Vitamin E, antioxidant and nothing more

Free Radical Biology and Medicine

Volumn 43, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 4-15

  Traber, Maret G ^a   Atkinson, Jeffrey ^b  

^a OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b BROCK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antioxidant; Function; Oxidative stress; Vitamin E

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ARACHIDONIC ACID; BETA TOCOPHEROL; CELL NUCLEUS RECEPTOR; DELTA TOCOPHEROL; GAMMA TOCOPHEROL; GLITAZONE DERIVATIVE; LIPOXYGENASE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PREGNANE X RECEPTOR; PROSTAGLANDIN; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE; PROTEIN KINASE C; ROSAGLITAZONE; TOCOFERSOLAN; TOCOL; TROGLITAZONE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL DEFICIENCY; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL MEMBRANE; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG MECHANISM; EXERCISE; FRIEDREICH ATAXIA; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; ISCHEMIA; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEPHOSPHORYLATION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; RECEPTOR BINDING; REPERFUSION INJURY; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION; UPREGULATION; VITAMIN METABOLISM;

ANTIOXIDANTS; APOPTOSIS; CELL PROLIFERATION; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; OXYGENASES; PROTEIN KINASE C; VITAMIN E; VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY;

EID: 34249868200     PISSN: 08915849     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.024     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Evans H.M., and Bishop K.S. On the existence of a hitherto unrecognized dietary factor essential for reproduction. Science 56 (1922) 650-651
2. Sondergaard E., and Dam H. Influence of the level of dietary linoleic acid on the amount of d-alpha-tocopherol acetate required for protection against encephalomalacia. Z. Ernahrungswiss. 6 (1966) 253-258
3. Dam H. Influence of antioxidants and redox substances on signs of vitamin E deficiency. Pharmacol. Rev. 9 (1957) 1-16
4. Dam H. Fat-soluble vitamins. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 20 (1951) 265-304
5. Dam H., and Granados H. The influence of certain substances on massive hepatic necrosis and lung hemorrhage in rats fed low-protein, vitamin E deficient diets. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. (Copenh.) 7 (1951) 181-188
6. Granados H., and Dam H. On the histochemical relationship between per-oxidation and the yellow-brown pigment in the adipose tissue of vitamin E-deficient rats. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 27 (1950) 591-598
7. Harris P.L., and Embree N.D. Quantitative consideration of the effect of polyunsaturated fatty acid content of the diet upon the requirements for vitamin E. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 13 (1963) 385-392
8. Herting D.C. Perspective on vitamin E. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 19 (1966) 210-218
9. Wolf G. The discovery of the antioxidant function of vitamin E: the contribution of Henry A. Mattill. J. Nutr. 135 (2005) 363-366
10. Buettner G.R. The pecking order of free radicals and antioxidants: lipid peroxidation, alpha-tocopherol, and ascorbate. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 300 (1993) 535-543
11. Bruno R.S., Leonard S.W., Atkinson J., Montine T.J., Ramakrishnan R., Bray T.M., and Traber M.G. Faster plasma vitamin E disappearance in smokers is normalized by vitamin C supplementation. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 40 (2006) 689-697
12. Hill K.E., Motley A.K., Li X., May J.M., and Burk R.F. Combined selenium and vitamin E deficiency causes fatal myopathy in guinea pigs. J. Nutr. 131 (2001) 1798-1802
13. Hill K.E., Montine T.J., Motley A.K., Li X., May J.M., and Burk R.F. Combined deficiency of vitamins E and C causes paralysis and death in guinea pigs. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77 (2003) 1484-1488
14. Sattler S.E., Mene-Saffrane L., Farmer E.E., Krischke M., Mueller M.J., and Dellapenna D. Nonenzymatic lipid peroxidation reprograms gene expression and activates defense markers in Arabidopsis tocopherol-deficient mutants. Plant Cell. 18 (2006) 3706-3720
15. Food and Nutrition Board. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference Intakes for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids (2000), National Academy Press, Washington, DC 529
16. Hosomi A., Arita M., Sato Y., Kiyose C., Ueda T., Igarashi O., Arai H., and Inoue K. Affinity for alpha-tocopherol transfer protein as a determinant of the biological activities of vitamin E analogs. FEBS Lett. 409 (1997) 105-108
17. Arita M., Sato Y., Miyata A., Tanabe T., Takahashi E., Kayden H., Arai H., and Inoue K. Human alpha-tocopherol transfer protein: cDNA cloning, expression and chromosomal localization. Biochem. J. 306 (1995) 437-443
18. Ouahchi K., Arita M., Kayden H., Hentati F., Ben Hamida M., Sokol R., Arai H., Inoue K., Mandel J.L., and Koenig M. Ataxia with isolated vitamin E deficiency is caused by mutations in the alpha-tocopherol transfer protein. Nat. Genet. 9 (1995) 141-145
19. Terasawa Y., Ladha Z., Leonard S.W., Morrow J.D., Newland D., Sanan D., Packer L., Traber M.G., and Farese Jr. R.V. Increased atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemic mice deficient in alpha-tocopherol transfer protein and vitamin E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97 (2000) 13830-13834
20. Yokota T., Igarashi K., Uchihara T., Jishage K., Tomita H., Inaba A., Li Y., Arita M., Suzuki H., Mizusawa H., and Arai H. Delayed-onset ataxia in mice lacking alpha-tocopherol transfer protein: model for neuronal degeneration caused by chronic oxidative stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98 (2001) 15185-15190
21. Traber M.G., Sokol R.J., Burton G.W., Ingold K.U., Papas A.M., Huffaker J.E., and Kayden H.J. Impaired ability of patients with familial isolated vitamin E deficiency to incorporate alpha-tocopherol into lipoproteins secreted by the liver. J. Clin. Invest. 85 (1990) 397-407
22. Meier R., Tomizaki T., Schulze-Briese C., Baumann U., and Stocker A. The molecular basis of vitamin E retention: structure of human alpha-tocopherol transfer protein. J. Mol. Biol. 331 (2003) 725-734
23. Min K.C., Kovall R.A., and Hendrickson W.A. Crystal structure of human a-tocopherol transfer protein bound to its ligand: Implications for ataxia with vitamin E deficiency. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100 (2003) 14713-14718
24. DellaPenna D., and Pogson B.J. Vitamin synthesis in plants: tocopherols and carotenoids. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 57 (2006) 711-738
25. IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). Nomenclature of tocopherols and related compounds. Recommendations 1981. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 49 (1982) 183-185
26. Panagabko C., Morley S., Hernandez M., Cassolato P., Gordon H., Parsons R., Manor D., and Atkinson J. Ligand specificity in the CRAL-TRIO protein family. Biochemistry 42 (2003) 6467-6474
27. Leonard S.W., Terasawa Y., Farese Jr. R.V., and Traber M.G. Incorporation of deuterated RRR- or all rac α-tocopherol into plasma and tissues of α-tocopherol transfer protein null mice. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 75 (2002) 555-560
28. Traber M.G., Ramakrishnan R., and Kayden H.J. Human plasma vitamin E kinetics demonstrate rapid recycling of plasma RRR-a-tocopherol. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91 (1994) 10005-10008
29. Leonard S.W., Paterson E., Atkinson J.K., Ramakrishnan R., Cross C.E., and Traber M.G. Studies in humans using deuterium-labeled α- and γ-tocopherol demonstrate faster plasma γ-tocopherol disappearance and greater γ-metabolite production. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 38 (2005) 857-866
30. Traber M.G., Burton G.W., and Hamilton R.L. Vitamin E trafficking. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1031 (2005) 1-12
31. Horiguchi M., Arita M., Kaempf-Rotzoll D.E., Tsujimoto M., Inoue K., and Arai H. pH-dependent translocation of alpha-tocopherol transfer protein (alpha-TTP) between hepatic cytosol and late endosomes. Genes Cells 8 (2003) 789-800
32. Qian J., Morley S., Wilson K., Nava P., Atkinson J., and Manor D. Intracellular trafficking of vitamin E in hepatocytes: role of tocopherol transfer protein. J. Lipid Res. 46 (2005) 2072-2082
33. Morley S., Cross V., Cecchini M., Nava P., Atkinson J., and Manor D. Utility of a fluorescent vitamin E analogue as a probe for tocopherol transfer protein activity. Biochemistry 45 (2006) 1075-1081
34. Qian J., Atkinson J., and Manor D. Biochemical consequences of heritable mutations in the alpha-tocopherol transfer protein. Biochemistry 45 (2006) 8236-8242
35. Traber M.G., Sokol R.J., Kohlschütter A., Yokota T., Muller D.P.R., Dufour R., and Kayden H.J. Impaired discrimination between stereoisomers of α-tocopherol in patients with familial isolated vitamin E deficiency. J. Lipid Res. 34 (1993) 201-210
36. Swanson J.E., Ben R.N., Burton G.W., and Parker R.S. Urinary excretion of 2,7, 8-trimethyl-2-(beta-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychroman is a major route of elimination of gamma-tocopherol in humans. J. Lipid Res. 40 (1999) 665-671
37. Sontag T.J., and Parker R.S. Cytochrome P450 omega-hydroxylase pathway of tocopherol catabolism: novel mechanism of regulation of vitamin E status. J. Biol. Chem. 277 (2002) 25290-25296
38. Brigelius-Flohé R., and Traber M.G. Vitamin E: function and metabolism. FASEB J. 13 (1999) 1145-1155
39. Kiyose C., Saito H., Kaneko K., Hamamura K., Tomioka M., Ueda T., and Igarashi O. Alpha-tocopherol affects the urinary and biliary excretion of 2,7,8-trimethyl-2 (2′-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychroman, gamma-tocopherol metabolite, in rats. Lipids 36 (2001) 467-472
40. Jiang Q., Freiser H., Wood K.V., and Yin X. Identification and quantitation of novel vitamin E metabolites, sulfated long-chain carboxychromanols, in human A549 cells and in rats. J. Lipid Res. Feb. 13 (2007) (Epub ahead of print)
41. Stahl W., Graf P., Brigelius-Flohe R., Wechter W., and Sies H. Quantification of the alpha- and gamma-tocopherol metabolites 2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2-(2′-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychroman and 2,7,8-trimethyl-2-(2′-carboxyethyl)-6-hydroxychroman in human serum. Anal. Biochem. 275 (1999) 254-259
42. Pope S.A., Burtin G.E., Clayton P.T., Madge D.J., and Muller D.P. Synthesis and analysis of conjugates of the major vitamin E metabolite, alpha-CEHC. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 33 (2002) 807-817
43. Parker R.S., and McCormick C.C. Selective accumulation of alpha-tocopherol in Drosophila is associated with cytochrome P450 tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase activity but not alpha-tocopherol transfer protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 338 (2005) 1537-1541
44. Tappel A.L. Vitamin E as the biological lipid antioxidant. Vitam. Horm. 20 (1962) 493-510
45. Tappel A.L. Vitamin E and selenium protection from in vivo lipid peroxidation. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 355 (1980) 18-31
46. Dillard C.J., Sagai M., and Tappel A.L. Respiratory pentane: a measure of in vivo lipid peroxidation applied to rats fed diets varying in polyunsaturated fats, vitamin E, and selenium and exposed to nitrogen dioxide. Toxicol. Lett. 6 (1980) 251-256
47. Dillard C.J., Litov R.E., and Tappel A.L. Effects of dietary vitamin E, selenium, and polyunsaturated fats on in vivo lipid peroxidation in the rat as measured by pentane production. Lipids 13 (1978) 396-402
48. Tappel A., and Zalkin H. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation in microsomes by vitamin E. Nature 185 (1960) 35
49. Burton G.W., Joyce A., and Ingold K.U. First proof that vitamin E is major lipid-soluble, chain-breaking antioxidant in human blood plasma. Lancet 8293 (1982) 327
50. Burton G.W., Doba T., Gabe E., Hughes L., Lee F.L., Prasad L., and Ingold K.U. Autoxidation of biological molecules. 4. Maximizing the antioxidant activity of phenols. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 107 (1985) 7053-7065
51. Burton G.W., and Ingold K.U. Autoxidation of biological molecules. I. The antioxidant activity of vitamin E and related chain-breaking phenolic antioxidants in vitro. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103 (1981) 6472-6477
52. Mukai K., Kageyama Y., Ishida T., Fukuda K., Okabe K., and Hosose H. Synthesis and kinetic study of antioxidant activity of new tocopherol (vitamin E) compounds. J. Org. Chem. 54 (1989) 552-556
53. Pryor W.A., Cornicelli J.A., Devall L.J., Tait B., Trivedi B.K., Witiak D.T., and Wu M. A rapid screening test to determine the antioxidant potencies of natural and synthetic antioxidants. J. Org. Chem. 58 (1993) 3521-3532
54. Pryor W.A., Strickland T., and Church D.F. Comparison of the efficiencies of several natural and synthetic antioxidants in aqueous sodium dodecyl-sulfate micelle solutions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 110 (1988) 2224-2229
55. Mukai K., Tokunaga A., Itoh S., Kanesaki Y., Ohara K., Nagaoka S., and Abe K. Structure-activity relationship of the free-radical-scavenging reaction by vitamin E (alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta-tocopherols) and ubiquinol-10: pH dependence of the reaction rates. J. Phys. Chem. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Surf. Interfaces Biophys. 111 (2007) 652-662
56. Leth T., and Sondergaard H. Biological activity of vitamin E compounds and natural materials by the resorption-gestation test, and chemical determination of the vitamin E activity in foods and feeds. J. Nutr. 107 (1977) 2236-2243
57. Suzuki Y.J., Tsuchiya M., Wassall S.R., Choo Y.M., Govil G., Kagan V.E., and Packer L. Structural and dynamic membrane properties of alpha-tocopherol and alpha-tocotrienol: implication to the molecular mechanism of their antioxidant potency. Biochemistry 32 (1993) 10692-10699
58. Yoshida Y., Niki E., and Noguchi N. Comparative study on the action of tocopherols and tocotrienols as antioxidant: chemical and physical effects. Chem. Phys. Lipids 123 (2003) 63-75
59. Suarna C., Hood R.L., Dean R.T., and Stocker R. Comparative antioxidant activity of tocotrienols and other natural lipid-soluble antioxidants in a homogeneous system, and in rat and human lipoproteins. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1166 (1993) 163-170
60. Hensley K., Benaksas E.J., Bolli R., Comp P., Grammas P., Hamdheydari L., Mou S., Pye Q.N., Stoddard M.F., Wallis G., Williamson K.S., West M., Wechter W.J., and Floyd R.A. New perspectives on vitamin E: gamma-tocopherol and carboxyethylhydroxychroman metabolites in biology and medicine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 36 (2004) 1-15
61. Tafazoli S., Wright J.S., and O'Brien P.J. Prooxidant and antioxidant activity of vitamin E analogues and troglitazone. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 18 (2005) 1567-1574
62. Cornwell D.G., Williams M.V., Wani A.A., Wani G., Shen E., and Jones K.H. Mutagenicity of tocopheryl quinones: evolutionary advantage of selective accumulation of dietary alpha-tocopherol. Nutr. Cancer 43 (2002) 111-118
63. Wang X., Thomas B., Sachdeva R., Arterburn L., Frye L., Hatcher P.G., Cornwell D.G., and Ma J. Mechanism of arylating quinone toxicity involving Michael adduct formation and induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103 (2006) 3604-3609
64. Lee S.B., Willis A.C., and Webster R.D. Synthesis of the phenoxonium cation of an alpha-tocopherol model compound crystallized with non-nucleophilic [B(C6F5)(4)](-) and (CB11H6Br6)(-) anions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128 (2006) 9332-9333
65. Wilson G.J., Lin C.Y., and Webster R.D. Significant differences in the electrochemical behavior of the alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherols (vitamin E). J. Phys. Chem. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Surf. Interfaces Biophys. 110 (2006) 11540-11548
66. Donchenko G.V., Kuz'menko I.V., Kovalenko V.N., Basalkevich E.D., and Koliadenko E.V. [Ubiquinone content and the oxidative-reductive enzymatic system activity in the liver of vitamin E-deficient rats administered alpha-tocopherol and its chloro-derivative]. (Article in Russian). Vopr. Med. Khim. 27 (1981) 707-710
67. Noguchi N., Hanyu R., Nonaka A., Okimoto Y., and Kodama T. Inhibition of THP-1 cell adhesion to endothelial cells by alpha-tocopherol and alpha-tocotrienol is dependent on intracellular concentration of the antioxidants. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 34 (2003) 1614-1620
68. Sontag T.J., and Parker R.S. Comparative influence of major structural features of tocopherols and tocotrienols on kinetics of their omega -oxidation by cellular and microsomal tocopherol-omega -hydroxylase. J. Lipid Res. (2007 (Feb. 6)) (Epub ahead of print)
69. Kayden H.J., Silber R., and Kossmann C.E. The role of vitamin E deficiency in the abnormal autohemolysis of acanthocytosis. Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians 78 (1965) 334-342
70. Burck U., Goebel H.H., Kuhlendahl H.D., Meier C., and Goebel K.M. Neuromyopathy and vitamin E deficiency in man. Neuropediatrics 12 (1981) 267-278
71. Ben Hamida C., Doerflinger N., Belal S., Linder C., Reutenauer L., Dib C., Gyapay G., Bignal A., Le Paslier D., Cohen D., Pandolfo M., Mokini V., Novelli G., Hentati F., Ben Hamida M., Mandel J.L., and Koenig M. Localization of Friedreich ataxia phenotype with selective vitamin E deficiency to chromosome 8q by homozygosity mapping. Nat. Genet. 5 (1993) 195-200
72. Doerflinger N., Linder C., Ouahchi K., Gyapay G., Weissenbach J., Le Paslier D., Rigault P., Belal S., Ben Hamida C., Hentati F., Ben Hamida M., Pandolfo M., DiDonato S., Sokol R., Kayden H., Landrieu P., Durr A., Brice A., Goutières F., Kohlschütter A., Sabouraud P., Benomar A., Yahyaoui M., Mandel J.-L., and Koenig M. Ataxia with vitamin E deficiency: refinement of genetic localization and analysis of linkage disequilibrium by using new markers in 14 families. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 56 (1995) 1116-1124
73. Machlin L.J. Vitamin E. In: Machlin L.J. (Ed). Handbook of vitamins (1991), Dekker, New York 99-144
74. Sokol R.J. Vitamin E deficiency and neurological disorders. In: Packer L., and Fuchs J. (Eds). Vitamin E in health and disease (1993), Dekker, New York 815-849
75. Traber M.G., Sokol R.J., Ringel S.P., Neville H.E., Thellman C.A., and Kayden H.J. Lack of tocopherol in peripheral nerves of vitamin E-deficient patients with peripheral neuropathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 317 (1987) 262-265
76. Pillai S.R., Traber M.G., Steiss J.E., and Kayden H.J. Depletion of adipose tissue and peripheral nerve a-tocopherol in adult dogs. Lipids 28 (1993) 1095-1099
77. Pillai S.R., Traber M.G., Steiss J.E., Kayden H.J., and Cox N.R. α-Tocopherol concentrations of the nervous system and selected tissues of dogs fed three levels of vitamin E. Lipids 28 (1993) 1101-1105
78. Stumpf DA S.R., Bettis D., Neville H., Ringel S., Angelini C., and Bell R. Friedreich's disease. V. Variant form with vitamin E deficiency and normal fat absorption. Neurology 37 1 (1987) 68-74
79. Belal S., Hentati F., Ben Hamida C., and Ben Hamida M. Friedreich's ataxia-vitamin E responsive type. The chromosome 8 locus. Clin. Neurosci. 3 (1995) 39-42
80. Hammans S.R., and Kennedy C.R. Ataxia with isolated vitamin E deficiency presenting as mutation negative Friedreich's ataxia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 64 (1998) 368-370
81. Yokota T., Shiojiri T., Gotoda T., Arita M., Arai H., Ohga T., Kanda T., Suzuki J., Imai T., Matsumoto H., Harino S., Kiyosawa M., Mizusawa H., and Inoue K. Friedreich-like ataxia with retinitis pigmentosa caused by the His101Gln mutation of the alpha-tocopherol transfer protein gene. Ann. Neurol. 41 (1997) 826-832
82. Rotig A., de Lonlay P., Chretien D., Foury F., Koenig M., Sidi D., Munnich A., and Rustin P. Aconitase and mitochondrial iron-sulphur protein deficiency in Friedreich ataxia. Nat. Genet. 17 (1997) 215-217
83. Ventura C., and Maioli M. Protein kinase C control of gene expression. Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Expr. 11 (2001) 243-267
84. Buchner K. The role of protein kinase C in the regulation of cell growth and in signalling to the cell nucleus. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 126 (2000) 1-11
85. Azzi A., Boscoboinik D., Clement S., Marilley D., Ozer N., Ricciarelli R., and Tasinato A. Alpha-tocopherol as a modulator of smooth muscle cell proliferation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 57 (1997) 507-514
86. Azzi A., Ricciarelli R., and Zingg J.M. Non-antioxidant molecular functions of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E). FEBS Lett. 519 (2002) 8-10
87. Egger T., Hammer A., Wintersperger A., Goti D., Malle E., and Sattler W. Modulation of microglial superoxide production by alpha-tocopherol in vitro: attenuation of p67(phox) translocation by a protein phosphatase-dependent pathway. J. Neurochem. 79 (2001) 1169-1182
88. Freedman J.E., Farhat J.H., Loscalzo J., and Keaney J.F.J. Alpha-tocopherol inhibits aggregation of human platelets by a protein kinase C-dependent mechanism. Circulation 94 (1996) 2434-2440
89. Freedman J.E., and Keaney Jr. J.F. Vitamin E inhibition of platelet aggregation is independent of antioxidant activity. J. Nutr. 131 (2001) 374S-377S
90. Abdala-Valencia H., and Cook-Mills J.M. VCAM-1 signals activate endothelial cell protein kinase C{alpha} via oxidation. J. Immunol. 177 (2006) 6379-6387
91. Cantoni O., Boscoboinik D., Fiorani M., Stauble B., and Azzi A. The phosphorylation state of MAP-kinases modulates the cytotoxic response of smooth muscle cells to hydrogen peroxide. FEBS Lett. 8 (1996) 285-288
92. Gopalakrishna R., and Gundimeda U. Antioxidant regulation of protein kinase C in cancer prevention. J. Nutr. 132 (2002) 3819S-3823S
93. Williams R., Spencer J., and Rice-Evans C. Flavonoids: antioxidants or signalling molecules?. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 36 (2004) 838-849
94. Numakawa Y., Numakawa T., Matsumoto T., Yagasaki Y., Kumamaru E., Kunugi H., Taguchi T., and Niki E. Vitamin E protected cultured cortical neurons from oxidative stress-induced cell death through the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. J. Neurochem. 97 (2006) 1191-1202
95. Piga R., Saito Y., Yoshida Y., and Niki E. Cytotoxic effects of various stressors on PC12 cells: Involvement of oxidative stress and effect of antioxidants. Neurotoxicology 28 (2007) 67-75
96. Olguin-Martinez M., Mendieta-Condado E., Contreras-Zentella M., Escamilla J.E., Aranda-Fraustro A., El-Hafidi M., and Hernandez-Munoz R. Rate of oxidant stress regulates balance between rat gastric mucosa proliferation and apoptosis. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 41 (2006) 1325-1337
97. Simamura E., Hirai K.I., Shimada H., Koyama J., Niwa Y., and Shimizu S. Furanonaphthoquinones cause apoptosis of cancer cells by inducing the production of reactive oxygen species by the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel. Cancer Biol. Ther. 5 (2006) 1523-1529
98. Kline K., Yu W., and Sanders B.G. Vitamin E and breast cancer. J. Nutr. 134 (2004) 3458S-3462S
99. Wu D., Liu L., Meydani M., and Meydani S.N. Vitamin E increases production of vasodilator prostanoids in human aortic endothelial cells through opposing effects on cyclooxygenase-2 and phospholipase A2. J. Nutr. 135 (2005) 1847-1853
100. Chakraborti T., Das S., and Chakraborti S. Proteolytic activation of protein kinase Calpha by peroxynitrite in stimulating cytosolic phospholipase A2 in pulmonary endothelium: involvement of a pertussis toxin sensitive protein. Biochemistry 44 (2005) 5246-5257
101. Chakraborti S. Phospholipase A(2) isoforms: a perspective. Cell Signal. 15 (2003) 637-665
102. Grau A., and Ortiz A. Dissimilar protection of tocopherol isomers against membrane hydrolysis by phospholipase A(2). Chem. Phys. Lipids. 91 (1998) 109-118
103. Eitenmiller R., and Lee J. Vitamin E: food chemistry, composition, and analysis (2004), Dekker, New York 530
104. Cuschieri J., Bulger E., Biligren J., Garcia I., and Maier R.V. Vitamin E inhibits endotoxin-mediated transport of phosphatases to lipid rafts. Shock 27 (2007) 19-24
105. Schley P.D., Brindley D.N., and Field C.J. (n-3) PUFA alter raft lipid composition and decrease epidermal growth factor receptor levels in lipid rafts of human breast cancer cells. J. Nutr. 137 (2007) 548-553
106. Moller S., and Lauridsen C. Dietary fatty acid composition rather than vitamin E supplementation influence ex vivo cytokine and eicosanoid response of porcine alveolar macrophages. Cytokine 35 (2006) 6-12
107. Calder P.C. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 75 (2006) 197-202
108. Singh U., Devaraj S., and Jialal I. Vitamin E, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 25 (2005) 151-174
109. Devaraj S., and Jialal I. Alpha-tocopherol decreases interleukin-1beta release from activated human monocytes by inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19 (1999) 1125-1133
110. Devaraj S., and Jialal I. Alpha-tocopherol decreases tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA and protein from activated human monocytes by inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 38 (2005) 1212-1220
111. Jiang Q., Elson-Schwab I., Courtemanche C., and Ames B.M. γ-Tocopherol and its major metabolite, in contrast to α-tocopherol, inhibit cyclooxygenase activity in macrophages and epithelial cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97 (2000) 11494-11499
112. Jiang Q., and Ames B.N. Gamma-tocopherol, but not alpha-tocopherol, decreases proinflammatory eicosanoids and inflammation damage in rats. FASEB J. 17 (2003) 816-822
113. Bookout A.L., Jeong Y., Downes M., Yu R.T., Evans R.M., and Mangelsdorf D.J. Anatomical profiling of nuclear receptor expression reveals a hierarchical transcriptional network. Cell 126 (2006) 789-799
114. Moore D.D., Kato S., Xie W., Mangelsdorf D.J., Schmidt D.R., Xiao R., and Kliewer S.A. International Union of Pharmacology. LXII. The NR1H and NR1I receptors: constitutive androstane receptor, pregnene X receptor, farnesoid X receptor alpha, farnesoid X receptor beta, liver X receptor alpha, liver X receptor beta, and vitamin D receptor. Pharmacol. Rev. 58 (2006) 742-759
115. Landes N., Pfluger P., Kluth D., Birringer M., Ruhl R., Bol G.F., Glatt H., and Brigelius-Flohe R. Vitamin E activates gene expression via the pregnane X receptor. Biochem. Pharmacol. 65 (2003) 269-273
116. Jones S.A., Moore L.B., Shenk J.L., Wisely G.B., Hamilton G.A., McKee D.D., Tomkinson N.C., LeCluyse E.L., Lambert M.H., Willson T.M., Kliewer S.A., and Moore J.T. The pregnane X receptor: a promiscuous xenobiotic receptor that has diverged during evolution. Mol. Endocrinol. 14 (2000) 27-39
117. Michalik L., Auwerx J., Berger J.P., Chatterjee V.K., Glass C.K., Gonzalez F.J., Grimaldi P.A., Kadowaki T., Lazar M.A., O'Rahilly S., Palmer C.N., Plutzky J., Reddy J.K., Spiegelman B.M., Staels B., and Wahli W. International Union of Pharmacology. LXI. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Pharmacol. Rev. 58 (2006) 726-741
118. Davies G.F., McFie P.J., Khandelwal R.L., and Roesler W.J. Unique ability of troglitazone to up-regulate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma expression in hepatocytes. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 300 (2002) 72-77
119. Chojkier M. Troglitazone and liver injury: in search of answers. Hepatology 41 (2005) 237-246
120. Masubuchi Y. Metabolic and non-metabolic factors determining troglitazone hepatotoxicity: a review. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. 21 (2006) 347-356
121. De Pascale M.C., Bassi A.M., Patrone V., Villacorta L., Azzi A., and Zingg J.M. Increased expression of transglutaminase-1 and PPARgamma after vitamin E treatment in human keratinocytes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 447 (2006) 97-106
122. Sulzle A., Hirche F., and Eder K. Thermally oxidized dietary fat upregulates the expression of target genes of PPARalpha in rat liver. J. Nutr. 134 (2004) 1375-1383
123. Wang Y., Botolin D., Xu J., Christian B., Mitchell E., Jayaprakasam B., Nair M., Peters J., Busik J., Olson L.K., and Jump D.B. Regulation of hepatic fatty acid elongase and desaturase expression in diabetes and obesity. J. Lipid Res. 47 (2006) 2028-2041
124. Xu J., Christian B., and Jump D.B. Regulation of rat hepatic L-pyruvate kinase promoter composition and activity by glucose, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha agonist. J. Biol. Chem. 281 (2006) 18351-18362
125. Zuo X., Wu Y., Morris J.S., Stimmel J.B., Leesnitzer L.M., Fischer S.M., Lippman S.M., and Shureiqi I. Oxidative metabolism of linoleic acid modulates PPAR-beta/delta suppression of PPAR-gamma activity. Oncogene 25 (2006) 1225-1241
126. Halliwell B. Oxidative stress in cell culture: an under-appreciated problem?. FEBS Lett. 540 (2003) 3-6
127. Davi G., Alessandrini P., Mezzetti A., Minotti G., Bucciarelli T., Costantini F., Cipollone F., Bon G.B., Ciabattoni G., and Patrono C. In vivo formation of 8-epi-prostaglandin F2 alpha is increased in hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17 (1997) 3230-3235
128. Davi G., Ciabattoni G., Consoli A., Mezzetti A., Falco A., Santarone S., Pennese E., Vitacolonna E., Bucciarelli T., Costantini F., Capani F., and Patrono C. In vivo formation of 8-iso-prostaglandin F2{alpha} and platelet activation in diabetes mellitus: effects of improved metabolic control and vitamin E supplementation. Circulation 99 (1999) 224-229
129. Meagher E.A., Barry O.P., Lawson J.A., Rokach J., and FitzGerald G.A. Effects of vitamin E on lipid peroxidation in healthy persons. JAMA 285 (2001) 1178-1182
130. Mastaloudis A., Leonard S.W., and Traber M.G. Oxidative stress in athletes during extreme endurance exercise. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 31 (2001) 911-922
131. Mastaloudis A., Morrow J.D., Hopkins D.W., Deveraj S., and Traber M.G. Antioxidant supplementation prevents exercise-induced lipid peroxidation, but not inflammation, in ultramarathon runners. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 36 (2004) 1329-1341
132. Mastaloudis A., Yu T.W., O'Donnell R.P., Frei B., Dashwood R.H., and Traber M.G. Endurance exercise results in DNA damage as detected by the comet assay. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 36 (2004) 966-975
133. Mastaloudis A., Traber M.G., Carstensen K., and Widrick J.J. Antioxidants did not prevent muscle damage in response to an ultramarathon run. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 38 (2006) 72-80
134. Bruno R.S., Rainakrishnan R., Montine T.J., Bray T.M., and Traber M.G. alpha-Tocopherol disappearance is faster in cigarette smokers and is inversely related to their ascorbic acid status. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81 (2005) 95-103
135. Kolleck I., Witt W., Wissel H., Sinha P., and Rustow B. HDL and vitamin E in plasma and the expression of SR-BI on lung cells during rat perinatal development. Lung 178 (2000) 191-200
136. Devaraj S., Hugou I., and Jialal I. Alpha-tocopherol decreases CD36 expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Lipid Res. 42 (2001) 521-527
137. Ricciarelli R., Zingg J.M., and Azzi A. Vitamin E reduces the uptake of oxidized LDL by inhibiting CD36 scavenger receptor expression in cultured aortic smooth muscle cells. Circulation 102 (2000) 82-87
138. Adachi H., and Tsujimoto M. Endothelial scavenger receptors. Prog. Lipid Res. 45 (2006) 379-404
139. Zhang Y., Ahmed A.M., McFarlane N., Capone C., Boreham D.R., Truant R., Igdoura S.A., and Trigatti B.L. Regulation of SR-BI-mediated selective lipid uptake in Chinese hamster ovary-derived cells by protein kinase signaling pathways. J. Lipid Res. 48 (2007) 405-416
140. Peretti N., Delvin E., Sinnett D., Marcil V., Garofalo C., and Levy E. Asymmetrical regulation of scavenger receptor class B type I by apical and basolateral stimuli using Caco-2 cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 100 (2007) 421-433
141. Klein A., Deckert V., Schneider M., Dutrillaux F., Hammann A., Athias A., Le Guern N., Pais de Barros J.P., Desrumaux C., Masson D., Jiang X.C., and Lagrost L. Alpha-tocopherol modulates phosphatidylserine externalization in erythrocytes. relevance in phospholipid tansfer protein-deficient mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 26 (2006) 2160-2167
142. Tanito M., Yoshida Y., Kaidzu S., Chen Z.H., Cynshi O., Jishage K., Niki E., and Ohira A. Acceleration of age-related changes in the retina in alpha-tocopherol transfer protein null mice fed a vitamin E-deficient diet. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 48 (2007) 396-404
143. Stillwell W., and Wassall S.R. Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane properties of a unique fatty acid. Chem. Phys. Lipids 126 (2003) 1-27