Lycopene in tomatoes: Chemical and physical properties affected by food processing

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 1-42

  Shi, John ^a   Le Maguer, Marc ^b  

^a AGRICULTURE AND AGRI FOOD CANADA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH   (Canada)

Author keywords

Bioactivity; Bioavailability; Degradation; Isomerization; Lycopene; Oxidation; Processing; Tomato

Indexed keywords

LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CAROTENOID; LYCOPENE;

BIOAVAILABILITY; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CHEMISTRY; DRUG STABILITY; FOOD HANDLING; HUMAN; METABOLISM; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; REVIEW; TOMATO;

ANTICARCINOGENIC AGENTS; BIOLOGICAL AVAILABILITY; CAROTENOIDS; CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL; DRUG STABILITY; FOOD HANDLING; HUMANS; LYCOPERSICON ESCULENTUM; MOLECULAR STRUCTURE;

EID: 0033629166     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408690091189275     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Agarwal, S. and Rao, A. V. 1998. Tomato lycopene and low density lipoprotein oxidation: a human dietary intervention study. Lipids, 33, 981-984.
2. Akhtar, M. S., Goldschmidt, E. E., John, I., Rodoni, S., Matile, P., and Grieson, D. 1999. Altered patterns of senescence and ripening in gf, a stay-green mutant of tomato (lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). J. Exp. Bot., 50, 1115-1122.
3. Al-Wandawi, H., Abdul-Rahman, M., and Al-Shaikhly, K. 1985. Tomato processing waste as essential raw materials source. J. Agric. Food Chem., 33, 804-807.
4. AOAC.1995. Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 16th ed., Arlington, Virginia, U. S. A.
5. Beerh, O. P. and Siddappa, G. S. 1959. A rapid spectrophotometric method for the detection and estimation of adulterants in tomato ketchup. Food Technol., 7, 414-418.
6. Benet, L. Z. and Shiner, L. B. 1985. Pharmacodynamics: the dynamics of drug absorption, distribution and elimination. In: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Goodman-Gilman, A., Goodman, L. S., Rall, T. W., and Murad, F., Eds., 7th ed. Macmillan, New York.
7. Benthin, P., Danz, H., and Hamburger, M. 1999. Pressurized liquid extraction of medicinal plants. J. Chromatogr. A. 837, 211-219.
8. Britton, G. 1995. Tructure and properties of carotenoids in relation to function. FASEB J., 9, 151-1558.
9. Boileau, A. C., Merchen, N. R., Wasson, K., Atkinson, C. A., and Erdman, J. W. 1999. Cis-lycopene is more bioavailable than translycopene in vitro and in vivo in lymph-cannulated ferrests. J. Nut., 129, 1176-1181.
10. Boskovic, M. A. 1979. Fate of lycopene in dehydrated tomato products: carotenoid isomerization in food system. J. Food Sci., 44, 84-86.
11. Bouvier, F., Backhaus, R. A., and Camara, B. 1998. Induction and control of chromoplast-specific carotenoid genes by oxidative stress. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 30651-30659.
12. Bowen, P. E., Mobarhan, S, and Smith, J. C. 1993. Carotenoid absorption in humans. Methods Enzymol., 214, 3-17.
13. Brown, E. D., Micozzi, M. S., and Craft, N. E. 1989. Plasma carotenoids in normal men after a single ingestion of vegetables or purified β-carotene. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 49, 1258-1265.
14. Buggy, M. J., Britton, G., and Goodwin, T. W. 1969. Stereo-chemistry of phytoene biosynthesis by isolated chloroplasts. Biochem. J., 114, 641-643.
15. Bureau, J. L. and Bushway, R. J. 1986. HPLC determination of carotenoids in fruits and vegetables in the United States. J. Food Sci., 51, 128-130.
16. Burton, G. W. and Ingold, K. U. 1984. β-carotene: an unusual type of lipid antioxidant. Science, 224, 569-573.
17. Castenmiller, J. J. M. and West, C. E. 1998. Bioavailibility and bioconversion of carotenoids. Annu. Rev. Nutr., 18, 19-38.
18. Chandler, L. A. and Schwartz, S. J. 1987. HPLC separation of cis-trans carotene isomers in fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. J. Food Sci., 52, 669-672.
19. Chandler, L. A. and Schwartz, S. J. 1988. Isomerization and losses of trans-β-carotene in sweet potatoes as affected by processing treatments. J. Agric. Food Chem., 36, 129-133.
20. Clindon, S. K., Emenhiser, C., Schwartz, S. J., Bostwick, D. G., Williams, A. W., Moore, B. J., and Erdman, J. W. jr., 1996. Cis-trans lycopene isomers, carotenoids, and retinol in the human prostate. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prevent., 5, 823-833.
21. Clydesdale, F. M. 1993. Color as a factor in food choice. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 33(1), 83-101.
22. Colditz, G. A., Branch, L. G., and Lipnic, R. J. 1985. Increased green and yellow vegetables intake and lowered cancer death in an elderly population. Am J Clin. Nutr., 41, 32-6.
23. Cole, E. R. and Kapur, N. S. 1957a. The stability of lycopene. I. Degradation by oxygen. J. Sci. Food Agric., 8, 360-365.
24. Cole, E. R. and Kapur, N. S. 1957b. The stability of lycopene. II. Oxidation during heating of tomato pulp. J. Sci. Food Agric., 8, 366-368.
25. Conn, P. F., Schalch, W., and Truscott, T. G. 1991. The singlet oxygen andcarotenoid interaction. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B. Biol., 11, 41-47.
26. Conn, P. F., Lambert, C., Land, E. J., Schalch, W., and Truscott, T. G. 1992. Free Radicales Res. Commun., 16, 401-408.
27. Corey, K. A., Schlimme, D. V., and Frey, B. C. 1986. Peel removal by high-pressure steam from processing tomatoes with yellow shoulder disorder. J. Food Sci., 51, 388-390.
28. Craft, N. E., Sander, L. C., and Pierson, H. F. 1990. Separation and relative distribution if all-trans-β-carotene and its cis isomers in β-carotene preparation. J. Micronutrient Anal., 8, 209-221.
29. Curl, A. L. 1961. The xanthophylls of tomatoes. J. Food Sci., 26, 106-111.
30. Daood, H. G., Biacs, P. A., Hoschke, A., Vinkler, M. H., and Hajdu, F. 1987. Separation and indentification of tomato fruit pigments by TLC and HPLC. Acta Alimentaria, 16(4), 339-350.
31. De Pee, S., West, C. E., Muhilal, Karyadi, D., and Hautvast, J. G. A. J. 1995. Lack of improvement in vitamin A status with increased consumption of dark-green leafy vegetables. Lancet, 346, 75-81.
32. Deshmukh, D. S. and Ganguly, J. 1964. Effect of dietary protein contents on the intestinal conversion of β-carotene to vitamin A in tats. Indian J. Biochem., 1, 204-207.
33. Devasagayam, T. P. A., Werner, T., Ippendorf, H., Martin, H. D., and Sies, H. 1992. Synthetic carotenoids, novel polyene polyketones and new capsorubin isomers as efficient quenchers of singlet molecular oxygen. Photochem. Photobiol., 55, 511-514.
34. Di Mascio, P., Kaiser, S., and Sies, H. 1989. Lycopene as the most efficient biological carotenoid singlet oxygen quencher. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 274, 532-538.
35. Di Mascio, P., Murphy, M. C., and Sies, H. 1991. Antioxidant defense systems, the role of caritenoid, tocopherol and thiols. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. Suppl., 53, 194-200.
36. Dimitrov, N. V., Meyer, C., and Ullrey, D. E. 1988. Bioavailability of β-carotene in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 48, 298-304.
37. Dorgan, J. F., Sowell, A., Swanson, C.A., Potischman, N., Miller, R., Schussler, N., and Stephenson, H. E., Jr. 1998. Relationships of serum carotenoids, retinol, α-tocorpherol and selenium with breast cancer risk: results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (United States). Cancer Causes Contro, 9, 89-97.
38. D'Souza, M. C., Singha, S., and Ingle, M. 1992. Lycopene concentration of tomato fruit can be estimated from chromaticity values. HortScience, 27, 465-466.
39. Edwards, C. G. and Lee, C. Y. 1986. Measurement of provitamin A carotenoids in fresh and canned carrots and green peas. J. Food Sci., 51(2), 534-535.
40. Edwards, R. A. and Reuters, F. N. 1983. Pigment changes during the maturation of tomato fruits. J. Food Technol., 19, 352-357.
41. Ellis, G. H. and Hammer, K. C. 1943. The carotene content of tomatoes as influenced by various factors. J. Nutr., 25, 539-553.
42. 30 stationary phase to resolve cis-trans carotenoids in reversed phase liquid chromatograph. J. Chromatogr. A., 707, 205-216.
43. 30 column in resersed-phase liquid chromatography. J. Agric. Food Chem., 44, 3887-3893.
44. Erdman, J. W., Fahey, G. C., and White, C. B. 1986. Effect of purified dietary fiber sources on-carotene utilization by the chick. J. Nutr., 116, 2415-2423.
45. Erdman, J. W., Bierer, T. L., and Gugger, E. T. 1993. Absorption and transport of carotenoids. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 691, 76-85.
46. Esau, K. 1977. The fruit. In: Anatomy of Seed Plants, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 424.
47. Eskin, N. A. M. 1979. Plant Pigments, Flavors and Textures, Academic Press, New York.
48. Floros, J. D. and Chinnan, M. S. 1989. Determining the diffusivity of sodium hydroxide through tomato and capsicum skin. J. Food Eng., 9, 129-132.
49. Foote, C. S. and Denny, R. W. 1968. Chemistry of singlet oxygen. VII. Quenching by β-caotene. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 90, 6233-6235.
50. Forssberg, A., Lingen, C., Ernster, L., and Lindberg, O. 1959. Modification of the X-irradiation syndrome by lycopene. Exp. Cell Res., 16, 7-14.
51. Franceschi, S., Bidoli, E., La Vecchia, C. Talamini, R., D'Avanzo, B., and Negri, E. 1994. Tomatoes and risk of digestive-tract cancers. Int. J. Cancer., 59, 181-184.
52. Francis, F. J. Wang, P. L., and Du, C. T. 1975. Anthocyanins of ornamental cherries. J. Food Sci., 40, 1142-1144.
53. Frenkel, C. and Garrison, S. A. 1976. Initiation of lycopene synthesis in the tomato mutant rin influenced by oxygen and ethylene interaction. HortScience, 11(1), 20-21.
54. Gartner, C., Stahl, W., and Sies, H. 1997. Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 66, 116-122.
55. Gaziano, J. M., Johnson, E. J., and Russell, R. M. 1995. Discrimination in absorption or transport of β-carotene isomers after oral supplementation with either all-trans or 9-cis-β-carotene. Am. J. Cli. Nutr., 61, 1247-1252.
56. Gerster, H. 1997. The potential role of lycopene for human health. J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 16, 109-126.
57. Giovannucci, E., Ascherio, A., Rimm, E. B., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., and Willett, W. C. 1995. Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 87, 1767-1776.
58. Godoy, H. T and Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. 1989. Carotenoid composition of commercial amagoes from Brazil. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie, 22, 100-103.
59. Goodman, M. T., Kiviat, N., McDuffie, K., Hankin, J. H., Hernandez, B., Wilkens, L. R., Franke, A., Kuypers, J., Kolonel, L. N., Nakamura, J., Ing, G., Branch, B., Bertram, C. C., Kamemoto, L., Sharma, S., and Killeen, J. 1998. The association of plasma micronutrients with the risk of cervical dysplasia in Hawaii. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev., 7, 537-544.
60. Gould, W. V. 1992. Tomato Production, Processing, and Technology, CTI Publications, Baltimore.
61. Granado, F., Olmedilla, B., Blanco, I., and Rojas-Hidalgo, E. 1992. Carotenoid composition in raw and cooked Spanish vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 40, 2135-2140.
62. Gross, J. 1987. Pigments in Fruits, Academic Press, London.
63. Gross, J. 1991. Pigments in Vegetables, Van Nordstrand Reinhold, New York.
64. Hakala, S. H. and Heinonen, I. M.. 1994. Chromatographic purification of natural lycopene. J. Agric. Food Chem., 42, 1314-1316.
65. Harris, W. M. 1970. Chromoplasts of tomato fruits. III. The high-delta tomato. Bot. Gaz., 131, 163-166.
66. Hart, D. J. and Scott, K. J. 1995. Development and evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis of carotenoids in foods, and the measurement of the carotenoid content of vegetables and fruits commonly consumed in the UK. Food Chem., 54, 101-111.
67. Heinonen, M. I., Ollilainen, V., Linkola, E. K., Varo, P. T., and Koivistoinen, P. E. 1989. Carotenoids in Finnish foods, vegetables, fruits, and berries. J. Agric. Food Chem., 37, 655-659.
68. Helzlsouer, K. J., Comstock, G. W., and Morris, J. S. 1989. Selenium, lycopene, alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene, retinol, and subsequent bladder cancer. Cancer Res., 49, 6144-6148.
69. Hill, H. M. and Rogers, L. J. 1969. Conversion of lycopene into β-carotene by chloroplasts of higher plants. Biochem. J., 113, 31-32.
70. Hussein, L. and El-Tohamy, M. 1990. Vitamin A potency of carrot and spinach carotenes in human metabolic studies. Int. J. Vit. Nutr. Res., 60, 229-235.
71. Jackson, M. J. 1997. The assessment of bioavailibility of micronutrients: introduction. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 51, S1-S2.
72. Jayaarahan, P., Reddy, V., and Mahanran, M. 1980. Effect of dietary fat on absorption of β-carotene from green leafy vegetables in children. Indian J. Med., 71, 53-56.
73. Jeffery, D., Smith, C., Goodenough, P., Prosser, I., and Grierson, D. 1984. Ethylene-indepent and ethylene-depent biochemical changes in ripening tomatoes. Pant. Physiol., 74, 32-38.
74. Kanetsky, P. A., Gammon, M. D., Mandelblatt, J., Zhang, Z. F., Ramsey, E., Dnistrian, A., Norkus, E. P., and Wright, T. C., Jr. 1998. Dietary intake and blood levels of lycopene: association with cervical dysplasia among non-Hispanic, black women. Nutr. Cancer, 31, 31-40.
75. Karrer, P. and Jucker, E. 1950. Carotenoids, Elsevier, New York.
76. Kattan, A. A., Ogle, W. L., and Kramer, A. 1956. Food Technol., 10, 68-73.
77. Kaufman, V. F., Wong, F. F., Taylor, D. H., and Talburt, W. F. 1957. Problems in the production of tomato juice powder by vacuum. Food Technol., 9, 120-123.
78. Kemmerer, A. R., Fraps, G. S., and de Mother, J. 1974. The effect of xanthophylls, chloraphylls, sulfasuxidine and -tocopherol on the utilization of carotene by rats. Arch. Biochem., 12, 135-138.
79. Khachik, F., Beecher, G. R., Goli, N. B., Luby, W. R., and Smith, J. C. 1992. Separation and identification of carotenoids and their oxidation products in the extracts of human plasma. Anal. Chem., 64, 2111-2122.
80. Khachik, F., Goli, N. B., Beecher, G. R., Holden, J., Luby, W. R., Tenorio, M. D., and Barrera, M. R. 1992. Effect of food preparation on qualitative and quantitative distribution of major carotenoids constiyutes of tomatoes and several green vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 40, 390-398.
81. Khudairi, A. K. 1972. The ripening of tomatoes. American Sci., 60, 696-707.
82. Kohlmeir, L., Kark, J. D., Gomez-Garcia, E., Martin, B. C., Steck, S. E., Kardinaal, A. F. M., Ringstad, J., Thamm, M., Masaev, V., Riemersma, R., Martin-Moreno, J. M., Huttunen, J. K., and Kok, F. J. 1997. Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC study. Am. J. Epidemiol., 146, 618-626.
83. Kostic, D., White, W. S., and Olson, J. A. 1995. Intestinal absorption, serum clearance, and interactions between lutein and β-carotene when administered to human adults in separate or combined oral does. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 62, 604-610.
84. Krinsky, N. I., Russett, M. D., Handeman, G. J., and Snodderly, D. M. 1990. Structural and germetrical isomers of carotenoids in human plasma. J. Nutr., 120, 1654-1662.
85. Kristenson, M., Zieden, B., Kucinaskiene, Z., Blinder, L. S., Bergdahl, B., Elwing, B., Abaravicius, A., Razinkoviene, L., Calkauskas, H., and Olsson, A. 1997. Antioxidant State and Mortality from Coronary Heart Disease in Lithuanian and Swedish Men: Concomitant Cross Sectional Study of Men Aged 50. BMJ, 314, 629-633.
86. Lampe, C. and Watada, A. E. 1971. Post-harvest quality of high pigment and crimson tomato fruit. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 96(4), 534-535.
87. Laval-Martin, D. 1974. La maturation du fruit de tomato cerise: Mise en evidence, par cryodecapage, de l'evolution des chloroplastes en deux types de chromoplastes. Protoplasma, 82, 33-59.
88. Lessin, W., Catigani, G., and Schwartz, S. J. 1997. Quantification of cis-trans isomers of provitamin A carotenoids in fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 45, 3728-3732.
89. Levy, J., Bisin, E., Feldman, B., Giat, Y., Minster, A., Danilenko, M., and Sharoni, Y. 1995. Lycopene is a more potent inhibitor of human cancer cell proliferation then either α-carotene or β-carotene. Nutr. Cancer, 24, 257-266.
90. Lindner, P., Shomer, I., and Vasiliver, R. 1984. Distribution of protein, lycopene and the elements Ca, Mg, P and N among various fractions of tomato juice. J. Food Sci., 49, 1214-1215.
91. Little, A. C. 1975. Off on a tangent. J. Food Sci., 40, 410-411.
92. Liu, Y. K. and Luh, B. S. 1977. Effect of harvest maturity on carotenoids in pastes made from VF-145-7879 tomato. J. Food Sci., 42, 216-220.
93. Lovric, T., Sablek, Z.,and Boskovic, M. 1970. Cis-trans isomerization of lycopene and color stability of foam-mat dried tomato powder during storage. J. Sci. Food Agric., 21, 641-647.
94. Lurie, S., Handros, A., Fallik, E., and Shapira. 1996. Reversible inhibition of tomato fruit gene expression at high temperature. Plant Physiol., 110, 1207-1214.
95. Macrae, R., Robinson, R. K., and Sadler, M. J. 1993. Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Academic Press, London.
96. Madaiah, N., Setty, G. R., Prakash, M. S. K., Swamy, A. M. N., and Patwardhan, M. V. 1986. Studies on the physico-chemical characteristics of some new tomato varieties for their suitability for preparing tomato paste. Indian Food Packer, 5/6, 6-12.
97. Mangels, A. R., Holden, J. M. Beecher, G. R., Forman, M. R. and Lanza, E. 1993. Carotenoids in fruits and vegetables: an evaluation of analytic data. J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 93, 284-296.
98. Matienco, B. T. and Yedalty, E. M. 1973. Ultrastructure of Carotenoidoplasts, Academic Press, New York.
99. McCollum, J. P. 1955. Distribution of carotenoids in the tomato. Food Res., 20, 55-59.
100. Mencarelli, F. and Saltveit, M. E. 1988. Ripening of mature-green tomato fruit slices. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 113(5), 742-745.
101. Micozzi, M. S., Beecher, G. R., Taylor, P. R., and Khachik, F. 1990. Carotenoid analyses of selected raw and cooked foods associated with a lower risk for cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 82, 282-288.
102. Miers, J., Wong, F., Harris, J., and Dietrich, W. C. 1958. Factors affecting storage stsbility of spray-dried tomato powder. Food Technol., Oct. 542-548.
103. Miki, N. and Akatsu, K. 1970. Effect of heating sterilization on color of tomato juice. J. Jpn. Food Ind., 17(5), 175-181.
104. Miller, N. J., Sampson, J. Candeias, L. P., Bramley, P. M., and Rice-Evans, C. A. Antioxidant activities of carotenes and xanthophylls. 1996. FEBS Lett., 384, 240-242.
105. Mohr, W. P. 1979. Pigment bodies in fruits of crimson and high pigment lines of tomatoes. Ann. Bot., 44, 427-434.
106. Monselise, J. J. and Berk, Z. 1954. Some observations on the oxidative destruction of lycopene during the manufacture of tomato pure. Bull Res. Counc. Israel., 4, 188-191.
107. Nguyen, M. and Schwartz, S. 1998. Lycopene stability during food processing. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol Med., 218, 101-105.
108. Olson, J. 1986. Carotenoid, vitamin A and cancer. J. Nutr., 116, 1127-1130.
109. Olson, J. 1994. Absorption, transport, and metabolism of carotenoids in humans. Pure Appl. Chem., 66, 1011-1016.
110. Palozza, P. 1998. Prooxidant actions of carotenoids in biologic systems. Nutr. Rev., 56(9), 257-265.
111. Parker, R. S. 1996. Absorption, metabolism and transport of carotenoids. FASEB J., 10, 542-551.
112. Peng, Y. M., Peng, Y. S., Childers, J. M., Hatch, K. D., Roe, D. J., Lin, Y., and Lin, P. 1998. Concentrations of carotenoids, tocopherols and retinol in paired plasma and cervical tissue of patients with cervical cancer, precancer and noncancerous diseases. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev., 7, 347-350.
113. Porrini, M., Riso, P., and Testolin, G. 1998. Absorption of lycopene from single or daily portions of raw and processed tomato. British J. Nutr., 80, 353-361.
114. Porter, J. W. and Anderson, D. G. 1967. Biosynthesis of carotenoids. Ann. Rev. Pl. Physiol., 18, 197-228.
115. Prince, M. R., Frisoli, J. K., and Goetschkes, M. M. 1991. Rapid serum carotene loading with high-dose β-carotene: clinic implications. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol., 17, 343-347.
116. Quackenbush, F. W. 1987. Reverse phase HPLC separation of cis-and trans-carotenoids and its application to β-carotenes in food materials. J. Liq. Chromatogr., 10, 643-653.
117. Ribaya-Mercado, J. D., Garmyn, M., Gilchrest, B. A., and Russell, R. M. 1995. Skin lycopene is destroyed preferentially over β-carotene during ultraviolet irradiation in humans. J. Nutr., 125, 1854-1859.
118. Ries, S. K. and Stout, B. A. 1962. Bulk handling studies with mechanically harvested tomatoes. Proc. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 81, 479-483.
119. Riso, P. and Porrini, M. 1997. Determination of carotenoids in vegetable foods and plasma. Intl. J. Vit. Nutr. Res., 67, 47-54.
120. Rock, C. L. and Swendseid, M. F. 1992. Plasma β-carotene response in humans after meals, supplemented with dietary pectin. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 55, 96-99.
121. Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. and Tavares, C. A. 1992. Importance of cis-isomer separation in determining provitamin A in tomato and tomato products. Food Chem., 45, 297-302.
122. Sadler, G., Davis, J., and Dezman, D. 1990. Rapid extraction of lycopene and β-carotene from reconstituted tomato paste and pink grapefruit homogenates. J. Food Sci., 55, 1460-1461.
123. Sakamoto, H., Mori, H., Ojima, F., Ishiguro, Y., Arimoto, S., Imae, Y., Nanba, T., Ogawa, M., and Fukuba, H. 1994. Elevation of serum carotenoids after continual ingestion of tomato juice. J. Japan Soc. Nutr. Food Sci., 47, 93-99.
124. Saleh, M. H. and Tan, B. 1988. HPLC-diode array detection technique for the identification and quantitation of carotene formulations. Anal. Biochem., 33, 247-252.
125. Saltveit, M. E. and Mencarelli, F. 1988. Inhibition of ethylene synthesis and action in ripening tomato fruit by ethanol vapors. J. Am. Soc. Hon. Sci., 113(4), 572-576.
126. Sander, L. C., Sharpless, K., E., Craft, N. E., and Wise, S. A. 1994. Development of engineered stationary phases for the separation of carotenoid isomers. Anal. Chem., 66(10), 1667-1674.
127. Schierle, J., Bretzel, W., Buhler, I., Faccin, N., Hess, D., Steiner, K., and Schuep, W. 1996. Content and isomeric ratio of lycopene in food and human blood plasma. Food Chem., 59(3), 459-465.
128. Schulte, W. A. 1965. Efficiency of Chemical and Physical Tomato Peeling Systems and Their Effects on Canned Product Quality. Ph.D. Dissertation, Ohio State University Columbus.
129. Sharma, S. K. and Le Maguer, M. 1996. Lycopene in tomatoes and tomato pulp fractions. Ital. J. Food Sci., 2, 107-113.
130. Shewfelt, R. L., Thai, C. M., and Davis, J. W. 1988. Prediction of changes in color of tomatoes during ripening at different constant temperatures. J. Food Sci., 53, 1433-1437.
131. Schwartz, S. J. and Patroni-Killam, M. 1985. Detection of cis-trans carotene isomers by two-dimensional thin-layer and high-performance liquid chromatography. J. Agric. Food Chem., 33, 1160-1163.
132. Sheehy, R. E., Kramer, M., and Hiatt, W. 1988. Reduction of polygalacturonase activity in tomato fruit by antisense RNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85, 8805-8809.
133. Sherkat, F. and Luh, B. S. 1976. Quality factors of tomato paste made at several break temperatures. J. Agric. Food Chem., 24, 1155-1158.
134. Shi, J. and Le Maguer, M. 1999(a). Lycopene as quality index in tomato processing. Industrial Application of Osmotic Treatment Seminar Proceeding, Milano, Italy.
135. Shi, J. and Le Maguer, M. 1999(b). Stability of lycopene bioactivity in tomato dehydration. Proceeding of Industrial Application, Valencia, Spain.
136. Shi, J., Le Maguer, M., Kakuda, Y., and Liptay, A. 1999. Lycopene degradation and isomerization in tomato dehydration. Food Res. Intl., 32(1), 15-21.
137. Sies, H., Stahl, W., and Sundquist, A.R. 1992. Antioxidant function of vitamins. Vitamins E and C, β-carotene, and other carotenoids. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 669, 7-20.
138. Simpson, D. J., Baqar, M. R., and Lee, T. H. 1977. Z. Pflanzenphysiol., 82, 189-193.
139. Stahl, W., Sundquist, A. R. Hamusch, M. Schwarz, W., and Sies, H. 1993. Separation of β-catonene geometrical isomers in biological samples. Clin. Chem., 39(5), 810-814.
140. Stahl, W. and Sies, H. 1992. Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical isomers is greater from heat-processed than from unprocessed tomato juice in humans. J. Nutr., 122, 2161-2166.
141. Stahl, W. and Sies, H. 1996. Perspectives in biochemistry and biophysics. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 336(1), 1-9.
142. Tan, B. 1988. Analytical and preparative chromatography of tomato paste carotenoids. J. Food Sci., 53(3), 954-959.
143. Tan, B. and Soderstrom, D. N. 1988. Qualitative aspects of UV-VIS spectrophotometry of carotene and lycopene. J. Chem. Ed., 22, 21-31.
144. Tavares, C. A. and Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. 1994. Carotenoid composition of Brazilian tomatoes and tomato products. Lebensm.-Wiss. U.-Technol., 27, 219-224.
145. Tee, E. S. and Lim, C. L. 1991. Carotenoid component and content of Malaysian vegetable and fruits by the AOAC and HPLC methods. Food Chem., 41, 309-339.
146. Tonucci, L. H., Holden, J. M., Beecher, G. R., Khachik, F., Davis, C., and Mulokozi, G. 1995. Carotenoid content of thermally processed tomato-based food products. J. Agric. Food Chem., 43, 579-586.
147. Ukai, N., Lu, Y., Etoh, H.; Yagi, A., Ina, K., Oshima, S., Ojima, F., Sakamoto, H., and Ishiguro, Y. 1994. Photosensitized oxygenation of lycopene. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 58, 1718-1719.
148. Van Eenwyk, J. Davis, F. G., and Bowen, P. E. 1991. Dietary and serum carotenoids and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Int. J. Cancer., 48, 34-38.
149. Van Vliet, T. 1996. Absorption of β-carotene and other carotenoids in humans and animal models. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 50(3), S32-37.
150. Villari, P., Costabile, P., Fasanaro, G., Desio, F., Laratta, B., Pirone, G., and Castaldo, D. 1994. Quality loss of double concentrated tomato paste: evolution of the microbial flora and main analytical parameters during storage at different temperature. J. Food Process. Preserv., 18, 369-387.
151. Wang, C. J., Chou, M. Y., and Lin, J. K. 1989. Inhibition of growth and development of the transplantable C-6 glioma cells inoculated in rats by retinoids and carotenoids. Cancer Lett., 48, 135-142.
152. White, W. S., Peck, K. M., Bierer, T. L., Gugger, E. T., and Erdman, J. W., Jr. 1993. Interactions of oral β-carotene and canthaxanthin in ferrets. J. Nutr., 123, 1405-1413.
153. Wiese, K. L. and Dalmasso, J. P. 1994. Relationship of color, viscosity, organic acid profiles and ascorbic acid content to addition of organic acid and salt in tomato juice. J. Food Quality, 17, 273-284.
154. Wilberg, V. C. and Rodriguez-Amaya, B. D. 1995. HPLC quantitation of major carotenoids of fresh and processed guava, mango and papaya. Lebensm-diel-Wissenschaft und Technol., 28, 474-480.
155. Wong, F. F. and Bohart, G. S. 1957. Observation on the color of vacuum-dried tomato juice powder during storage. Food Technol., 5, 293-296.
156. Yeatman, J. N. 1969. Tomato products: read tomato red? Food Technol., 23, 618-627.
157. Zechmeister, L., Le Rosen, A. L., Schroeder, W. A., Polgar, A., and Pauling, L. 1943. Spectral characteristics and configuration of some stereoisomeric carotenoids including prolycopene and pro-γ-carotene. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 65, 1940-1945.
158. Zechmeister, L. 1944. Cis-trans isomerization and stereo chemistry of carotenoids and diphenyl-polyenes. Chem. Rev., 34, 267-322.
159. Zechmeister, L. 1949. Stereoisomeric provitamin A. Vitamins and Hormones, 7, 57.
160. Zechmeister, L. 1962. Cis-trans Isomeric Carotenoids, Vitamin A and Arylpolyenes, Academic Press, New York.
161. Zelkha, M., Ben-Yehuda, M., Hartal, Dov., Raveh, Yigal, Garti, N. 1998. Industrial Processing of Tomatoes and Product Thereof. U.S. patent 5837311.
162. Zhang, L. X., Cooney, R. V., and Bertram, J. S. 1992. Carotenoids up-regulate connexin-43 gene expression independent of their provitamin-A or antioxidant properties. Cancer Res., 52, 5707-5712.
163. Zhou, J. R., Gugger, E. T., and Erdman, J. W. Jr. 1996. The crystalline form of carotenes and the food matrix in carrot root decrease the relative bioavailability of β- and α-carotene in the ferret model. J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 15, 84-91.
164. Zonta, F., Stancher, B., and Marietta, G. 1987. Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of free carotenoids and carotenoid esters. J. Chromatogr., 403, 207-209.
165. Zumbrunn, A., Uebelhart, P., and Eugster, C. H. 1985. HPLC of carotenes with y-end groups and (Z)-configuration at terminal conjugated double bonds, isolation of (5Z)-lycopene from tomatoes. Helv. Chim. Acta., 68, 1540-1542.