Interface reliability assessments for copper/low-k products

IEEE Transactions on Device and Materials Reliability

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 129-141

  Hartfield, Cheryl D ^a   Ogawa, Ennis T ^a   Park, Young Joon ^a   Chiu, Tz Cheng ^a   Guo, Honglin ^a  

^a TEXAS INSTRUMENTS   (United States)

Author keywords

Adhesion; Cu low k; Dielectric breakdown; Electromigration; Four point bend; Interface defect control; Reliability; Stress migration

Indexed keywords

ADHESION; COPPER; DIELECTRIC DEVICES; ELECTROMIGRATION; GRAIN BOUNDARIES; OPTIMIZATION; RELIABILITY; STRESS ANALYSIS;

CU/LOW-K; DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN; FOUR-POINT BEND; INTERFACE DEFECT CONTROL; STRESS MIGRATION;

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES;

EID: 4043122543     PISSN: 15304388     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/TDMR.2004.831990     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. H. B. Huntington and A. R. Grone, "Current-induced marker motion in gold wires," J. Phys. Chem. Solids, vol. 20, pp. 76-87, 1961.
2. P. S. Ho and T. Kwok, "Electromigration in metals," Rep. Progr. Phys., vol. 52, pp. 301-347, 1989.
3. R. Rosenberg, D. C. Edelstein, C.-K. Hu, and P. Rodbell, "Copper metallization for high performance silicon technology," Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci., vol. 30, pp. 229-262, 2000.
4. J. R. Lloyd and J. J. Clement, "Electromigration in copper conductors," Thin Solid Films, vol. 262, pp. 135-141, 1995.
5. C.-K. Hu, R. Rosenberg, and K. Y. Lee, "Electromigration path in Cu thin-film lines," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 74, pp. 2945-2947, 1999.
6. S. Vaidya and A. K. Shinha, "Effect of texture and grain structure on electromigration in Al-0.5% Cu thin films," Thin Solid Films, vol. 75, pp. 253-259, 1981.
7. M. W. Lane, E. G. Liniger, and J. R. Lloyd, "Relationship between interfacial adhesion and electromigration in Cu metallization," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 93, pp. 1417-1421, 2003.
8. J. Cho and C. V. Thomspon, "Grain size dependence of electromigration-induced failures in narrow interconnects," Appl. Phys. Lett. vol. 54, pp. 2577-2579, 1989.
9. M. A. Korhonen, P. Borgesen, K. N. Tu, and C.-Y. Li, "Stress evolution due to electromigration in confined metal lines," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 73, pp. 3790-3799, 1993.
10. Y.-J. Park, V. K. Andleigh, and C. V. Thompson, "Simulation of stress evolution and the current density scaling of electromigration-induced failure times in pure and alloyed interconnects," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 85, pp. 3546-3555, 1999.
11. K.-D. Lee, X. Lu, E. T. Ogawa, H. Matsuhashi, and P. S. Ho, "Electromigration study of Cu/low k dual-damascene interconnects," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp., 2002, pp. 322-326.
12. D. Padhi and G. Dixit, "Effect of electron flow direction on model parameters of electromigration-induced failure of copper interconnects," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 94, pp. 6463-6467, 2003.
13. C. L. Gan, C. V. Thompson, K. L. Pey, W. K. Choi, H. L. Tay, B. Yu, and M. K. Radhakrishnan, "Effect of current direction on the lifetime of different levels of Cu dual-damascene metallization," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 79, pp. 4592-4594, 2001.
14. H. Okabayashi, "Stress-induced void formation in metallization for integrated circuits," Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. R11, pp. 191-241, 1993.
15. J. W. McPherson and C. F. Dunn, "A model for stress-induced metal notching and voiding in very large-scale-integrated Al-Si(1%) metallization," J. Vac. Sci. & Tech., vol. B5, no. 5, pp. 1321-1325, 1987.
16. K. Hinode, I. Asano, T. Ishiba, and Y. Homma, "A study on stress-induced migration in aluminum metallization based on direct stress measurements," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. vol. B8, no. 3, pp. 495-498, May/June 1990.
17. Y. Koubuchi, J. Onuki, M. Suwa, S. Fukada, S. Moribe, and Y. Tanigaki, "Stress migration resistance and contact characterization of Al-Pd-Si interconnects for very large scale integrations," J. Vac. Sci. Technol., vol. B8, no. 6, pp. 1232-1238, Nov./Dec. 1990.
18. A. Tezaki, T. Mineta, H. Egawa, and T. Noguchi, "Measurement of three dimensional stress an modeling of stress induced migration failure in aluminum interconnects," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1990, pp. 221-229.
19. R. E. Jones Jr., "Line width dependence of stresses in aluminum interconnect," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1987, pp. 9-14.
20. T. Hosoda, H. Niwa, H. Yagi, and H. Tsuchikawa, "Effects of line size on thermal stress in aluminum conductors," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1991, pp. 77-83.
21. J. Kasturirangan, "Thermal stress and microstructure in Al(Cu) and Cu interconnects for advanced ULSI applications," Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Texas, Austin, TX, May 1998.
22. I. S. Yeo, P. S. Ho, and S. G. H. Anderson, "Characteristics of thermal stresses in Al(Cu) fine lines. I. Unpassivated line structures," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 945-952, July 15, 1995.
23. I. S. Yeo, S. G. H. Anderson, P. S. Ho, and C. K. Hu, "Characteristics of thermal stresses in Al(Cu) fine lines. II. Passivated line structures," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 953-961, July 15, 1995.
24. M. A. Korhonen, R. D. Black, and C.-Y. Li, "Stress relaxation of passivated aluminum line metallizations on silicon substrate," J. Appl, Phys., vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 1748-1755, Feb. 1, 1991.
25. M. A. Korhonen, C. A. Paszkiet, and C.-Y. Li, "Mechanisms of thermal stress relaxation and stress-induced voiding in narrow aluminum-based metallizations," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 69, no. 12, pp. 8086-8091, June 15, 1991.
26. M. A. Korhonen, W. R. LaFontaine, P. Børgesen, and C.-Y. Li, "Stressinduced nucleation of voids in narrow aluminum-based metallization on silicon substrates," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 70, no. 11, pp. 6774-6781, Dec. 1, 1991.
27. F. G. Yost, D. E. Amos, and A. D. Romig Jr., "Stress-driven diffusive voiding of aluminum conductor lines," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1989, pp. 193-201.
28. E. T. Ogawa, J. W. McPherson, J. A. Rosal, K. J. Dickerson, T.-C. Chiu, L. Y. Tsung, M. K. Jain, T. D. Bonifield, J. C. Ondrusek, and W. R. McKee, "Stress-induced voiding under vias connected to wide Cu metal leads," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2002, pp. 312-321.
29. S. H. Rhee, Y. Du, and P. S. Ho, "Characterization of thermal stresses of Cu/low-k submicron interconnect structures," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2001, pp. 89-92.
30. D. Gan, G. Wang, and P. S. Ho, "Effects of dielectric material and linewidth on thermal stresses of Cu line structures," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2002, pp. 271-273.
31. D. Edelstein, J. Heidenreich, R. Goldblatt, W. Cote, C. Uzoh, N. Lustig, P. Roper, T. McDevitt, W. Motsiff, A. Simon, J. Dukovic, R. Wachnik, H. Rathore, R. Schulz, L. Su, S. Luce, and J. Slattery, "Full copper wiring in a sub-0.25 μ m CMOS ULSI technology," in Proc. IEEE Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 1997, pp. 773-776.
32. E. T. Ogawa, K.-D. Lee, H. Matsuhashi, K.-S. Ko, P. R. Justison, A. N. Ramamurthi, A. J. Bierwag, P. S. Ho, V. A. Blaschke, and R. H. Havemann, "Statistics of electromigration early failures in Cu/oxide dual-damascene interconnects," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2001, pp. 341-349.
33. D.-Y. Kim and S. S. Wong, "Mechanism for early failure in Cu dual damascene structure," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2003, pp. 265-267.
34. T. Oshima, T. Tamaru, K. Ohmori, H. Aoki, H. Ashibara, T. Saito, H. Yamaguchi, M. Miyauchi, K. Torii, J. Murata, A. Satoh, H. Miyasaki, and K. Hinode, "Improvement of thermal stability of via resistance in dual damascene Cu interconnection," in Proc. IEEE Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2000, pp. 123-126.
35. A. von Glasow, A. H. Fischer, and S. Panka, "Electromigration and stressvoiding investigations on dual damascene copper interconnects," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2001, pp. 433-440.
36. N. Okada, Y. Matsubara, H. Kimua, H. Aizawa, and N. Nakanura, "Thermal stress of 140-nm-width Cu damascene interconnects," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2002, pp. 136-138.
37. H. Matsuyama, S. Ohtsuka, A. Yamanoue, T. Hosoda, T. Khono, Y. Matsuoka, K. Yanai, H. Matsuyama, H. Mori, N. Shimizu, T. Nakamura, S. Sugatani, K. Shono, and H. Yagi, "Stress induced failure analysis by stress measurements, in copper dual damascene interconnects," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2002, pp. 229-230.
38. A. von Glasow and A. H. Fischer, "New approaches for the assessment of stress-induced voiding in Cu dual damascene interconnects," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2002, pp. 161-167.
39. M. Ueki, M. Hiroi, N. Ikarashi, T. Onodera, N. Furutake, M. Yshiki, and Y. Hayashi, "Suppression of stress induced open failures between via and Cu wide line by inserting Ti layer under Ta/TaN barrier," in Proc. IEEE Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2002, pp. 749-752.
40. Y. Yoshida, T. Fujimaki, K. Miyamoto, T. Honma, H. Kaneko, H. Nakazawa, and M. Monta, "Stress-induced voiding phenomena for an actual CMOS LSI interconnects," in Proc. IEEE Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2002, pp. 753-756.
41. T. Oshima, K. Hinode, H. Yamaguchi, H. Aoki, K. Tbrii, T. Saito, K. Ishikawa, J. Noguchi, M. Fukui, T. Nakamura, S. Uno, K. Tsugane, J. Murata, K. Kikushima, H. Sekisaka, E. Murakami, K. Okuyama, and T. Iwasaki, "Suppression of stress-induced voiding in copper interconnects," in Proc. IEEE Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2002, pp. 757-760.
42. C. Roussel, S. Kordic, O. Sicardy, M. Ignat, L. Dumas, S. Orain, and J. C. Barbe, "Voiding in Cu dual damascene metallization due to Cu densification during thermal stress," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2002, pp. 155-160.
43. A. von Glasow, A. H. Fischer, M. Hierlemann, S. Penka, and F. Ungar, "Geometrical aspects of stress-induced voiding in copper interconnects," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2002, pp. 161-167.
44. G. B. Alers, J. J. Kuo, G. Harm, S. R. Weinzierl, and G. W. Ray, "Improved thermal stability of copper vias using a cyclical stress test," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 283-287.
45. H. Ashihara, K. Ishikawa, T. Oshima, K. Sasajima, N. Konishi, S. Uno, K. Tsugane, T. Iwasaki, and T. Saito, "A suppression of stress-induced voiding in Cu/low-k damascene interconnects using self-aligned metal capping method," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 589-594.
46. Y. K. Lim, Y. H. Lim, C. S. Seet, B. C. Zhang, K. L. Chok, K. H. See, T. J. Lee, L.-C. Hsia, and K. L. Pey, "Stress-induced voiding in multi-level copper/low-k interconnects," presented at the IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2004.
47. C. J. Zhai, W. Yao, P. Besser, A. Marathe, R. C. Blish II, D. Erb, C. Hau-Riege, S.Taylor, and K. O. Taylor, "Stress modeling of Cu/low-k BEOL-application to stress migration," presented at the IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2004.
48. T. M. Shaw, L. Gignac, X.-H. Liu, R. R. Rosenberg, E. Levine, P. McLaughlin, P.-C. Wang, S. Greco, and G. Biery, "Stress voiding in wide copper lines," in Proc. 6th Int. Workshop on Stress-Induced Phenomena in Metallization, vol. 612, pp. 177-183.
49. M. Lane and R. Rosenberg, "Interfacial relationships in microelectronic devices," in Materials Research Society (MRS) Symp. Proc., vol. 766, pp. 153-164.
50. K. Takeda, K. Hinode, I. Oodake, N. Oohashi, and H. Yamaguchi, "Enhanced dielectric breakdown lifetime of the copper/silicon nitride/silicon dioxide structure," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1999, pp. 36-41.
51. S. U. Kim, T. Cho, and P. S. Ho, "Leakage current degradation and carrier conduction mechanisms for Cu/BCB damascene process under bias-temperature stress," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1999, pp. 277-282.
52. J. Noguchi, N. Ohashi, J.-I. Yasuda, T. Jimbo, H. Yamaguchi, N. Owada, K.-I. Takeda, and K. Hinode, "TDDB improvement in Cu metallizatin under bias stress," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2000, pp. 339-343.
53. G. Bersuker, V. Blaschke, S. Choi, and S. Wick, "Conduction processes in Cu/low-K interconnection," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2000, pp. 344-347.
54. R. Tsu, J. W. McPherson, and W. R. McKee, "Leakage and breakdown reliability issues associated with low-k dielectrics in a dual-damascene Cu process," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2000, pp. 348-353.
55. D. J. Dumin, "Oxide wearout, breakdown and reliability," Int. J. High Speed Electron, Syst., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 617-718, 2001.
56. A. L. S. Loke, C. Ryu, C. P. Yue, J. S. H. Cho, and S. S. Wong, "Kinetics of copper drift in PECVD dielectrics," IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 17, pp. 549-551, Dec. 1996.
57. A. L. S. Loke, J. T. Wetzel, P. H. Townsend, T. Tanabe, R. N. Vrtis, M. P. Zussman, D. Kumar, C. Ryu, and S. S. Wong, "Kinetics of copper drift in low-k polymer interlevel dielectrics," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 46, pp. 2178-2187, Nov. 1999.
58. 2 film induced by copper ion drift," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2001, pp. 521-526.
59. A. Mallikarjunan, R. Faust, R. Tsu, and N. M. Russell, "Triangular voltage sweep characterization of copper ion migration induced by pre-sputter etch in dual-damascene Cu/FSG interconnect structures," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2001, pp. 441-446.
60. T. Yoshie, K. Yoneda, N. Ohashi, and N. Kobayashi, "Bulk and interfacial leakage current in dielectric degradation of copper damascene interconnects," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2003, pp. 411-414.
61. C. C. Chiang, M. C. Chen, Z. C. Wu, L. J. Li, S. M. Jang, C. H. Yu, and M. S. Liang, "TDDB reliability improvement in Cu damascene by using bilayer-structured PECVD SiC dielectric barrier," in Proc. 2002 Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2002, pp. 200-202.
62. M. Tada, Y. Harada, H. Ohtake, S. Saito, T. Onodera, and Y. Hayashi, "Improvement of TDDB reliability in Cu damascene interconnect by using United Hard-Mask and Cap (UHC) structure," in Proc. 2003 Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2003., pp. 256-258.
63. C. Y. Li, D. H. Zhang, P. W. Lu, S. S. Su, X. He, S. Balakumar, C. H. Seah, Y. W. Chen, X. T. Chen, N. Babu, B. R. Murthy, M. Mukoojee-Roy, and R. Kumar, "Effect of diffusion barriers on electrical performance and reliability of Cu metallization in 0.13 μ m Cu ultra-low k technology," in Proc. 2003 Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2003, pp. 349-354.
64. S. Seo, H. Kawano, M. Satake, T. Hattori, T. Harada, Y. Itoh, and T. Ueda, "Improvement of short defect density by controlling surface height of Cu line," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 121-125.
65. N. Konishi, Y. Yamada, J. Noguchi, and U. Tanaka, "Improvement in Cu-CMP technology for 90-nm nodes," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 127-132.
66. T. J. Chou, Z. C. Wu, Y. L. Huang, S. H. Lin, W. Chang, S. M. Jang, and M. S. Liang, "Post Cu CMP surface modification for reliability improvement in 300 mm CLN90 BEOL Cu/low-k interconnect," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 433-437.
67. S. Balakumar, C. F. Tsang, and N. Matsuki, "CMP process development and post-CMP defects studies on Cu/ultra low k materials with single damascene scheme," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 613-620.
68. Y. Noshioka, Y. Ariga, T. Inoue, K. Tokushige, and M. Tsujimura, "The development of defect free post-CMP cleaning in Cu/low-k damascene wiring," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 645-650.
69. I. Kato, S. Sekiyama, S. Takeshiro, T. Fukuda, and H. Yanazawa, "New method to improve electrical characteristics of low-k dielectrics in Cu-damascene interconnections," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 699-704.
70. J. Noguchi, T. Oshima, U. Tanaka, K. Sasajima, H. Aoki, K. Sato, K. Ishikawa, T. Saito, N. Konishi, S. Hotta, S. Uno, and K. Kikushima, "Integration and reliability issues of Cu/SiOC interconnect for ArF/90 nm node SoC manufacturing," in Proc. IEEE Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), 2003, pp. 527-530.
71. J. Noguchi, T. Saito, N. Ohashi, H. Ashihara, H. Maruyama, M. Kubo, H. Yamaguchi, D. Ryuzaki, K. Takeda, and K. Hinode, "Impact of low-k dielectrics and barrier metals on TDDB lifetime of Cu interconnects," in Proc., JEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2001, pp. 355-359.
72. W. S. Song, T. J. Kim, D. H. Lee, T. K. Kim, C. S. Lee, J. W. Kim, S. Y. Kim, D. K. Jeong, K. C. Park, Y. J. Wee, B. H. Suh, S. M. Choi, H.-K. Kang, K. P. Suh, and S. U. Kim, "Pseudo-breakdown events induced by biased-thermal-stressing of intra-level Cu interconnects-reliability & performance impact," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2002, pp. 305-311.
73. C. F. Tsang, C. Y. Li, H. Y. Li, V. Bliznetsov, and Y. J. Su, "Improving the electrical performance of Cu/CVD low k Coral interconnection-an exploration of SIC cap etch and Ta diffusion barrier deposition," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003, pp. 91-96.
74. 2 thin films," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 83, no. 3, pp. 1513-1523, 1998.
75. 2 under long-term/low-field test conditions," in Int. Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) Technical Digest, 1998, pp. 171-174.
76. E. T. Ogawa, J. Kim, G. S. Haase, H. C. Mogul, and J. W. McPherson, "Leakage, breakdown and TDDB characteristics of porous low-k silicabased interconnect dielectrics," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2003, pp. 166-172.
77. G. B. Alers, M. Sanganeria, R. Shaviv, G. Kooi, K. Jow, and G. W. Ray, "Failure mechanisms in dielectric barriers," in Proc. Advanced Metallization Conf. (AMC), 2003.
78. J. Noguchi, N. Miura, M. Kubo, T. Tamara, H. Yamaguchi, N. Hamada, K. Makabe, R. Tsuneda, and K. Takeda, "Cu-ion-migration phenomena and its influence on TDDB lifetime in Cu metallization," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2003, pp. 282-286.
79. W. Wu, X. Duan, and J. S. Yuan, "A physical model of time-dependent dielectric breakdown in copper metallization," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 2003, pp. 282-286.
80. J. W. McPherson, "Stress dependent activation energy," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1986, pp. 12-18.
81. K.-N. Tu, J. W. Mayer, and L. C. Feldman, Electronic Thin Film Science. New York: Macmillan, 1992.
82. M. Saran et al., "Elimination of bond-pad damage through structural reinforcement of intermetal dielectrics," in Proc. IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. (IRPS), 1998, pp. 225-231.
83. K. L. Mittal, "Selected bibliography on adhesion measurement of films and coatings," J. Adh. Sci. Tech., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 247-259, 1987.
84. B. N. Lucas, C. T. Rosenmayer, and W. C. Oliver, "Mechanical characterization of sub-micron polytetrafluoroethylene (FIFE) thin films," in Thin Films: Stresses and Mechanical Properties VII, Proc. 1997 Fall MRS, pp. 97-102.
85. G. M. Pharr, D. S. Harding, and W. C. Oliver, "Measurement of fracture toughness in thin films and small volumes using nanoindentation methods," in Proc. Materials Research Society Fall Meeting, 1994.
86. D. Harding, W. Oliver, and G. Pharr, "Cracking during nanoindentation and its use in the measurement of fracture toughness," in Materials Research Society Symp. Proc., vol. 356, 1995, pp. 663-668.
87. M. D. Kriese and W. W. Gerberich, "Quantitative adhesion measures of multilayer films. Part I. Indentation mechanics," J. Mater. Res., vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 3007-3018, 1999.
88. W. C. Oliver and G. M. Pharr, "Improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments," J. Mater. Res., vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 1564-1580, 1992.
89. J. B. Vella, I. S. Adhihetty, K. Junker, and A. A. Volinsky, "Mechanical properties and fracture toughness of organo-silicate glass (OSG) low-k dielectric thin films for microelectronic applications," Int. J. Fracture, vol. 119/120, pp. 487-499, 2003.
90. M. T. A. Saif and N. C. MacDonald, "Microinstruments for submicron material studies," J. Mater. Res., vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 3353-3356, 1998.
91. H. D. Goldber, G. S. Cha, and R. B. Brown, "Quantitative adhesion test for thin polymer films on silicon substrates," J. App. Poly Sci., vol. 42, pp. 1287-1292, 1991.
92. M. G. Alien and S. D. Senturia, "Application of the island blister test for thin film adhesion measurement," J. Adhesion, vol. 29, pp. 219-231, 1989.
93. K. T. O'-Brien, "Interlaminar fracture toughness: the long and winding road to standardization," Composites-Part B': Eng., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 57-62, 1998.
94. R. H. Dauskardt, M. Lane, Q. Ma, and N. Krishna, "Adhesion and debonding of multi-layer thin film structures," Eng. Fracture Mech., vol. 61, pp. 141-162, 1998.
95. E. O. Shaffer H. P. H. Townsen, and J.-H. Im, "A method for assessing the mechanical reliability of low-K polymeric dielectric materials," in Conf. Proc. ULSI, vol. XII, 1997, pp. 429-435.
96. T. M. Moore, C. D. Hartfield, J. M. Anthony, B. T. Ahlbum, P. S. Ho, and M. R. Miller, "Mechanical characterization of low-k dielectric materials," in AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 550, 2001, pp. 431-439.
97. T. Scherban, B. Sun, J. Blaine, C. Block, B. Jin, and E. Andideh, "Interfacial adhesion for copper-low k interconnects," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2001, pp. 257-259.
98. Z. Cui et al.,"A sample preparation method for four point bend adhesion studies," Proc. MRS, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1324-1327, 2004.
99. E. F. Rybicki and M. F. Kanninen, "A finite element calculation of stress intensity factors by a modified crack closure integral," Eng. Fracture Mech., vol. 9, pp. 931-938, 1997.
100. J. W. Hutchinson and Z. Suo, "Mixed mode cracking in layered materials," in Advances in Applied Mechanics, J. W. Hutchinson and T. Y. Wu, Eds. New York: Academic, 1992, vol. 29, pp. 63-191.
101. K. C. Yu et al., "Integration challenges of 0.1 μ m CMOS Cu/ low-k interconnects," in Proc. Int. Interconnect Technology Conf. (IITC), 2002, pp. 9-11.