochem 2002; 71:635-700.
173. David, S. A., Towards a rational development of antiendotoxin agents: novel approaches to sequestration of bacterial endotoxins with small molecules. J Mol Recognit 2001; 14(6):370-387.
174. Zuany-Amorim, C., Hastewell, J., and Walker, C., Toll-like receptors as potential therapeutic targets for multiple diseases. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002; 1(10):797-807.
175. Lorenz, E., Mira, J. P., Frees, K. L., and Schwartz, D. A., Relevance of mutations in the TLR4 receptor in patients with Gram-negative septic shock. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162(9):1028-1032.
176. Kiechl, S., Lorenz, E., Reindl, M., Wiedermann, C. J., Oberhollenzer, F., Bonora, E., Willeit, J., and Schwartz, D. A., Toll-like receptor 4 polymorphisms and atherogenesis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347(3):185-192.
177. Inohara, N., Ogura, Y., and Nunez, G., Nods: a family of cytosolic proteins that regulate the host response to pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol 2002; 5(1):76-80.
178. Girardin, S. E., Sansonetti, P. J., and Philpott, D. J., Intracellular vs extracellular recognition of pathogens-common concepts in mammals and flies. Trends Microbiol 2002; 10(4):193-199.
179. Gassmann,W., Hinsch,M. E., and Staskawicz, B.J., The Arabidopsis RPS4 bacterial-resistance gene is a member of the TIR-NBS-LRR family of disease-resistance genes. Plant J 1999; 20(3):265-277.
180. Cannon, S. B., Zhu, H., Baumgarten, A. M., Spangler, R., May, G., Cook, D. R., and Young, N. D., Diversity, distribution, and ancient taxonomic relationships within the TIR and non-TIR NBS-LRR resistance gene subfamilies. J Mol Evol 2002; 54(4):548-562.
181. Inohara, N., Ogura, Y., Chen, F. F., Muto, A., and Nunez, G., Human Nodl confers responsiveness to bacterial lipopolysaccharides. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:2551-2554.
182. Girardin, S. E., Tournebize, R., Mavris, M., Page, A. L., Li, X., Stark, G. R., Bertin, J., DiStefano, P. S., Yaniv, M., Sansonetti, P. J., and Philpott, D. J., CARD4/Nodl mediates NF-kappaB and JNK activation by invasive Shigella flexneri. EMBO Rep 2001; 2(8):736-742.
183. Kobayashi, K.,Inohara,N., Hernandez, L. D., Galan, J. E., Nunez, G., Janeway, C. A., Medzhitov, R., and Flavell, R. A., RICK/Rip2/CARDIAK mediates signalling for receptors of the innate and adaptive immune systems. Nature 2002; 416(6877):194-199.
184. Dangl, J. L., and Jones, J. D., Plant pathogens and integrated defence responses to infection. Nature 2001; 411(6839):826-833.
185. Hulbert, S. H., Webb, C. A., Smith, S. M., and Sun, Q., Resistance gene complexes: evolution and utilization. Annu Rev Phytopathol 2001; 39:285-312.
186. Baker, B., Zambryski, P., Staskawicz, B., and Dinesh-Kumar, S. P., Signaling in plant-microbe interactions. Science 1997; 276:726-733.
187. Staskawicz, B. J., Mudgett, M. B., Dangl, J. L., and Galan, J. E., Common and contrasting themes of plant and animal diseases. Science 2001; 292:2285-2289.
188. Van der Hoorn, R. A., De Wit, P. J., and Joosten, M. H., Balancing selection favors guarding resistance proteins. Trends Plant Sci 2002; 7(2):67-71.
189. Van der Biezen, E. A., and Jones, J. D., Plant disease-resistance proteins and the gene-for-gene concept. Trends Biochem Sci 1998; 23(12):454-456.
190. Gallagher, J. T., Lyon, M., and Steward, W. P., Structure and function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Biochem J 1986; 236:313-325.
191. Yanagishita, M., and Hascall, V. C., Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans. J Biol Chem 1992; 267:9451-9454.
192. Tumova, S., Woods, A., and Couchman, J. R., Heparan sulfate proteoglycans on the cell surface: versatile coordinators of cellular functions. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2000; 32(3):269-288.
193. Murdoch, A. D., Dodge, G. R., Cohen, I., Tuan, R. S., and Iozzo, R. V., Primary structure of the human heparan sulfate proteoglycan from basement membrane (HSPG-2/perlecan). J Biol Chem 1992; 267:8544-8557.
194. Bemfield, M., Kokenyesi, R., Kato, M., Hinkes, M. T., Spring, J., Gallo, R. L., and Lose, E. J., Biology of the syndecans: a family of transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Annu Rev Cell Biol 1992; 8:365-393.
195. Marcum, J. A., Fritze, L. M., Nawroth, P., Stem, D., and Rosenberg, R. D., William Henry Howell and Jay McLean: the experimental context for the discovery of heparin. J Biol Chem 1986; 261:7507-7517.
196. Casu, B. Structure and biological activity of heparin. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry, Vol. 43. New York: Academic Press, 1985:51-134.
197. Laurent, T. C., Laurent, U. B., and Fraser, J. R., The structure and function of hyaluronan: an overview, Immunol Cell Biol 1996; 74(2):A1-7.
198. Noble, P. W., Hyaluronan and its catabolic products in tissue injury and repair. Matrix Biol 2002; 21(1):25-29.
199. Kato, M., Wang, H., Kainulainen, V., Fitzgerald, M. L., Ledbetter, S., Ornitz, D. M., and Bernfield, M., Physiological degradation converts the soluble syndecan-1 ectodomain from an inhibitor to a potent activator of FGF-2. Nat Med 1998; 4:691-697.
200. Subramanian, S. V., Fitzgerald, M. L., and Bernfield, M., Regulated shedding of syndecan-1 and -4 ectodomains by thrombin and growth factor receptor activation. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:14713-14720.
201. Johnson, G. B., Brunn, G.J., Kodaira, Y., and Platt, J. L., Receptor-mediated monitoring of tissue well-being via detection of soluble heparan sulfate by Toll-like receptor 4. J Immunol 2002; 168(10):5233-5239.
202. Termeer, C., Benedix, F., Sleeman, J., Fieber, C., Voith, U., Ahrens, T., Miyake, K., Freudenberg, M., Galanos, C., and Simon, J. C., Oligosaccharides of hyaluronan activate dendritic cells via Toll-like receptor 4. J Exp Med 2002; 195(1):99-111.
203. Bame, K. J., Heparanases: endoglycosidases that derade heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Glycobiol 2001; 11(6):91R-98R.
204. Ihrcke, N. S., Parker, W., Reissner, K. J., and Platt, J. L., Regulation of platelet heparanase during inflammation: role of pH and proteinases. J Cell Physiol 1998; 175:255-267.
205. Saadi, S., Wrenshall, L. E., and Platt, J. L., Regional manifestations and control of the immune system. FASEB J 2002; 16(8):849-856.
206. Thompson, R. C., and Ohlsson, K., Isolation, properties, and complete amino acid sequence of human secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, a potent inhibitor of leukocyte elastase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986; 83(18):6692-6696.
207. Kramer, R. H., Vogel, K. G., and Nicolson, G. L., Solubilization and degradation of subendothelial matrix glycoproteins and proteoglycans by metastatic tumor cells. J Biol Chem 1982; 257:2678-2686.
208. Bar-Ner, M., Kramer, M. D., Schirrmacher, V., Ishai-Michaeli, R., Fuks, Z., and Vlodavsky, I., Sequential degradation of heparan sulfate in the subendothelial extracellular matrix by highly metastatic lymphoma cells. Int J Cancer 1985; 35:483-491.
209. Csoka, T. B., Frost, G. I., and Stern, R., Hyaluronidases in tissue invasion. Invasion Metastasis 1997; 17(6):297-311.
210. Baker, J. R., and Pritchard, D. G., Action pattern and substrate specificity of the hyaluronan lyase from group B streptococci. Biochem J 2000; 348(Pt 2):465-467.
211. Cote, F., Ham, K. S., Hahn, M. G., and Bergmann, C. W., Oligosaccharide elicitors in host-pathogen interactions. Generation, perception, and signal transduction. Subcell Biochem 1998; 29:385-432.
212. Darvill, A., Augur, C., Bergmann, C., Carlson, R. W., Cheong, J. J., Eberhard, S., Hahn, M. G., Lo, V. M., Marfa, V., Meyer, B. et al., Oligosaccharins oligosaccharides that regulate growth, development and defence responses in plants. Glycobiology 1992; 2(3):181-198.
213. Vlodavsky, I., Eldor, A., Haimovitz-Friedman, A., Matzner, Y., Ishai-Michaeli, R., Lider, O., Naparstek, Y., Cohen, I. R., and Fuks, Z., Expression of heparanase by platelets and circulating cells of the immune system: possible involvement in diapedesis and extravasation. Invasion Metastasis 1992; 12(2):112-127.
214. Matzner,Y.,Bar-Ner,M., Yahalom, J., Ishai-Michaeli, R., Fuks, Z., and Vlodavsky, I., Degradation of heparan sulfate in the subendothelial extracellular matrix by a readily released heparanase from human neutrophils: possible role in invasion through basement membranes. J Clin Invest 1985; 76:1306-1313.
215. Bashkin, P., Razin, E., Eldor, A., and Vlodavsky, I., Degranulating mast cells secrete an endoglycosidase that degrades heparan sulfate in subendothelial extracellular matrix. Blood 1990; 75:2204-2212.
216. Naparstek, Y., Cohen, I. R., Fuks, Z., and Vlodavsky, I., Activated T-lymphocytes produce a matrix-degrading heparan sulfate endoglycosidase. Nature 1984; 310:241-244.
217. Vercellotti, G. M., Key, N. S., Platt, J. L., and Jacob, H. S., Neutrophil proteases cleave endothelial proteoglycan core protein: potential role in inflammatory thrombosis. J Cell Biochem Suppl 1990; 14E:217.
218. Wrenshall, L. E., Cerra, F. B., Geller, R. L., Carlson, A., Bach, F. H., and Platt, J. L., Heparan sulfate augments the splenocyte response to mitogenic stimuli. Transplant Proc 1991; 23:325.
219. Platt, J. L., Dalmasso, A. P., Lindman, B. J., Ihrcke, N. S., and Bach, F. H., The role of CSa and antibody in the release of heparan sulfate from endothelial cells. Eur J Immunol 1991; 21:2887-2890.
220. Wrenshall, L. E., Cerra, F. B., Carlson, A., Bach, F. H., and Platt, J. L., Regulation of murine splenocyte responses by heparan sulfate. J Immunol 1991; 147:455-459. 219.
221. Platt, J. L., Vercellotti, G. M., Lindman, B. J., Oegema, T. R., Jr., Bach, F. H., and Dalmasso, A. P., Release of heparan sulfate from endothelial cells: implications for the pathogenesis of hyperacute rejection. J Exp Med 1990; 171:1363-1368.
222. Ihrcke, N. S., and Platt, J. L., Antibody and complement activated endothelial cells release partially degraded heparan sulfate. FASEB J 1992; 14:500-505.
223. Kjellen, L., and Lindahl, U., Proteoglycans: structures and interactions. Annu Rev Biochem 1991; 60:443-475.
224. Roughley, P. J., and Lee, E. R., Cartilage proteoglycans: structure and potential functions. Microsc Res Tech 1994; 28(5):385-397.
225. Rabenstein, D. L., Heparin and heparan sulfate: structure and function. Nat Prod Rep 2002; 19(3):312-31.
226. Patel, D, D., Koopmann, W., Imai, T., Whichard, L. P., Yoshie, O., and Krangel, M. S., Chemokines have diverse abilities to form solid phase gradients. Clin Immunol 2001; 99(1):43-52.
227. Stenlund, P., Lindberg, M. J., and Tibell, L. A., Structural requirements for high-affinity heparin binding: alanine scanning analysis of charged residues in the C-terminal domain of human extracellular superoxide dismutase. Biochemistry 2002; 41(9):3168-3175.
228. Termeer, C. C., Hennies, J., Voith, U., Ahrens, T., Weiss, J. M., Prehm, P., and Simon, J. C., Oligosaccharides of hyaluronan are potent activators of dendritic cells. J Immunol 2000; 165:1863-1870.
229. Kainulainen, V.,Wang, H., Schick, C., and Bernfield, M., Syndecans, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, maintain the proteolytic balance of acute wound fluids. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:11563-11569.
230. Kodaira, Y., Nair, S. K., Wrenshall, L. E., Gilboa, E., and Platt, J. L., Phenotypic and functional maturation of dendritic cells modulated by heparan sulfate. J Immunol 2000; 165:1599-1604.
231. Aruffo, A., Stamenkovic, I., Melnick, M., Underhill, C. B., and Seed, B., CD44 is the principal cell surface receptor for hyaluronate. Cell 1990; 61:1303-1313.
232. Lesley, J., Hyman, R., and Kincade, P. W., CD44 and its interaction with extracellular matrix. Adv Immunol 1993; 54:271-335.
233. Khaldoyanidi, S., Moll, J., Karakhanova, S., Herrlich, P., and Ponta, H., Hyaluronate-enhanced hematopoiesis: two different receptors trigger the release of interleukin-1beta and interleukin-6 from bone marrow macrophages. Blood 1999; 94(3):940-949.
234. Wrenshall, L. E., Cerra, F. B., Singh, R. K., and Platt, J. L., Heparan sulfate initiates signals in murine macrophages leading to divergent biological outcomes. J Immunol 1995; 154:871-880.
235. Reiter, W. D.,Biosynthesis and properties of the plant cell wall. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2002; 5(6):536-542.
236. Cote, F., and Hahn, M. G., Oligosaccharins: structures and signal transduction. Plant Mol Biol 1994; 26:1379-1411.
237. Lawrence, O., Rachie, N., Qureshi, N., Bomsztyk, K., and Sibley, C. H., Diphosphoryl lipid A from Rbodobacter sphaeroides transiently activates NF-kappa B but inhibits lipopolysaccharide induction of kappa light chain and Oct-2 in the B-cell lymphoma line 70Z/3. Infect Immun 1995; 63:1040-1046.
238. Jarvis, B. W., Lichenstein, H., and Qureshi, N., Diphosphoryl lipid A from Rhodobacter sphaeroides inhibits complexes that form in vitro between lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein, soluble CD14, and spectrally pure LPS. Infect Immun 1997; 65:3011-3016.
239. Ozinsky, A., Underhill, D. M., Fontenot, J. D., Hajjar, A. M., Smith, K. D., Wilson, C. B., Schroeder, L., and Aderem, A.,The repertoire for partern recognition of pathogens by the innate immune system is defined by cooperation between Toll-like receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97(25):13766-13771.
240. Alexopoulou, L., Thomas, V., Schnare, M., Lobet, Y., Anguita, J., Schoen, R. T., Medzhitov, R., Fikrig, E., and Flavell, R. A., Hyporesponsiveness to vaccina tion with Borrelia burgdoferi OspA in humans and in TLR1- and TLR2-deficient mice. Nat Med 2002; 8(8):878-884.
241. Takeuchi, O., Sato, S., Horiuchi, T., Hoshino, K., Takeda, K., Dong, Z., Modlin, R. L., and Akira, S., Cutting edge: role of Toll-like receptor 1 in mediating immune response to microbial lipoproteins. J Immunol 2002; 169(1):10-14.
242. Henneke, P., Takeuchi, O., van Strijp, J. A., Guttormsen, H. K., Smith, J. A., Schromm, A. B., Espevik, T. A., Akira, S., Nizet, V., Kasper, D. L., and Golenbock, D. T., Novel engagement of CD14 and multiple Toll-like receptors by group B streptococci. J Immunol 2001; 167(12):7069-7076.
243. Muroi, M., Ohnishi, T., and Tanamoto, K., Regions of the mouse CD14 molecule required for Toll-like receptor 2- and 4-mediated activation of NF-kappa B. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(44):42372-42379.
244. Wani, M. C., Taylor, H. L., Wall, M. E., Coggon, P., and McPhail, A. T., Plant antitumor agents. VI. Isolation and structure of taxol, a novel antileukemic and antitumor agen from Taxus brevifolia. J Am Chem Soc 1971; 93(9):2325-2327.
245. Holton, R. A., Somoza, C., Kim, H. B., Liang, F., Biediger, R. J., Boatman, P. D., Shindo, M., Smith, C. C., Kim, S., Nadizadeh, H., Suzuki, Y., Tao, C., Vu, P., Tang, S., Pingsheng, Z., Murthi, K. K., Gentile, L. N., and Liu, J. H., First total synthesis of taxol. 1. Functionalization of the B ring. J Am Chem Soc 1994; 116(4):1597-1598.
246. Danishefsky, S. J., Masters, J. J., Young, W. B., Link, J. T., Snyder, L. B., Magee, T. V., Jung, D. K., Isaacs, R. C. A., Bornmann, W. G., Alaimo, C. A., Coburn, C. A., and Di Grandi, M. J., Total synthesis of baccatin III and taxol. J Am Chem Soc 1996; 118 (12):2843-2859.
247. Muhlradt, P. F., and Sasse, F., Epothilone B stabilizes microtubuli of macrophages like taxol without showing taxol-like endotoxin activity. Cancer Res 1997; 57(16):3344-3346.
248. Kawasaki, K., Akashi, S., Shimazu, R., Yoshida, T., Miyake, K., and Nishijima, M., Mouse Toll-like receptor 4. MD-2 complex mediates lipopolysaccharidemimetic signal transduction by Taxol. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:2251-2254.
249. Kirikae, F., Kirikae, T., Qureshi, N., Takayama, K., Morrison, D. C., and Nakano, M., CD14 is not involved in Rhodobacter sphaeroides diphosphoryl lipid A inhibition of tumor necrosis factor alpha and nitric oxide induction by taxol in murine macrophages. Infect Immun 1995; 63:486-497.
250. Bhat, N., Perera, P. Y., Carboni, J. M., Blanco, J., Golenbock, D. T., Mayadas, T. N., and Vogel, S. N., Use of a photoactivatable taxol analogue to identify unique cellular targets in murine macrophages: identification of murine CD18 as a major taxol-binding protein and a role for Mac-1 in taxol-induced gene expression. J Immunol 1999; 162(12):7335-7342.
251. Kawasaki, K., Gomi, K., and Nishijima, M., Cutting edge: Gln22 of mouse MD-2 is essential for species-specific lipopolysaccharide mimetic action of taxol. J Immunol 2001; 166:11-14.
252. Kawasaki, K., Akashi, S., Shimazu, R., Yoshida, T., Miyake, K., and Nishijima, M., Involvement of TLR4/MD-2 complex in species-specific lipopolysaccharide mimetic signal transduction by Taxol. J Endotoxin Res 2001; 7(3):232-236.
253. Gomi, K., Kawasaki, K., Kawai, Y., Shiozaki, M., and Nishijima, M., Toll-like receptor 4-M.D-2 complex mediates the signal transduction induced by flavoepin, an amino acid-containing lipid unique to Flavobacterium meningosepticum. J Immunol 2002; 168(6):2939-2943.
254. Magnusson, M. K., and Mosher, D. F., Fibronectin-structure, assembly, and cardiovasular implications. Arteriosder Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 18:1363-1370.
255. Lyon, M., Rushton, G., Askari, J. A., Humphries, M.J., and Gallagher, J. T., Elucidation of the structural features of heparan sulfate important for interaction with the Hep-2 domain of fibronectin. J Biol Chem 2000; 275(7):4599-4606.
256. Okamura, Y., Watari, M., Jerud, E. S., Young, D. W., Ishizaka, S. T., Rose, J., Chow, J. C., and Strauss, J. F. I., The extra domain A of fibronectin activates Toll-like receptor 4. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:10229-10233.
257. Bauters, C., Marotte, F., Hamon, M., Oliviero, P., Farhadian, F., Robert, V., Samuel, J. L., and Rappaport, L., Accumalation of fetal fibronectin mRNAs after balloon denudation of rabbit arteries. Circulation 1995; 92(4):904-911.
258. Hultmark, D., Drosophila immunity: paths and patterns. Curr Opin Immunol 2003; 15(1):12-19.
259. DeLotto, Y., and DeLotto, R., Proteolytic processing of the Drosophila Spatzle protein by easter generates a dimeric NGF-like molecule with ventralising activity. Mech Dev 1998; 72(1-2):141-148.
260. Imler, J. L., and Hoffmann, J. A., Signaling mechanisms in the antimicrobial host defense of Drosophila. Curr Opin Microbiol 2000; 3(1):16-22.
261. Levashina, E. A., Langley, E., Green, C., Gubb, D., Ashburner, M., Hoffmann, J. A., and Reichhart, J. M., Constitutive activation of Toll-mediated antifungal defense in serpin-deficient Drosophila. Science 1999; 285(5435):1917-1919.
262. Robertson, A. S., Belorgey, D., Lilley, K. S., Lomas, D. A., Gubb, D., and Daffom, T. R., Characterization of the necrotic protein that regulates the Toll-mediated immune response in Drosophila. J Biol Chem 2002; 278:6175-6180.
263. Green, C., Levashina, E., McKimmie, C., Dafforn, T., Reichhart, J. M., and Gubb, D., The necrotic gene in Drosophila corresponds to one of a cluster of three serpin transcripts mapping at 43A1.2. Genetics 2000; 156(3):1117-1127.
264. Irving, J. A., Pike, R. N., Lesk, A. M., and Whisstock, J. C., Phylogeny of the serpin superfamily: implications of patterns of amino acid conservation for structure and function. Genome Res 2000; 10(12):1845-1864.
265. Ligoxygakis, P., Pelte, N., Hoffmann, J. A., and Reichhart, J. M., Activation of Drosophila Toll during fungal infection by a blood serine protease. Science 2002; 297(5578):114-116.
266. Michel, T., Reichhart, J. M., Hoffmann, J. A., and Royet, J., Drosophila Toll is activated by Gram-positive bacteria through a circulating peptidoglycan recognition protein. Nature 2001; 414(6865):756-759.
267. Ashida, M., and Brey, P. T., Role of the integument in insect defense: pro-phenol oxidase cascade in the cuticular matrix. Proc Nad Acad Sci U S A 1995; 92(23):10698-10702.
268. Nappi, A. J., and Ottaviani, E., Cytotoxicity and cytotoxic molecules in invertebrates. Bioessays 2000; 22(5):469-480.
269. Yoshida, H., Kinoshita, K., and Ashida, M., Purification of a peptidoglycan recognition protein from hemolymph of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. J Biol Chem 1996; 271(23):13854-13860.
270. Yu, X. Q:., Gan, H., and Kanost, M. R., Immulectin, an inducible C-type lectin from an insect, Manduca sexta, stimulates activation of plasma prophenol oxidase. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 1999; 29(7):585-597.
271. Ma, C., and Kanost, M. R., A beta1,3-glucan recognition protein from an insect, Manduca sexta, agglutinates microorganisms and activates the phenoloxidase cascade. J Biol Chem 2000; 275(11):7505-7514.
272. Ochiai, M., and Ashida, M., A pattern recognition protein for peptidoglycan. Cloning the cDNA and the gene of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. J Biol Chem 1999; 274(17):11854-11858.
273. Ligoxygakis, P., Pelte, N., Ji, C., Leclerc, V., Duvic, B., Belvin, M., Jiang, H., Hoffmann, J. A., and Reichhart, J. M., A serpin mutant links Toll activation to melanization in the host defence of Drosophila. EMBO J 2002; 21(23):6330-6337.
274. De Gregorio, E., Han, S. J., Lee, W. J., Baek, M. J., Osaki, T., Kawabata, S., Lee, B. L., Iwanaga, S., Lemaitre, B., and Brey, P. T., An immune-responsive serpin regulates the melanization cascade in Drosophila. Dev Cell 2002; 3(4):581-592.
275. Khush, R. S., Leulier, F., and Lemaitre, B., Drosophila immunity: two paths to NF-kappaB. Trends Immunol 2001; 22(5):260-264.
276. Lemaitre, B., Kromer-Metzger, E., Michaut, L., Nicolas, E., Meister, M., Georgel, P., Reichhart, J. M., and Hoffmann, J. A., A recessive mutation, immune deficiency (imd), defines two distinct control pathways in the Drosophila host defense. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995; 92(21):9465-9469.
277. Georgel, P., Naitza, S., Kappler, C., Ferrandon, D., Zachary, D., Swimmer, C., Kopczynski, C., Duyk, G., Reichhart, J. M., and Hoffmann, J. A., Drosophila immune deficiency (IMD) is a death domain protein that activates antibacterial defense and can promote apoptosis. Dev Cell 2001; 1(4):503-514.
278. Gottar, M., Gobert, V., Michel, T., Belvin, M., Duyk, G., Hoffmann, J. A., Ferrandon, D., and Royet, J., The Drosophila immune response against Gramnegative bacteria is mediated by a peptidoglycan recognition protein. Nature 2002; 416(6881):640-644.
279. Choe, K. M., Werner, T., Stoven, S., Hultmark, D., and Anderson, K. V., Requirement for a peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP) in relish activation and antibacterial immune responses in Drosophila. Science 2002; 296(5566):359-362.
280. Ramet, M., Manfruelli, P., Pearson,A., Mathey-Prevot, B., and Ezekowitz, R. A., Functional genomic analysis of phagocytosis and identification of a Drosophila receptor for E. coli. Nature 2002; 416(6881):644-648.
281. Meister, M., Lemaitre, B., and Hoffmann, J. A., Antimicrobial peptide defense in Drosophila. Bioessays 1997; 19(11):1019-1026.
282. Tzou, P., Reichhart, J. M., and Lemaitre, B., Constitutive expression of a single antimicrobial peptide can restore wild-type resistance to infection in immunodeficient Drosophila mutants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99(4):2152-2157.
283. Smith, C. L., and DeLotto, R., Ventralizing signal determined by protease activation in Drosophila embryogenesis. Nature 1994; 368(6471):548-551.
284. Anderson, K. V., Pinning down positional information: dorsal-ventral polarity in the Drosophila embryo. Cell 1998; 95(4):439-442.
285. Schneider, D. S., Jin, Y., Morisato, D., and Anderson, K. V., A processed form of the Spatzle protein defines dorsal-ventral polarity in the Drosophila embryo. Development 1994; 120(5):1243-1250.
286. Morisato, D., and Anderson, K. V., The spatzle gene encodes a component of the extracellular signaling pathway establishing the dorsal-ventral pattern of the Drosophila embryo. Cell 1994; 76(4):677-688.
287. LeMosy, E. K., Hong, C. C., and Hashimoto, C., Signal transduction by a protease cascade. Trends Cell Biol 1999; 9(3):102-107.
288. Tauszig, S., Jouanguy, E., Hoffmann, J. A., and Imler, J. L., From the cover: Toll-related receptors and the control of antimicrobial peptide expression in Drosophila, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97 (19):10520-10525.
289. Williams, M. J., Rodriguez, A., Kimbrell, D. A., and Eldon, E. D., The 18-wheeler mutation reveals complex antibacterial gene regulation in Drosophila host defense. EMBO J 1997; 16:6120-6130.
290. DeLotto, R., and Spierer, P., A gene required for the specification of dorsal-ventral pattern in Drosophila appears to encode a serine protease. Nature 1986; 323 (6090):688-692.
291. Chasan, R., and Anderson, K. V., The role of easter, an apparent serine protease, in organizing the dorsalventral pattern of the Drosophila embryo. Cell 1989; 56(3):391-400.
292. Konrad, K. D., Goralski, T. J., Mahowald, A. P., and Marsh, J. L., The gastrulation defective gene of Drosophila melanogaster is a member of the serine protease superfamily. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 95(12):6819-6824.
293. Furie, B., and Furie, B. C., The molecular basis of blood coagulation. Cell 1988; 53(4):505-518.
294. Kalafatis, M., Swords, N. A., Rand, M. D., and Mann, K. G., Membrane-dependent reactions in blood coagulation: role of the vitamin K-dependent enzyme complexes, Biochim Biophys Acta 1994; 1227(3):113-129.
295. Bourin, M. C., and Lindahl, U., Glycosaminoglycans and the regulation of blood coagulation. Biochem J 1993; 289(Pt 2):313-330.
296. Misra, S., Hecht, P., Maeda, R., and Anderson, K. V., Positive and negative regulation of Easter, a member of the serine protease family that controls dorsal-ventral patterningin the Drosophila embryo. Development 1998; 125(7):1261-1267.
297. Mansell, A., Reinicke, A., Worrall, D. M., and O'Neill, L. A., The serine protease inhibitor antithrombin III inhibits LPS-mediated NF-kappaB activation by TLR-4. FEBS Lett 2001; 508(3):313-317.
298. Smiley, S. T., King, J. A., and Hancock, W. W., Fibrinogen stimulates macrophage chemokine secretion through Toll-like receptor 4. J Immunol 2001; 167:2887-2894.
299. Freeman, B. D., and Buchman, T. G., Coagulation inhibitors in the treatment of sepsis. Exp Opin Invest Drugs 2002; 11(1):69-74.
300. Backhed, F., Normark, S., and Richter-Dahlfors, A., TLR4-dependent lipopolysaccharide signalling in epithelial cells is independent of extracellular protease activity. Cell Microbiol 2002; 4(5):297-303.
301. Li, M., Carpio, D. F., Zheng, Y., Bruzzo, P., Singh, V., Ouaaz, F., Medzhitov, R. M., and Beg, A. A., An essential role of the NF-kappa B/Toll-like receptor pathway in induction of inflammatory and tissue-repair gene expression by necrotic cells. J Immunol 2001; 166:7128-7135.
302. Kirschning, C. J., and Schumann, R. R., TLR2: cellular sensor for microbial and endogenous molecular patterns. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2002; 270:121-144.
303. Ohashi, K., Burkart, V., Flohe, S., and Kolb, H., Cutting edge: heat shock protein 60 is a putative endogenous ligand of the Toll-like receptor-4 complex. J Immunol 2000; 164:558-561.
304. Vabulas, R. M., Ahmad-Nejad, P., da Costa, C., Miethke, T., Kirschning, C. J., Hacker, H., and Wagner, H., Endocytosed HSP60s use Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 to activate the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor signaling pathway in innate immune cells. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(33):31332-31339.
305. Vabulas, R. M., Braedel, S., Hilf, N., Singh-Jasuja, H., Herter, S., Ahmad-Nejad, P., Kirschning, C. J., Da Costa, C., Rammensee, H. G., Wagner, H., and Schild, H., The endoplasmic reticulum-resident heat shock protein Gp96 activates dendritic cells via the Toll-like receptor 2/4 pathway. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(23):20847-20853.
306. Asea, A., Rehli, M., Kabingu, E., Boch, J. A., Bare, O., Auron, P. E., Stevenson, M. A., and Calderwood, S. K., Novel signal transduction pathway utilized by extracellular HSP70: role of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(17):15028-15034.
307. Randow, F., and Seed, B., Endoplasmic reticulum chaperone gp96 is required for innate immunity but not cell viability. Nat Cell Biol 2001; 3(10):891-896.
308. Li, Z., Dai, J., Zheng, H., Liu, B., and Caudill, M., An integrated view of the roles and mechanisms of heat shock protein gp96-peptide complex in eliciting immune response. Front Biosci 2002; 7:731-751.
309. Vabulas, R. M., Wagner, H., and Schild, H., Heat shock proteins as ligands of Toll-like receptors. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2002; 270:169-184.
310. Palliser, D., Unraveling the mechanisms by which heat shock proteins activate the immune system. Curr Opin Mol Ther 2001; 3(1):25-30.
311. Leadbetter, E. A., Rifkin, I. R., Hohlbaum, A. M., Beaudette, B. C., Shlomchik, M. J., and Marshak-Rothstein, A., Chromatin-IgG complexes activate B cells by dual engagement of IgM and Toll-like receptors. Nature 2002; 416(6881):603-607.
312. Gao, B., and Tsan, M. F., Endotoxin contamination in recombinant human heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) preparation is responsible for the induction of tumor necrosis factor alpha release by murine macrophages, J Biol Chem 2003; 278(1):174-179.
313. Schroder, J. M., and Harder, J., Human beta-defensin-2. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 1999; 31(6):645-651.
314. O'Neil, D. A., Porter, E. M., Elewaut, D., Anderson, G. M., Eckmann, L., Ganz, T., and Kagnoff, M. F., Expression and regulation of the human beta-defensins hBD-1 and hBD-2 in intestinal epithelium. J Immunol 1999; 163(12):6718-6724.
315. Lehrer, R. I., Lichtenstein, A. K., and Ganz, T., Defensins: antimicrobial and cytotoxic peptides of mammalian cells. Annu Rev Immunol 1993; 11:105-128.
316. Lehrer, R. I., and Ganz, T., Defensins of vertebrate animals. Curr Opin Immunol 2002; 14(1):96-102.
317. Harder, J., Bartels, J., Christophers, E., and Schroder, J. M., A peptide antibiotic from human skin. Nature 1997; 387(6636):861.
318. Ganz, T., Selsted, M. E., Szklarek, D., Harwig, S. S., Daher, K., Bainton, D. F., and Lehrer, R. I., Defensins. Natural peptide antibiotics of human neutrophils. J Clin Invest 1985; 76(4):1427-1435.
319. Biragyn, A., Ruffini, P. A., Leifer, C. A., Klyushnenkova, E., Shakhov, A., Chertov, O., Shirakawa, A. K., Farber, J. M., Segal, D. M., Oppenheim, J. J., and Kwak, L. W., Toll-like receptor 4-dependent activation of dendritic cells by beta-defensin 2. Science 2002; 298(5595):1025-1029.
320. Guillot, L., Balloy V., McCorrnack, F.X., Golenbock, D. T., Chignard, M., and Si-Tahar, M., Cutting edge: the immunostimulatory activity of the lung surfactant protein-A involves Toll-like receptor 4. J Immunol 2002; 168(12):5989-5992.
321. Shepherd, V. L., and Lopez, J. P., The role of surfactant-associated protein A in pulmonary host defense. Immunol Res 2001; 23(2-3):111-120.
322. Phelps, D. S., Surfactant regulation of host defense function in the lung: a question of balance. Pediatr Pathol Mol Med 2001; 20(4):269-292.
323. Sano, H., Sohma, H.,Muta,T., Nomura, S.,Voelker, D. R., and Kuroki, Y., Pulmonary surfactant protein A modulates the cellular response to smooth and rough lipopolysaccharides by interaction with CD14. J Immunol 1999; 163(1):387-395.
324. Sano, H., Chiba, H., Iwaki, D., Sohma, H., Voelker, D. R., and Kuroki, Y., Surfactant proteins A and D bind CD14 by different mechanisms. J Biol Chem 2000; 275(29):22442-22451.
325. Magor, B. G., and Magor, K. E., Evolution of effectors and receptors of innate immunity. Dev Comp Immunol 2001; 25:651-682.
326. Beutler, B., and Rehli, M., Evolution of the TIR, Tolls and TLRs: functional inferences from computational biology. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2002; 270:1-21.
327. Pujol, N., Link, E. M., Liu, L. X., Kurz, C. L., Alloing, G., Tan, M. W., Ray, K. P., Solari, R., Johnson, C. D., and Ewbank, J. J., A reverse genetic analysis of components of the Toll signaling pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans. Curr Biol 2001; 11 (11):809-821.
328. Gallucci, S., and Matzinger, P., Danger signals: SOS to the immune system. Curr Opin Immunol 2001; 13 (1):114-119.
329. Xu, Q., Role of heat shock proteins in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22(10):1547-1559.
330. Vink,A.,Schoneveld, A. H., van der Meer, J. J., van Middelaar, B. J., Sluijter, J. P., Smeets, M. B., Quax, P. H., Lim, S. K., Borst, C., Pasterkamp, G., and de Kleijn, D. P., In vivo evidence for a role of Toll-like receptor 4 in the development of intimal lesions. Circulation 2002; 106(15):1985-1990.
331. Gratten, M. T., Moreno-Cabral, C. E., Starnes, V. A., Oyer, P. E., Stinson, E. B., and Shumway, N. E., Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with cardiac allograft rejection and atherosclerosis. JAMA 1989; 261:3561.
332. Dugan, J. P., Feuge, R. R., and Burgess, D. S., Review of evidence for a connection between Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerotic disease. Clin Ther 2002; 24(5):719-735.
333. Frishman, W. H., and Ismail, A. A., Role of infection in atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease: a new therapeutic target? Cardiol Rev 2002; 10(4):199-210.
334. Wiesli, P., Czerwenka, W., Meniconi, A., Maly, F. E., Hoffmann, U., Vetter, W., and Schulthess, G., Roxithromycin treatment prevents progression of peripheral arterial occlusive disease in Chlamydia pneumoniae seropositive men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Circulation 2002; 105 (22):2646-2652.
335. Sander, D.,Winbeck, K., Klingelhofer, J., Etgen, T., and Conrad, B., Reduced progression of early carotid atherosclerosis after antibiotic treatment and Chlamydia pneumoniae seropositivity. Circulation 2002; 106 (19):2428-2433.
336. Ohashi, P. S., and DeFranco, A. L., Making and breaking tolerance. Curr Opin Immunol 2002; 14(6):744-759.
337. Krieg, A. M., A role for Toll in autoimmunity. Nat Immunol 2002; 3(5):423-424.
338. Krieg, A. M., A role for Toll in autoimmunity. Nat Immunol 2002; 3(5):423-424.
339. Knuefermann, P.,Nemoto, S., Baumgarten, G., Misra, A., Sivasubramanian, N., Carabello, B. A., and Vallejo, J. G., Cardiac inflammation and innate immunity in septic shock: is there a role for Toll-like receptors? Chest 2002; 121(4):1329-1336.
340. Raeburn, C. D., Calkins, C. M., Zimmerman, M. A., Arya, J., Barsness, K. A., and Harken, A. H., Toll-like receptors and surgical disease. Surgery 2002; 131(5):477-483.
341. Fox-Marsh, A., and Harrison, L. C., Emerging evidence that molecules expressed by mammalian tissue grafts are recognized by the innate immune system. J Leukoc Biol 2002; 71(3):401-409.
342. Platt, J. L., Johnson, G. B., Kodaira, Y., and Wrenshall, L. E., Tolerance and the microenvironment. Transplantation 2001; 72:S23-S24.
343. Dabbagh, K., Dahl, M. E., Stepick-Biek, P., and Lewis, D. B., Toll-like receptor 4 is required for optimal development of Th2 immune responses: role of dendritic cells. J Immunol 2002; 168(9):4524-4530.
344. Supajatura, V., Ushio, H., Nakao, A., Akira, S., Okumura, K., Ra, C., and Ogawa, H., Differential responses of mast cell Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in allergy and innate immunity. J Clin Invest 2002; 109(10):1351-1359.
345. Lauener, R. P., Birchler, T., Adamski, J., Braun-Fahrlander, C., Bufe, A., Herz, U., von Mutius, E., Nowak, D., Riedler, J., Waser, M., and Sennhauser, F. H., Expression of CD14 and Toll-like receptor 2 in farmers' and non-farmers' children. Lancet 2002; 360(9331):465-466.
346. Lipsker, D., Ziylan, U., Spehner, D., Proamer, F., Bausinger, H., Jeannin, P., Salamero, J., Bohbot, A., Cazenave, J. P., Drillien, R., Delneste, Y., Hanau, D., and de la Salle, H., Heat shock proteins 70 and 60 share common receptors which are expressed on human monocyte-derived but not epidermal dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 2002; 32(2):322-332.