Hen egg as an antioxidant food commodity: A review

Nutrients

Volumn 7, Issue 10, 2015, Pages 8274-8293

  Nimalaratne, Chamila ^a   Wu, Jianping ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antioxidant enriched eggs; Gastrointestinal digestion; Hen eggs; Naturally occurring antioxidants; Processing

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; BUTYLATED HYDROXYANISOLE; BUTYLCRESOL; CAROTENOID; CYSTATIN; GALLIC ACID PROPYL ESTER; LYSOZYME; OVALBUMIN; OVOMUCOID; OVOTRANSFERRIN; PHOSPHOLIPID; PHOSVITIN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TERT BUTYLHYDROQUINONE; ANTIOXIDANT; MINERAL; PEPTIDE; VITAMIN;

AGE RELATED MACULAR DEGENERATION; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; DIETARY INTAKE; DIGESTION; EGG; EGG YOLK; FOOD INDUSTRY; FOOD PROCESSING; HEN; LIPID COMPOSITION; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT; OXIDATIVE STRESS; POULTRY; PROSTATE CARCINOMA; REVIEW; ADVERSE EFFECTS; ANALYSIS; ANIMAL; CHICKEN; DIET; FEMALE; FOOD HANDLING; FORTIFIED FOOD; HEALTH PROMOTION; HEAT; HUMAN; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; PROCEDURES;

ANIMALS; ANTIOXIDANTS; CHICKENS; CONALBUMIN; DIET; EGGS; FEMALE; FOOD HANDLING; FOOD, FORTIFIED; HEALTH PROMOTION; HOT TEMPERATURE; HUMANS; MINERALS; MURAMIDASE; NUTRITIVE VALUE; OVALBUMIN; PEPTIDES; VITAMINS;

EID: 84942807188     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu7105394     Document Type: Review

References (205)

1. Halliwell, B. Biochemistry of oxidative stress. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2007, 35, 1147–1150. [PubMed]
2. Khlebnikov, A.I.; Schepetkin, I.A.; Domina, N.G.; Kirpotina, L.N.; Quinn, M.T. Improved quantitative structure-activity relationship models to predict antioxidant activity of flavonoids in chemical, enzymatic, and cellular systems. Bioorganic Med. Chem. 2007, 15, 1749–1770.
3. Carocho, M.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. A review on antioxidants, prooxidants and related controversy: Natural and synthetic compounds, screening and analysis methodologies and future perspectives. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 51, 15–25. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Rizzo, A.M.; Berselli, P.; Zava, S.; Montorfano, G.; Negroni, M.; Corsetto, P.; Berra, B. Endogenous antioxidants and radical scavengers. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2010, 698, 52–67. [PubMed]
5. Lobo, V.; Patil, A.; Phatak, A.; Chandra, N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Pharmacogn. Rev. 2010, 4, 118–126. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Brewer, M.S. Natural antioxidants: Sources, compounds, mechanisms of action, and potential applications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2011, 10, 221–247. [CrossRef]
7. Matés, J.M.; Pérez-Gómez, C.; de Castro, I.N. Antioxidant enzymes and human diseases. Clin. Biochem. 1999, 32, 595–603. [CrossRef]
8. Rodriguez, C.; Mayo, J.C.; Sainz, R.M.; Antolin, I.; Herrera, F.; Martin, V.; Reiter, R.J. Regulation of antioxidant enzymes: A significant role for melatonin. J. Pineal Res. 2004, 36, 1–9. [PubMed]
9. Littarru, G.P.; Tiano, L. Bioenergetic and antioxidant properties of coenzyme q10: Recent developments. Mol. Biotechnol. 2007, 37, 31–37. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Ames, B.N.; Cathcart, R.; Schwiers, E.; Hochstein, P. Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: A hypothesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1981, 78, 6858–6862. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Halliwell, B. Antioxidants in human health and disease. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1996, 16, 33–50. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Halliwell, B. Free radicals and antioxidants: Updating a personal view. Nutr. Rev. 2012, 70, 257–265. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Sies, H. Oxidative stress: Oxidants and antioxidants. Exp. Physiol. 1997, 82, 291–295. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Valko, M.; Leibfritz, D.; Moncol, J.; Cronin, M.T.D.; Mazur, M.; Telser, J. Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2007, 39, 44–84. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Gülçin, I. Antioxidant activity of food constituents: An overview. Arch. Toxicol. 2012, 86, 345–391. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Vandghanooni, S.; Forouharmehr, A.; Eskandani, M.; Barzegari, A.; Kafil, V.; Kashanian, S.; Dolatabadi, J.E.N. Cytotoxicity and DNA fragmentation properties of butylated hydroxyanisole. DNA Cell Biol. 2013, 32, 98–103. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Williams, G.; Iatropoulos, M.; Whysner, J. Safety Assessment of butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene as antioxidant food additives. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1999, 37, 1027–1038. [CrossRef]
18. Halliwell, B.; Murcia, M.A.; Chirico, S.; Aruoma, O.I. Free radicals and antioxidants in food and in vivo: What they do and how they work. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1995, 35, 7–20. [PubMed]
19. Samaranayaka, A.G.P.; Li-Chan, E.C.Y. Food-derived peptidic antioxidants: A review of their production, assessment, and potential applications. J. Funct. Foods 2011, 3, 229–254. [CrossRef]
20. Sikora, E.; Cieslik, E.; Topolska, K. The sources of natural antioxidants. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment. 2008, 7, 5–17.
21. Niki, E. Role of vitamin E as a lipid-soluble peroxyl radical scavenger: In vitro and in vivo evidence. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2014, 66, 3–12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Stahl, W.; Sies, H. Antioxidant activity of carotenoids. Mol Aspect Med. 2003, 24, 345–351. [CrossRef]
23. Tang, G. Lycopenes and related 351.compounds. In Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition, 3rd ed.; Caballero, B., Ed.; Academic Press: Waltham, MA, USA, 2013; pp. 124–130.
24. Alves-Rodrigues, A.; Shao, A. The science behind lutein. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 150, 57–83. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Ma, L.; Lin, X.-M. Effects of lutein and zeaxanthin on aspects of eye health. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2010, 90, 2–12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Zhang, L.-X.; Cooney, R.V.; Bertram, J.S. Carotenoids enhance gap junctional communication and inhibit lipid peroxidation in C3H/10T1/2 cells: Relationship to their cancer chemopreventive action. Carcinogenesis 1991, 12, 2109–2114. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Procházková, D.; Boušová, I.; Wilhelmová, N. Antioxidant and prooxidant properties of flavonoids. Fitoterapia 2011, 82, 513–523. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Benzie, I.F.F.; Choi, S.-W. Chapter One—Antioxidants in food: Content, measurement, significance, action, cautions, caveats, and research needs. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 2014, 71, 1–53. [PubMed]
29. Fang, Y.-Z.; Yang, S.; Wu, G. Free radicals, antioxidants, and nutrition. Nutrition 2002, 18, 872–879. [CrossRef]
30. Rice-Evans, C.; Miller, N.; Paganga, G. Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1996, 20, 933–956. [CrossRef]
31. Brunetti, C.; di Ferdinando, M.; Fini, A.; Pollastri, S.; Tattini, M. Flavonoids as antioxidants and developmental regulators: Relative significance in plants and humans. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 3540–3555.
32. Duthie, G.; Crozier, A. Plant-derived phenolic antioxidants. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 2000, 11, 43–47. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Abourashed, E. Bioavailability of plant-derived antioxidants. Antioxidants 2013, 2, 309–325. [CrossRef]
34. Re, R.; Pellegrini, N.; Proteggente, A.; Pannala, A.; Yang, M.; Rice-Evans, C. Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation decolorization assay. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1999, 26, 1231–1237. [CrossRef]
35. Rice-evans, C.A.; Miller, N.J.; Bolwell, P.G.; Bramley, P.M.; Pridham, J.B. The relative antioxidant activities of plant-derived polyphenolic flavonoids. Free Radic. Res. 2009, 22, 375–383. [CrossRef]
36. Pokorný, J. Natural antioxidants for food use. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1991, 2, 223–227. [CrossRef]
37. Kahkonen, M.P.; Hopia, A.I.; Vuorela, H.J.; Rauha, J.P.; Pihlaja, K.; Kujala, T.S.; Heinonen, M. Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 3954–3962. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Podsedek, A. Natural antioxidants and antioxidant capacity of Brassica vegetables: A review. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 40, 1–11. [CrossRef]
39. Cao, G.; Sofic, E.; Prior, R.L. Antioxidant Capacity of Tea and Common Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1996, 44, 3426–3431. [CrossRef]
40. Velioglu, Y.S.; Mazza, G.; Gao, L.; Oomah, B.D. Antioxidant activity and total phenolics in selected fruits, vegetables, and grain products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998, 46, 4113–4117. [CrossRef]
41. Chu, Y.; Sun, J.; Wu, X.; Liu, R. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of common vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 6910–6916. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
42. Dykes, L.; Rooney, L.W. Phenolic compounds in cereal grains and their health benefits. Cereal Food World 2007, 52, 105–111. [CrossRef]
43. Adom, K.K.; Liu, R.H. Antioxidant activity of grains. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 6182–6187. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Van Hung, P. Phenolic compounds of cereals and their antioxidant capacity. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014. [CrossRef]
45. Fardet, A.; Rock, E.; Rémésy, C. Is the in vitro antioxidant potential of whole-grain cereals and cereal products well reflected in vivo? J. Cereal Sci. 2008, 48, 258–276. [CrossRef]
46. Pérez-Jiménez, J.; Saura-Calixto, F. Literature data may underestimate the actual antioxidant capacity of cereals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 5036–5040. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Elias, R.J.; Kellerby, S.S.; Decker, E.A. Antioxidant activity of proteins and peptides. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2008, 48, 430–441. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Chan, K.M.; Decker, E.A. Endogenous skeletal muscle antioxidants. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1994, 34, 403–426. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Stadtman, E.R.; Levine, R.L. Free radical-mediated oxidation of free amino acids and amino acid residues in proteins. Amino Acids 2003, 25, 207–218. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Atmaca, G. Antioxidant effects of sulfur-containing amino acids. Yonsei Med. J. 2004, 45, 776–788. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Suetsuna, K.; Ukeda, H.; Ochi, H. Isolation and characterization of free radical scavenging activities peptides derived from casein. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2000, 11, 128–131. [CrossRef]
52. Sakanaka, S.; Tachibana, Y.; Ishihara, N.; Juneja, L.R. Antioxidant properties of casein calcium peptides and their effects on lipid oxidation in beef homogenates. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 464–468. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Power, O.; Jakeman, P.; FitzGerald, R.J. Antioxidative peptides: Enzymatic production, in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity and potential applications of milk-derived antioxidative peptides. Amino Acids 2013, 44, 797–820. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Dávalos, A.; Miguel, M.; Bartolomé, B.; López-Fandiño, R. Antioxidant activity of peptides derived from egg white proteins by enzymatic hydrolysis. J. Food Prot. 2004, 67, 1939–1944. [PubMed]
55. Huang, W.-Y.; Majumder, K.; Wu, J. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity of peptides from egg white protein ovotransferrin and their interaction with phytochemicals. Food Chem. 2010, 123, 635–641. [CrossRef]
56. Sies, H.; Stahl, W. Vitamins E and C, B-carotene, and other carotenoids as antioxidants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995, 62, 1315S–1321S. [PubMed]
57. Miki, W. Biological functions and activities of animal carotenoids. Pure Appl. Chem. 1991, 63, 141–146. [CrossRef]
58. Ngo, D.; Wijesekara, I.; Vo, T. Marine food-derived functional ingredients as potential antioxidants in the food industry: An overview. Food Res. Int. 2011, 44, 523–529. [CrossRef]
59. Cotterill, O.J.; Geiger, G.S. Egg product yield trends from shell eggs. Poult. Sci. 1977, 56, 1027–1031. [CrossRef]
60. Li-Chan, E.C.Y.; Kim, H.O. Structure and chemical composition of eggs. In Egg Bioscience and Biotechnology; Mine, Y., Ed.; JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2008; pp. 1–95.
61. Seuss-baum, I. Nutritional evaluation of egg compounds. In Bioactive Egg Compounds; Huopalahti, R., Lopez-Fandino, R., Anton, M., Schade, R., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Heidelbert, Germany; Berlin, Germany, 2007; pp. 117–144.
62. Kovacs-Nolan, J.; Phillips, M.; Mine, Y. Advances in the value of eggs and egg components for human health. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 8421–8431. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. United States Department of Agriculture. United States Department of Agriculture: National Nutrient Database for standard reference Release 27. Available online: http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/ (accessed on 25 September 2014).
64. Hatta, H.; Kapoor, M.; Juneja, L. Bioactive components in egg yolk. In Egg Bioscience and Biotechnology; Mine, Y., Ed.; JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2008; pp. 185–237.
65. Surai, P.F. Effect of selenium and vitamin E content of the maternal diet on the antioxidant system of the yolk and the developing chick. Br. Poult. Sci. 2000, 41, 235–243. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Anton, M. Composition and structure of hen egg yolk. In Bioactive Egg Compounds; Huopalahti, R., Lopez-Fandino, R., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Heidelbert, Germany, 2007; pp. 17–24.
67. Carlson, S.; Montalto, M.; Ponder, D. Lower incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants fed a preterm formula with egg phospholipids. Pediatr. Res. 1998, 44, 491–498. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Hoffman, D.R.; Theuer, R.C.; Castaneda, Y.S.; Wheaton, D.H.; Bosworth, R.G.; O’Connor, A.R.; Morale, S.E.; Wiedemann, L.E.; Birch, E.E. Maturation of visual acuity is accelerated in breast-fed term infants fed baby food containing DHA-enriched egg yolk. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 2307–2313. [PubMed]
69. Charoensiriwatana, W.; Srijantr, P.; Teeyapant, P.; Wongvilairattana, J. Consuming iodine enriched eggs to solve the iodine deficiency endemic for remote areas in Thailand. Nutr. J. 2010, 9, 68. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Bourre, J.M.; Galea, F. An important source of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins D and E, carotenoids, iodine and selenium: A new natural multi-enriched egg. J. Nutr. Health Aging 2006, 10, 371–376. [PubMed]
71. Naber, E.C. Modifying Vitamin Composition of Eggs: A Review. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 1993, 2, 385–393. [CrossRef]
72. Miranda, J.M.; Anton, X.; Redondo-Valbuena, C.; Roca-Saavedra, P.; Rodriguez, J.A.; Lamas, A.; Franco, C.M.; Cepeda, A. Egg and egg-derived foods: Effects on human health and use as functional foods. Nutrients 2015, 7, 706–729. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Mine, Y.; D’Silva, I. Bioactive Components in Egg White. In Egg Bioscience and Biotechnology; Mine, Y., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007; pp. 141–184.
74. Nakamura, S.; Kato, A.; Kobayashi, K. Enhanced antioxidative effect of ovalbumin due to covalent binding of polysaccharides. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1992, 40, 2033–2037. [CrossRef]
75. Huang, X.; Tu, Z.; Xiao, H.; Wang, H.; Zhang, L. Characteristics and antioxidant activities of ovalbumin glycated with different saccharides under heat moisture treatment. Food Res. Int. 2012, 48, 866–872. [CrossRef]
76. Ibrahim, H.; Hoq, M.; Aoki, T. Ovotransferrin possesses SOD-like superoxide anion scavenging activity that is promoted by copper and manganese binding. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2007, 41, 631–640. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Chang, O.; Ha, G.; Han, G. Novel antioxidant peptide derived from the ultrafiltrate of ovomucin hydrolysate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 7294–7300. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Liu, H.; Zheng, F.; Cao, Q.; Ren, B.; Zhu, L.; Striker, G.; Vlassara, H. Amelioration of oxidant stress by the defensin lysozyme. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 290, E824–E832. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Lehtinen, M.K.; Tegelberg, S.; Schipper, H.; Su, H.; Zukor, H.; Manninen, O.; Kopra, O.; Joensuu, T.; Hakala, P.; Bonni, A.; et al. Cystatin B deficiency sensitizes neurons to oxidative stress in progressive myoclonus epilepsy, EPM1. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29, 5910–5915. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. Verdot, L.; Lalmanach, G.; Vercruysse, V.; Hartmann, S.; Lucius, R.; Hoebeke, J.; Gauthier, F.; Vray, B. Cystatins up-regulate nitric oxide release from interferon-gamma-activated mouse peritoneal macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271, 28077–28081. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Young, D.; Nau, F.; Pasco, M.; Mine, Y. Identification of hen egg yolk-derived phosvitin phosphopeptides and their effects on gene expression profiling against oxidative stress-induced Caco-2 cells. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 9207–9218. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Lu, C.-L.; Baker, R.C. Characteristics of egg yolk phosvitin as an antioxidant for inhibiting metal-catalyzed phospholipid oxidations. Poult. Sci. 1986, 65, 2065–2070. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Sugino, H.; Ishikawa, M.; Nitoda, T.; Koketsu, M.; Juneja, L.R.; Kim, M.; Yamamoto, T. Antioxidative activity of egg yolk phospholipids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997, 45, 551–554. [CrossRef]
84. Ricciarelli, R.; Zingg, J.M.; Azzi, A. Vitamin E reduces the uptake of oxidized LDL by inhibiting cd36 scavenger receptor expression in cultured aortic smooth muscle cells. Circulation 2000, 102, 82–87. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Nimalaratne, C.; Lopes-Lutz, D.; Schieber, A.; Wu, J. Free aromatic amino acids in egg yolk show antioxidant properties. Food Chem. 2011, 129, 155–161. [CrossRef]
86. Lechevalier, V.; Croguennec, T. Ovalbumin and gene-related proteins. In Bioactive Egg Compounds; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 2007.
87. Deneke, S. Thiol-based antioxidants. Curr. Top. Cell. Regul. 2001, 36, 151–181.
88. Thomas, J.A.; Poland, B.; Honzatko, R. Protein sulfhydryls and their role in the antioxidant function of protein S-thiolation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1995, 319, 1–9. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
89. Roos, G.; Messens, J. Protein sulfenic acid formation: From cellular damage to redox regulation. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2011, 51, 314–326. [CrossRef]
90. Goto, M.; Shibasaki, K. Effect of oxidation of oils on deterioration of foods. II. Effect of food components on the oxidation of linoleic acid. Nihon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkai-Shi 1971, 18, 277–283. [CrossRef]
91. Sun, Y.; Hayakawa, S. Antioxidant effects of Maillard reaction products obtained from ovalbumin and different D-aldohexoses. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2006, 70, 598–605. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Superti, F.; Ammendolia, M. Ovotransferrin. In Bioactive Egg Compounds; Huopalahti, R., Lopez-Fandino, R., Anton, M., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Heidelbert, Germany; Berlin, Germany, 2007; pp. 43–50.
93. Mine, Y.; Kovacs-Nolan, J. Biologically Active Hen Egg Components in Human Health and Disease. J. Poult. Sci. 2004, 41, 1–29. [CrossRef]
94. Fritz, J.; Ikegami, M. Lysozyme ameliorates oxidant-induced lung injury. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2009, 179, A4005.
95. Fossum, K.; Whitaker, J.R. Ficin and papain inhibitor from chicken egg white. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1968, 125, 367–375. [CrossRef]
96. Wesierska, E.; Saleh, Y.; Trziszka, T.; Kopec, W.; Siewinski, M.; Korzekwa, K. Antimicrobial activity of chicken egg white cystatin. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2005, 21, 59–64. [CrossRef]
97. Nicklin, M.; Barrett, A. Inhibition of cysteine proteinases and dipeptidyl peptidase I by egg-white cystatin. Biochem. J. 1984, 223, 245–253. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Vray, B.; Hartmann, S.; Hoebeke, J. Immunomodulatory properties of cystatins. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2002, 59, 1503–1512. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Abbas, K.; Breton, J.; Planson, A.G.; Bouton, C.; Bignon, J.; Seguin, C.; Riquier, S.; Toledano, M.B.; Drapier, J.C. Nitric oxide activates an Nrf2/sulfiredoxin antioxidant pathway in macrophages. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2011, 51, 107–114. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100. Frenkel, K.; Chrzan, K.; Ryan, C.A.; Wiesner, R.; Troll, W. Chymotrypsin-specific protease inhibitors decrease H2O2 formation by activated human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Carcinogenesis 1987, 8, 1207–1212. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Joubert, F.J.; Cook, W. H. Preparation and characterization of phosvitin from hen egg yolk. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 2011, 36, 399–408. [CrossRef]
102. Ishikawa, S.I.; Yano, Y.; Arihara, K.; Itoh, M. Egg yolk phosvitin inhibits hydroxyl radical formation from the fenton reaction. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2004, 68, 1324–1331. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Ishikawa, S.; Ohtsuki, S.; Tomita, K.; Arihara, K.; Itoh, M. Protective effect of egg yolk phosvitin against ultraviolet- light-induced lipid peroxidation in the presence of iron ions. Biol. Trace Element Res. 2005, 105, 249–256. [CrossRef]
104. King, M.F.; Boyd, L.C.; Sheldon, B.W. Antioxidant properties of individual phospholipids in a salmon oil model system. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1992, 69, 545–551. [CrossRef]
105. Saito, H.; Ishihara, K. Antioxidant activity and active sites of phospholipids as antioxidants. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1997, 74, 1531–1536. [CrossRef]
106. Rao, A.V.; Rao, L.G. Carotenoids and human health. Nutr. Pharmacol. 2007, 55, 207–216. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
107. Fiedor, J.; Burda, K. Potential role of carotenoids as antioxidants in human health and disease. Nutrients 2014, 6, 466–488. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
108. Voutilainen, S.; Nurmi, T.; Mursu, J.; Rissanen, T.H. Carotenoids and cardiovascular health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1265–1271. [PubMed]
109. Handelman, G.J.; Nightingale, Z.D.; Lichtenstein, A.H.; Schaefer, E.J.; Blumberg, J.B. Lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in plasma after dietary supplementation with egg yolk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 70, 247–251. [PubMed]
110. Chung, H.-Y.; Rasmussen, H.M.; Johnson, E.J. Lutein bioavailability is higher from lutein-enriched eggs than from supplements and spinach in men. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 1887–1893. [PubMed]
111. Karadas, F.; Grammenidis, E.; Surai, P.F.; Acamovic, T.; Sparks, N.H. Effects of carotenoids from lucerne, marigold and tomato on egg yolk pigmentation and carotenoid composition. Br. Poult. Sci. 2006, 47, 561–566. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Schlatterer, J.; Breithaupt, D.E. Xanthophylls in commercial egg yolks: Quantification and identification by HPLC and LC-(APCI)MS using a C30 phase. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 2267–2273. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Breithaupt, D.E. Modern application of xanthophylls in animal feeding—A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 18, 501–506. [CrossRef]
114. Breithaupt, D.R. Xanthophylls in Poultry Feeding. In Carotenoids; Pfander, H., Ed.; Birkhauser: Basel, Switzerland, 2008; Volume 4, pp. 255–264.
115. Krinsky, N.; Russett, M. Structural and geometrical isomers of carotenoids in human plasma. J. Nutr. 1990, 120, 1654–1662. [PubMed]
116. Landrum, J.T.; Bone, R.A. Lutein, zeaxanthin, and the macular pigment. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2001, 385, 28–40. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
117. Krinsky, N.; Landrum, J.; Bone, R. Biologic mechanisms of the protective role of lutein and zeaxanthin in the eye. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2003, 23, 171–201. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
118. Li, B.; Ahmed, F.; Bernstein, P.S. Studies on the singlet oxygen scavenging mechanism of human macular pigment. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2010, 504, 56–60. [PubMed]
119. Böhm, F.; Edge, R.; Truscott, G. Interactions of dietary carotenoids with activated (singlet) oxygen and free radicals: Potential effects for human health. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2012, 56, 205–216. [PubMed]
120. Gao, S.; Qin, T.; Liu, Z.; Caceres, M.A.; Ronchi, C.F.; Chen, C.Y.O.; Yeum, K.J.; Taylor, A.; Blumberg, J.B.; Liu, Y. et al. Lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation reduces H2O2-induced oxidative damage in human lens epithelial cells. Mol. Vis. 2011, 17, 3180–3190. [PubMed]
121. Dwyer, J.H.; Navab, M.; Dwyer, K.M.; Hassan, K.; Sun, P.; Shircore, A.; Hama-Levy, S.; Hough, G.; Wang, X.; Drake, T. et al. Oxygenated Carotenoid Lutein and Progression of Early Atherosclerosis: The Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study. Circulation 2001, 103, 2922–2927. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
122. Kim, J.E.; Leite, J.O.; DeOgburn, R.; Smyth, J.A.; Clark, R.M.; Fernandez, M.L. A lutein-enriched diet prevents cholesterol accumulation and decreases oxidized LDL and inflammatory cytokines in the aorta of guinea pigs. J. Nutr. 2011, 141, 1458–1463. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Trevithick-Sutton, C.C.; Foote, C.S.; Collins, M.; Trevithick, J.R. The retinal carotenoids zeaxanthin and lutein scavenge superoxide and hydroxyl radicals: A chemiluminescence and ESR study. Mol. Vis. 2006, 12, 1127–1135. [PubMed]
124. Panasenko, O.M.; Sharov, V.S.; Briviba, K.; Sies, H. Interaction of peroxynitrite with carotenoids in human low density lipoproteins. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2000, 373, 302–305. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
125. Traber, M.G.; Atkinson, J. Vitamin E, antioxidant and nothing more. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2007, 43, 4–15. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
126. Burton, G.W.; Traber, M.G. Vitamin E: Antioxidant activity, biokinetics, and bioavailability. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1990, 10, 357–382. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
127. Esterbauer, H.; Puhl, H.; Dieber-Rotheneder, M.; Waeg, G.; Rabl, H. Effect of antioxidants on oxidative modification of LDL. Ann. Med. 1991, 23, 573–581. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
128. Rimm, E.B.; Stampfer, M.J.; Ascherio, A.; Giovannucci, E.; Colditz, G.A.; Willett, W.C. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 328, 1450–1456. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
129. Stampfer, M.J.; Hennekens, C.H.; Manson, J.E.; Colditz, G.A.; Rosner, B.; Willett, W.C. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 328, 1444–1449. [CrossRef]
130. Surai, P.F.; MacPherson, A.; Speake, B.K.; Sparks, N.H.C. Designer egg evaluation in a controlled trial. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 54, 298–305. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
131. Tapiero, H.; Townsend, D.; Tew, K. The antioxidant role of selenium and seleno-compounds. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2003, 57, 134–144. [CrossRef]
132. Smyth, P.P.A. Role of iodine in antioxidant defence in thyroid and breast disease. BioFactors 2003, 19, 121–130. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
133. Chen, C.; Chi, Y.-J.; Zhao, M.-Y.; Lv, L. Purification and identification of antioxidant peptides from egg white protein hydrolysate. Amino Acids 2012, 43, 457–466. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
134. Remanan, M.K.; Wu, J. Antioxidant activity in cooked and simulated digested eggs. Food Funct. 2014, 5, 1464–1474. [PubMed]
135. Chen, C.; Chi, Y.; Xu, W. Comparisons on the functional properties and antioxidant activity of spray-dried and freeze-dried egg white protein hydrolysate. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2012, 5, 2342–2352. [CrossRef]
136. Lin, S.; Jin, Y.; Liu, M.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, M.; Guo, Y. Research on the preparation of antioxidant peptides derived from egg white with assisting of high-intensity pulsed electric field. Food Chem. 2013, 139, 300–306. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
137. Liu, J.; Jin, Y.; Lin, S.; Jones, G.S.; Chen, F. Purification and identification of novel antioxidant peptides from egg white protein and their antioxidant activities. Food Chem. 2015, 175, 258–266. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
138. Nimalaratne, C.; Bandara, N.; Wu, J. Purification and characterization of antioxidant peptides from enzymatically hydrolyzed chicken egg white. Food Chem. 2015, 188, 467–472. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
139. Graszkiewicz, A.; Zelazko, M. Antioxidative capacity of hydrolysates of hen egg proteins. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2007, 57, 195–199.
140. Graszkiewicz, A.; Zelazko, M.; Trziszka, T. Application of pancreatic enzymes in hydrolysis of egg-white proteins. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2010, 60, 57–61.
141. Manso, M.; Miguel, M.; Even, J.; Hernandez, R.; Aleixandre, A.; Lopezfandino, R. Effect of the long-term intake of an egg white hydrolysate on the oxidative status and blood lipid profile of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Food Chem. 2008, 109, 361–367. [CrossRef]
142. Park, P.-J.; Jung, W.-K.; Nam, K.-S.; Shahidi, F.; Kim, S.-K. Purification and characterization of antioxidative peptides from protein hydrolysate of lecithin-free egg yolk. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2001, 78, 651–656. [CrossRef]
143. Sakanaka, S.; Tachibana, Y. Active oxygen scavenging activity of egg-yolk protein hydrolysates and their effects on lipid oxidation in beef and tuna homogenates. Food Chem. 2006, 95, 243–249. [CrossRef]
144. Xu, M.; Shangguan, X.; Wang, W.; Chen, J. Antioxidative activity of hen egg ovalbumin hydrolysates. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 16, 178–182. [PubMed]
145. Shen, S.; Chahal, B.; Majumder, K. Identification of novel antioxidative peptides derived from a thermolytic hydrolysate of ovotransferrin by LC-MS/MS. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 7664–7672. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
146. Huang, W.; Shen, S.; Nimalaratne, C.; Li, S.; Majumder, K.; Wu, J. Effects of addition of egg ovotransferrin-derived peptides on the oxygen radical absorbance capacity of different teas. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1600–1607. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
147. Galisteo, J.; Herraiz, T. Endogenous and Dietary Indoles: A Class of Antioxidants and Radical Scavengers in the ABTS Assay. Free Radic. Res. 2004, 38, 323–331.
148. Christen, S.; Peterhans, E.; Stocker, R. Antioxidant activities of some tryptophan metabolites: Possible implication for inflammatory diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1990, 87, 2506–2510. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
149. You, J.; Luo, Y.; Wu, J. Conjugation of Ovotransferrin with Catechin Shows Improved Antioxidant Activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 2581–2587. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
150. Rao, S.; Sun, J.; Liu, Y.; Zeng, H.; Su, Y.; Yang, Y. ACE inhibitory peptides and antioxidant peptides derived from in vitro digestion hydrolysate of hen egg white lysozyme. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1245–1252. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
151. You, S.-J.; Udenigwe, C.C.; Aluko, R.E.; Wu, J. Multifunctional peptides from egg white lysozyme. Food Res. Int. 2010, 43, 848–855. [CrossRef]
152. Memarpoor-Yazdi, M. A novel antioxidant and antimicrobial peptide from hen egg white lysozyme hydrolysates. J. Funct. Foods 2012, 4, 278–286. [CrossRef]
153. Omana, D.A.; Wang, J.; Wu, J. Ovomucin—A glycoprotein with promising potential. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 455–463. [CrossRef]
154. Liu, J.; Chen, Z.; He, J.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, T.; Jiang, Y. Anti-oxidative and anti-apoptosis effects of egg white peptide, Trp-Asn-Trp-Ala-Asp, against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Food Funct. 2014, 5, 3179–3188. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
155. Katayama, S.; Xu, X.; Fan, M.Z.; Mine, Y. Antioxidative stress activity of oligophosphopeptides derived from hen egg yolk phosvitin in Caco-2 cells. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 773–778. [PubMed]
156. Xu, X.; Katayama, S.; Mine, Y. Antioxidant activity of tryptic digests of hen egg yolk phosvitin. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2007, 87, 2604–2608. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
157. Katayama, S.; Mine, Y. Antioxidative activity of amino acids on tissue oxidative stress in human intestinal epithelial cell model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 8458–8464. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
158. Surai, P.F.; Simons, P.C.M.; Dvorska, J.E.; Aradas, F.; Sparks, N.H.C. Antioxidant-enriched eggs: Opportunities and limitations. In The Amazing Egg: Nature’s Perfect Functional Food for Health Promotion; Sim, J.S., Sunwoo, H.H., Eds.; University of Alberta: Edmonton, AB, Canada, 2006; pp. 68–93.
159. Fraeye, I.; Bruneel, C.; Lemahieu, C.; Buyse, J.; Muylaert, K.; Foubert, I. Dietary enrichment of eggs with omega-3 fatty acids: A review. Food Res. Int. 2012, 48, 961–969. [CrossRef]
160. Leeson, S. Lutein-Enriched eggs: Transfer of lutein into eggs and health benefits. In The Amazing Egg: Nature’s Perfect Functional Food for Health Promotion; Sim, J.S., Sunwoo, H.H., Eds.; Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta: Edmonton, AB, Canada, 2006; pp. 171–179.
161. Serpeloni, J.M.; Grotto, D.; Mercadante, A.Z.; de Lourdes Pires Bianchi, M.; Antunes, L.M.G. Lutein improves antioxidant defense in vivo and protects against DNA damage and chromosome instability induced by cisplatin. Arch. Toxicol. 2010, 84, 811–822. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
162. Roberts, R.L.; Green, J.; Lewis, B. Lutein and zeaxanthin in eye and skin health. Clin. Dermatol. 2009, 27, 195–201. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
163. Wertz, K.; Siler, U.; Goralczyk, R. Lycopene: Modes of action to promote prostate health. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2004, 430, 127–134. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
164. Olson, J.B.; Ward, N.E.; Koutsos, E.A. Lycopene Incorporation into Egg Yolk and Effects on Laying Hen Immune Function. Poult. Sci. 2008, 87, 2573–2580. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
165. Akdemir, F.; Orhan, C.; Sahin, N.; Sahin, K.; Hayirli, A. Tomato powder in laying hen diets: Effects on concentrations of yolk carotenoids and lipid peroxidation. Br. Poult. Sci. 2012, 53, 675–680. [CrossRef]
166. Péter, S.; Moser, U. The challenge of setting appropriate intake recommendations for vitamin E: Considerations on status and functionality to define nutrient requirements. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2013, 83, 129–136. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
167. Sanders, T.A.B.; Hinds, A. The influence of a fish oil high in docosahexaenoic acid on plasma lipoprotein and vitamin E concentrations and haemostatic function in healthy male volunteers. Br. J. Nutr. 2007, 68, 163–173. [CrossRef]
168. Valk, E.; Hornstra, G. Relationship between vitamin E requirement and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in man: A review. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2000, 70, 31–42. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
169. Honein, M.A. Impact of folic acid fortification of the US food supply on the occurrence of neural tube defects. JAMA 2001, 285, 2981–2986. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
170. House, J.D.; Braun, K.; Ballance, D.; O’Connor, C.; Guenter, W. The enrichment of eggs with folic acid through supplementation of the laying hen diet. Poult. Sci. 2002, 81, 1332–1337. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
171. House, J.D.; O’Connor, C.; Guenter, W. Plasma homocysteine and glycine are sensitive indices of folate status in a rodent model of folate depletion and repletion. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 4461–4467. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
172. Seyoum, E.; Selhub, J. Properties of Food Folates Determined by Stability and Susceptibility to Intestinal Pteroylpolyglutamate Hydrolase Action. J. Nutr. 1998, 128, 1956–1960. [PubMed]
173. Rezk, B.M.; Haenen, G.R.M.; van der Vijgh, W.J.; Bast, A. Tetrahydrofolate and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate are folates with high antioxidant activity. Identification of the antioxidant pharmacophore. FEBS Lett. 2003, 555, 601–605. [CrossRef]
174. Antoniades, C.; Shirodaria, C.; Warrick, N.; Cai, S.; de Bono, J.; Lee, J.; Leeson, P.; Neubauer, S.; Ratnatunga, C.; Pillai, R. et al. 5-methyltetrahydrofolate rapidly improves endothelial function and decreases superoxide production in human vessels: Effects on vascular tetrahydrobiopterin availability and endothelial nitric oxide synthase coupling. Circulation 2006, 114, 1193–1201. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
175. Verhaar, M.C.; Wever, R.M.F.; Kastelein, J.J.P.; van Dam, T.; Koomans, H.A.; Rabelink, T.J. 5-Methyltetrahydrofolate, the Active Form of Folic Acid, Restores Endothelial Function in Familial Hypercholesterolemia. Circulation 1998, 97, 237–241. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
176. Dobrzanski, Z.; Gorecka, H.; Strzelbicka, G.; Szczypel, J.; Trziszka, T. Study on enrichment of hen eggs with selenium and iodine. Electron. J. Pol. Agric. Univ. Ser. Anim. Husb. 2001, 4. Available online: http://www.ejpau.media.pl/volume4/issue2/animal/art-01.html (accessed on 25 September 2014).
177. Nicoli, M.; Anese, M.; Parpinel, M. Influence of processing on the antioxidant properties of fruit and vegetables. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1999, 10, 94–100. [CrossRef]
178. Kalt, W. Effects of production and processing factors on major fruit and vegetable antioxidants. J. Food Sci. 2005, 70, R11–R19. [CrossRef]
179. Shi, J.; le Maguer, M. Lycopene in tomatoes: Chemical and physical properties affected by food processing. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2000, 40, 1–42. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
180. Dewanto, V.; Wu, X.; Adom, K.K.; Liu, R.H. Thermal processing enhances the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 3010–3014. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
181. Dewanto, V.; Wu, X.; Liu, R.H. Processed sweet corn has higher antioxidant activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 4959–4964. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
182. Adefegha, S.; Oboh, G. Cooking enhances the antioxidant properties of some tropical green leafy vegetables. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2013, 10, 632–639.
183. Turkmen, N.; Sari, F.; Velioglu, Y.S. The effect of cooking methods on total phenolics and antioxidant activity of selected green vegetables. Food Chem. 2005, 93, 713–718. [CrossRef]
184. Ravichandran, K.; Saw, N.M.M.T.; Mohdaly, A.A.A.; Gabr, A.M.M.; Kastell, A.; Riedel, H.; Cai, Z.; Knorr, D.; Smetanska, I. Impact of processing of red beet on betalain content and antioxidant activity. Food Res. Int. 2013, 50, 670–675. [CrossRef]
185. Ismail, A.; Marjan, Z.M.; Foong, C.W. Total antioxidant activity and phenolic content in selected vegetables. Food Chem. 2004, 87, 581–586. [CrossRef]
186. Natella, F.; Belelli, F.; Ramberti, A.; Scaccini, C. Microwave and traditional cooking methods: Effect of cooking on antioxidant. J. Food Biochem. 2010, 34, 796–810.
187. Zhang, D.; Hamauzu, Y. Phenolics, ascorbic acid, carotenoids and antioxidant activity of broccoli and their changes during conventional and microwave cooking. Food Chem. 2004, 88, 503–509. [CrossRef]
188. Jing, H.; Yap, M.; Wong, P.Y.Y.; Kitts, D.D. Comparison of physicochemical and antioxidant properties of egg-white proteins and fructose and inulin maillard reaction products. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2009, 4, 1489–1496. [CrossRef]
189. Albright, K.; Gordon, D.; Cotterill, O. Release of iron from phosvitin by heat and food additives. J. Food Sci. 1984, 49, 78–81. [CrossRef]
190. Schieber, A.; Carle, R. Occurrence of carotenoid cis-isomers in food: Technological, analytical, and nutritional implications. Pigment. Food 2005, 16, 416–422. [CrossRef]
191. Wenzel, M.; Seuss-Baum, I.; Schlich, E. Influence of pasteurization, spray- and freeze-drying, and storage on the carotenoid content in egg yolk. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 1726–1731. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
192. Barbosa, V.C.; Gaspar, A.; Calixto, L.F.L.; Agostinho, T.S.P. Stability of the pigmentation of egg yolks enriched with omega-3 and carophyll stored at room temperature and under refrigeration. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2011, 40, 1540–1544.
193. Galobart, J.; Barroeta, A. a-Tocopherol transfer efficiency and lipid oxidation in fresh and spray-dried eggs enriched with omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poult. Sci. 2001, 80, 1496–1505. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
194. Caboni, M.; Boselli, E.; Messia, M. Effect of processing and storage on the chemical quality markers of spray-dried whole egg. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 293–303. [CrossRef]
195. Stefanovic, A.B.; Jovanovic, J.R.; Grbavcic, S. Ž.; Šekuljica, N.Ž.; Manojlovic, V.B.; Bugarski, B.M.; Kneževic-Jugovic, Z.D. Impact of ultrasound on egg white proteins as a pretreatment for functional hydrolysates production. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2014, 239, 979–993. [CrossRef]
196. Van der Plancken, I.; Van Loey, A.; Hendrickx, M.E. Combined effect of high pressure and temperature on selected properties of egg white proteins. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2005, 6, 11–20. [CrossRef]
197. Mateo Anson, N.; Havenaar, R.; Bast, A.; Haenen, G.R.M.M. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity of bioaccessible compounds from wheat fractions after gastrointestinal digestion. J. Cereal Sci. 2010, 51, 110–114. [CrossRef]
198. Chiang, C.-J.; Kadouh, H.; Zhou, K. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of gooseberry as affected by in vitro digestion. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2013, 51, 417–422. [CrossRef]
199. Tagliazucchi, D.; Verzelloni, E.; Bertolini, D.; Conte, A. In vitro bio-accessibility and antioxidant activity of grape polyphenols. Food Chem. 2010, 120, 599–606. [CrossRef]
200. Rodríguez-Roque, M.J.; Rojas-Graü, M.A.; Elez-Martínez, P.; Martín-Belloso, O. Soymilk phenolic compounds, isoflavones and antioxidant activity as affected by in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Food Chem. 2013, 136, 206–212. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
201. Jensen, I.-J.; Abrahamsen, H.; Maehre, H.K.; Elvevoll, E.O. Changes in antioxidative capacity of saithe (Pollachius virens) and shrimp (Pandalus borealis) during in vitro digestion. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 10928–10932. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
202. You, L.; Zhao, M.; Regenstein, J.M.; Ren, J. Changes in the antioxidant activity of loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) protein hydrolysates during a simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Food Chem. 2010, 120, 810–816. [CrossRef]
203. Bouayed, J.; Hoffmann, L.; Bohn, T. Total phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity following simulated gastro-intestinal digestion and dialysis of apple varieties: Bioaccessibility and potential uptake. Food Chem. 2011, 128, 14–21. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
204. Faller, A.L.K.; Fialho, E.; Liu, R.H. Cellular antioxidant activity of feijoada whole meal coupled with an in vitro digestion. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 4826–4832. [PubMed]
205. Nimalaratne, C.; Savard, P.; Gauthier, S.F.; Schieber, A.; Wu, J. Bioaccessibility and digestive stability of carotenoids in cooked eggs studied using a dynamic in vitro gastrointestinal model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 2956–2962. [CrossRef] [PubMed]