Ultra-processed foods and health outcomes: A narrative review

Nutrients

Volumn 12, Issue 7, 2020, Pages 1-36

  Elizabeth, Leonie ^a   Machado, Priscila ^a,b   Zinöcker, Marit ^c   Baker, Phillip ^a,b   Lawrence, Mark ^a,b  

^a DEAKIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b DEAKIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c BJØRKNES UNIVERSITY COLLEGE   (Norway)

Author keywords

Dietary patterns; Food processing; Health outcomes; NOVA; Obesity; Ultra processed food

Indexed keywords

C REACTIVE PROTEIN;

ABDOMINAL OBESITY; ALL CAUSE MORTALITY; ASTHMA; BODY MASS; BODY WEIGHT; BODY WEIGHT GAIN; BREAST CANCER; CALORIC INTAKE; CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CENTER FOR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES DEPRESSION SCALE; DEPRESSION; DIETARY INTAKE; DYSPEPSIA; FOLLOW UP; FOOD FREQUENCY QUESTIONNAIRE; FRAILTY; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; IRRITABLE COLON; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORTALITY; NARRATIVE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PREVALENCE; QUESTIONNAIRE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; ULTRA-PROCESSED FOOD; UNHEALTHY DIET; WHEEZING; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ADVERSE EVENT; CHILD; DIET; FAST FOOD; FEMALE; FOOD HANDLING; MALE; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; PROCEDURES;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CHILD; DIET SURVEYS; DIET, HEALTHY; FAST FOODS; FEMALE; FOOD HANDLING; HUMANS; MALE; NUTRITIVE VALUE; OBESITY;

EID: 85087182452     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu12071955     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Lawrence, M.A.; Baker, P.I. Ultra-processed food and adverse health outcomes. BMJ 2019, 365, l2289.
2. Costa, C.S.; Del-Ponte, B.; Assunção, M.C.F.; Santos, I.S. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and body fat during childhood and adolescence: A systematic review. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 148–159, doi:10.1017/S1368980017001331.
3. Fardet, A.; Rock, E. Ultra-processed foods: A new holistic paradigm? Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 93, 174– 184.
4. Poti, J.M.; Braga, B.; Qin, B. Ultra-processed food intake and obesity: What really matters for health-processing or nutrient content? Curr. Obes. Rep. 2017, 6, 420–431, doi:10.1007/s13679-017-0285-4.
5. Silva Meneguelli, T.; Viana Hinkelmann, J.; Hermsdorff, H.H.M.; Zulet, M.Á.; Martínez, J.A.; Bressan, J. Food consumption by degree of processing and cardiometabolic risk: A systematic review. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2020, 1–15, doi:10.1080/09637486.2020.1725961.
6. Pan American Health Organization. Ultra-Processed Food and Drink Products in Latin America: Sales, Sources, Nutrient Profiles, and Policy Implications; PAHO: Washington, DC, USA, 2019; p. 57.
7. Monteiro, C.; Cannon, G.; Lawrence, M.; Costa Louzada, M.L.; Machado, P.P. Ultra-Processed Foods, Diet Quality, and Health Using the NOVA Classification System; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2019; p. 44.
8. Monteiro, C.A.; Cannon, G. The role of the transnational ultra-processed food industry in the pandemic of obesity and its associated diseases: Problems and solutions. World Nutr. 2019, 10, 89–99.
9. Monteiro, C.A. Nutrition and health. The issue is not food, nor nutrients, so much as processing. Public Health Nutr. 2009, 12, 729–731, doi:10.1017/S1368980009005291.
10. Afshin, A.; Sur, P.J.; Fay, K.A.; Cornaby, L.; Ferrara, G.; Salama, J.S.; Mullany, E.C.; Abate, K.H.; Abbafati, C.; Abebe, Z.; et al. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 2019, 393, 1958–1972, doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(19)30041-8.
11. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australian Burden of Disease Study: Impact and Causes of Illness and Death in Australia 2015; Australian Burden of Disease Series no.19, Cat.no. BOD 22; AIHW: Canberra, Australia, 2019.
12. Tapsell, L.C.; Neale, E.P.; Satija, A.; Hu, F.B. Foods, nutrients, and dietary patterns: Interconnections and implications for dietary guidelines. Adv. Nutr. 2016, 7, 445–454, doi:10.3945/an.115.011718.
13. Mozaffarian, D.; Hao, T.; Rimm, E.B.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 364, 2392–2404.
14. Onvani, S.; Haghighatdoost, F.; Surkan, P.J.; Larijani, B.; Azadbakht, L. Adherence to the Healthy Eating Index and Alternative Healthy Eating Index dietary patterns and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease and cancer: A meta-analysis of observational studies. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 30, 216–226, doi:10.1111/jhn.12415.
15. Hernandez-Ruiz, A.; Garcia-Villanova, B.; Guerra Hernandez, E.J.; Amiano, P.; Azpiri, M.; Molina-Montes, E. Description of indexes based on the adherence to the Mediterranean dietary pattern: A review. Nutr. Hosp. 2015, 32, 1872–1884, doi:10.3305/nh.2015.32.5.9629.
16. Salehi-Abargouei, A.; Maghsoudi, Z.; Shirani, F.; Azadbakht, L. Effects of Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)-style diet on fatal or nonfatal cardiovascular diseases–incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis on observational prospective studies. Nutrition 2013, 29, 611–618, doi:10.1016/j.nut.2012.12.018.
17. Fung, T.T.; Stampfer, M.J.; Manson, J.E.; Rexrode, K.M.; Willett, W.C.; Hu, F.B. Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women. Stroke 2004, 35, 2014–2019, doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000135762.89154.92.
18. Heidemann, C.; Schulze, M.B.; Franco, O.H.; van Dam, R.M.; Mantzoros, C.S.; Hu, F.B. Dietary patterns and risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes in a prospective cohort of women. Circulation 2008, 118, 230–237, doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.771881.
19. Hu, F.B.; Rimm, E.B.; Stampfer, M.J.; Ascherio, A.; Spiegelman, D.; Willett, W.C. Prospective study of major dietary patterns and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000, 72, 912–921.
20. Reedy, J.; Mitrou, P.N.; Krebs-Smith, S.M.; Wirfalt, E.; Flood, A.; Kipnis, V.; Leitzmann, M.; Mouw, T.; Hollenbeck, A.; Schatzkin, A.; et al. Index-based dietary patterns and risk of colorectal cancer: The NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 168, 38–48, doi:10.1093/aje/kwn097.
21. Monteiro, C.A.; Cannon, G.; Levy, R.B.; Moubarac, J.C.; Louzada, M.L.; Rauber, F.; Khandpur, N.; Cediel, G.; Neri, D.; Martinez-Steele, E.; et al. Ultra-processed foods: What they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutr. 2019, 22, 936–941, doi:10.1017/S1368980018003762.
22. Monteiro, C.; Cannon, G.; Levy, R.; Moubarac, J.C.; Jaime, P.; Martins, A.P.; Canella, D.; Louzada, M.L.; Parra, D. NOVA. The star shines bright. Food classification. Public Health. World Nutr. J. 2016, 7, 28–38.
23. Monteiro, C.A.; Mondini, L.; Costa, R. Secular changes in dietary patterns in the metropolitan areas of Brazil (1988–1996). Rev. Saude Publica 2000, 34, 251–258.
24. Levy-Costa, R.B.; Sichieri, R.; Pontes, N.d.S.; Monteiro, C.A. Household food availability in Brazil: Distribution and trends (1974–2003). Rev. Saude Publica 2005, 39, 530–540.
25. Monteiro, C.A.; Levy, R.B.; Claro, R.M.; de Castro, I.R.R.; Cannon, G. A new classification of foods based on the extent and purpose of their processing. Cad. Saude Publica 2010, 26, 2039–2049, doi:10.1590/S0102-311X2010001100005.
26. Monteiro, C. The big issue is ultra-processing [Commentary]. World Nutr. J. 2010, 1, 237–269.
27. Monteiro, C.A.; Levy, R.B.; Claro, R.M.; de Castro, I.R.R.; Cannon, G. Increasing consumption of ultra-processed foods and likely impact on human health: Evidence from Brazil. Public Health Nutr. 2011, 14, 5– 13, doi:10.1017/s1368980010003241.
28. Ministry of Health of Brazil, Secretariat of Health Care, Primary Health Care Department. Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population, 2nd ed.; Ministry of Health Brazil: Brasilia, Brazil, 2014.
29. Moubarac, J.C.; Parra, D.C.; Cannon, G.; Monteiro, C.A. Food Classification Systems Based on Food Processing: Significance and Implications for Policies and Actions: A Systematic Literature Review and Assessment. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2014, 3, 256–272, doi:10.1007/s13679-014-0092-0.
30. Monteiro, C.A.; Cannon, G.; Moubarac, J.C.; Levy, R.B.; Louzada, M.L.C.; Jaime, P.C. The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 5–17, doi:10.1017/S1368980017000234.
31. Monteiro, C.A.; Moubarac, J.C.; Cannon, G.; Ng, S.W.; Popkin, B. Ultra-processed products are becoming dominant in the global food system. Obes. Rev. 2013, 14 (Suppl. 2), 21–28, doi:10.1111/obr.12107.
32. Machado, P.P.; Steele, E.M.; Levy, R.B.; Sui, Z.; Rangan, A.; Woods, J.; Gill, T.; Scrinis, G.; Monteiro, C.A. Ultra-processed foods and recommended intake levels of nutrients linked to non-communicable diseases in Australia: Evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2019, 9, e029544, doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029544.
33. Martínez Steele, E.; Baraldi, L.G.; da Costa Louzada, M.L.; Moubarac, J.C.; Mozaffarian, D.; Monteiro, C.A. Ultra-processed foods and added sugars in the US diet: Evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e009892, doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009892.
34. Cediel, G.; Reyes, M.; da Costa Louzada, M.L.; Martinez Steele, E.; Monteiro, C.A.; Corvalán, C.; Uauy, R. Ultra-processed foods and added sugars in the Chilean diet (2010). Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 125–133, doi:10.1017/S1368980017001161.
35. Marrón-Ponce, J.A.; Sánchez-Pimienta, T.G.; da Costa Louzada, M.L.; Batis, C. Energy contribution of NOVA food groups and sociodemographic determinants of ultra-processed food consumption in the Mexican population. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 87–93, doi:10.1017/S1368980017002129.
36. Juul, F.; Hemmingsson, E. Trends in consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Sweden between 1960 and 2010. Public Health Nutr. 2015, 18, 3096–3107, doi:10.1017/S1368980015000506.
37. Vandevijvere, S.; Jaacks, L.M.; Monteiro, C.A.; Moubarac, J.C.; Girling-Butcher, M.; Lee, A.C.; Pan, A.; Bentham, J.; Swinburn, B. Global trends in ultraprocessed food and drink product sales and their association with adult body mass index trajectories. Obes. Rev. 2019, 20, 10–19, doi:10.1111/obr.12860.
38. Marrón-Ponce, J.A.; Tolentino-Mayo, L.; Hernández-F., M.; Batis, C. Trends in ultra-processed food purchases from 1984 to 2016 in Mexican households. Nutrients 2018, 11, 45, doi:10.3390/nu11010045.
39. Fardet, A. Characterization of the Degree of Food Processing in Relation with Its Health Potential and Effects. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 2018, 85, 79–129, doi:10.1016/bs.afnr.2018.02.002.
40. Grant, M.J.; Booth, A. A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Inf. Libr. J. 2009, 26, 91–108, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.
41. Ferrari, R. Writing narrative style literature reviews. Med Writ. 2015, 24, 230–235, doi:10.1179/2047480615z.000000000329.
42. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Guide for Authors: Narrative Review Checklist. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Available online: https://www.elsevier.com/__data/promis_misc/ANDJ%20Narrative%20Review%20Checklist.pdf (accessed on 17 May 2020).
43. Liberati, A.; Altman, D.G.; Mulrow, C.; Gotzsche, P.C.; Ioannidis, J.P.A.; Clarke, M.; Devereauz, P.J.; Kleijnen, J.; Moher, D. The PRISMA statment for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Ann. Intern. Med. 2009, 151, W65–W94.
44. Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G.; Prisma Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med. 2009, 6, e1000097, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed1000097.
45. World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11). 2019. Aavailable online: https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en (accessed on 11 June 2019).
46. World Health Organization. Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry: WHO Technical Report Series 854; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 1995; p. 463.
47. World Health Organization. Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic: Report of a WHO Consultation: WHO Technical Report Series 894; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2000; p. 252.
48. World Health Organization. Obesity and Overweight. 2020. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight (accessed on 11 May 2020).
49. Critical Appraisal Skills Programme. CASP Randomised Controlled Trial Checklist. 2018. Available online: https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/2001/CASP-Qualitative-Checklist-2018.pdf (accessed on 28 January 2020).
50. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. 2020. Available online: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools (accessed on 28 January 2020).
51. Scottish Intercolleiate Guidelines Network. SIGN Methodology Checklist: Case-Control Studies. 2012. Available online: https://www.sign.ac.uk/checklists-and-notes (accessed on 28 January 2020).
52. Monteiro, C.A.; Moubarac, J.-C.; Levy, R.B.; Canella, D.S.; Louzada, M.L.d.C.; Cannon, G. Household availability of ultra-processed foods and obesity in nineteen European countries. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 18–26, doi:10.1017/S1368980017001379.
53. Canella, D.S.; Levy, R.B.; Martins, A.P.B.; Claro, R.M.; Moubarac, J.-C.; Baraldi, L.G.; Cannon, G.; Monteiro, C.A. Ultra-processed food products and obesity in Brazilian households (2008–2009). PLos ONE 2014, 9, e92752, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092752.
54. Monteiro, C.A.; Cannon, G.; Levy, R.; Claro, R.; Moubarac, J.-C. The food system. Ultra-processing: The big issue for nutrition, disease, health, well-being. [Commentary]. World Nutr. 2012, 3, 527–569.
55. Adams, J.; White, M. Characterisation of UK diets according to degree of food processing and associations with socio-demographics and obesity: Cross-sectional analysis of UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008-12). Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2015, 12, 160, doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0317-y.
56. Louzada, M.L.d.C.; Baraldi, L.G.; Steele, E.M.; Martins, A.P.B.; Canella, D.S.; Moubarac, J.-C.; Levy, R.B.; Cannon, G.; Afshin, A.; Imamura, F.; et al. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Brazilian adolescents and adults. Prev. Med. 2015, 81, 9–15, doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.07.018.
57. Nardocci, M.; Leclerc, B.-S.; Louzada, M.-L.; Monteiro, C.A.; Batal, M.; Moubarac, J.-C. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Canada. Can. J. Public Health 2019, 110, 4–14, doi:10.17269/s41997-018-0130-x.
58. Moubarac, J.C.; Batal, M.; da Costa Louzada, M.L.; Martinez Steele, E.; Monteiro, C.A. Consumption of ultra-processed foods predicts diet quality in Canada. Appetite 2017, 108, 512–520, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.11.006.
59. Juul, F.; Martinez-Steele, E.; Parekh, N.; Monteiro, C.A.; Chang, V.W. Ultra-processed food consumption and excess weight among US adults. Br. J. Nutr. 2018, 120, 90–100.
60. Rauber, F.; Steele, E.M.; Louzada, M.; Millett, C.; Monteiro, C.A.; Levy, R.B. Ultra-processed food consumption and indicators of obesity in the United Kingdom population (2008–2016). PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0232676, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0232676.
61. Julia, C.; Martinez, L.; Allès, B.; Touvier, M.; Hercberg, S.; Méjean, C.; Kesse-Guyot, E. Contribution of ultra-processed foods in the diet of adults from the French NutriNet-Santé study. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 27–37, doi:10.1017/S1368980017001367.
62. Silva, F.M.; Giatti, L.; de Figueiredo, R.C.; Molina, M.D.C.B.; de Oliveira Cardoso, L.; Duncan, B.B.; Barreto, S.M. Consumption of ultra-processed food and obesity: Cross sectional results from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil) cohort (2008–2010). Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 2271– 2279, doi:10.1017/S1368980018000861.
63. da Silveira, J.A.C.; Meneses, S.S.; Quintana, P.T.; Santos, V.d.S. Association between overweight and consumption of ultra-processed food and sugar-sweetened beverages among vegetarians. Rev. Nutr. 2017, 30, 431–441.
64. Ali, A.; Khasbullah, N.; Ahmad, F.T.; Yosof, H.M. Ultra-processed food consumption in relation to BMI and body fat percentage of adults in Terengganu. Malay J. Med. Health Sci. 2020, 16, 37–43.
65. de Deus Mendonça, R.; Marçal Pimenta, A.; Gea, A.; Fuente-Arrillaga, C.d.l.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A.; Lopes, A.C.S.; Bes-Rastrollo, M. Ultraprocessed food consumption and risk of overweight and obesity: The University of Navarra Follow-Up (SUN) cohort study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2016, 104, 1433–1440.
66. Canhada, S.L.; Luft, V.C.; Giatti, L.; Duncan, B.B.; Chor, D.; Fonseca, M.d.J.M.d.; Matos, S.M.A.; Molina, M.D.C.B.; Barreto, S.M.; Levy, R.B.; et al. Ultra-processed foods, incident overweight and obesity, and longitudinal changes in weight and waist circumference: The Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil). Public Health Nutr. 2020, 23, 1076–1086, doi:10.1017/S1368980019002854.
67. Hall, K.; Ayuketah, A.; Brychta, R.; Cai, H.; Cassimatis, T.; Chen, K.Y.; Chung, S.T.; Costa, E.; Courville, A.; Darcey, V.; et al. Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: An inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitim food intake. Cell Metab. 2019, 30, 67–77, doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2019.05.008.
68. Lavigne-Robichaud, M.; Moubarac, J.C.; Lantagne-Lopez, S.; Johnson-Down, L.; Batal, M.; Laouan Sidi, E.A.; Lucas, M. Diet quality indices in relation to metabolic syndrome in an Indigenous Cree (Eeyouch) population in northern Québec, Canada. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 172–180, doi:10.1017/S136898001700115X.
69. Nasreddine, L.; Tamim, H.; Itani, L.; Nasrallah, M.P.; Isma’eel, H.; Nakhoul, N.F.; Abou-Rizk, J.; Naja, F. A minimally processed dietary pattern is associated with lower odds of metabolic syndrome among Lebanese adults. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 160–171, doi:10.1017/S1368980017002130.
70. Lopes, A.E.d.S.C.; Araújo, L.F.; Levy, R.B.; Barreto, S.M.; Giatti, L. Association between consumption of ultra-processed foods and serum C-reactive protein levels: Cross-sectional results from the ELSA-Brasil study. Sao Paulo Med. J. 2019, 137, 169–176, doi:10.1590/1516-3180.2018.0363070219.
71. Martínez Steele, E.; Juul, F.; Neri, D.; Rauber, F.; Monteiro, C.A. Dietary share of ultra-processed foods and metabolic syndrome in the US adult population. Prev. Med. 2019, 125, 40–48, doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.05.004.
72. de Deus Mendonça, R.; Souza Lopes, A.C.; Pimenta, A.M.; Gea, A.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A.; Bes-Rastrollo, M. Ultra-processed food consumption and the incidence of hypertension in a mediterranean cohort: The seguimiento Universidad de Navarra project. Am. J. Hypertens. 2017, 30, 358–366, doi:10.1093/ajh/hpw137.
73. Enes, C.C.; Camargo, C.M.d.; Justino, M.I.C. Ultra-processed food consumption and obesity in adolescents. Rev. Nutr. 2019, 32, doi:10.1590/1678-9865201932e180170.
74. Cunha, D.B.; da Costa, T.H.M.; da Veiga, G.V.; Pereira, R.A.; Sichieri, R. Ultra-processed food consumption and adiposity trajectories in a Brazilian cohort of adolescents: ELANA study. Nutr. Diabetes 2018, 8, 1–9, doi:10.1038/s41387-018-0043-z.
75. Tavares, L.F.; Fonseca, S.C.; Garcia Rosa, M.L.; Yokoo, E.M. Relationship between ultra-processed foods and metabolic syndrome in adolescents from a Brazilian family doctor program. Public Health Nutr. 2012, 15, 82–87, doi:10.1017/S1368980011001571.
76. Melo, I.S.V.d.; Costa, C.A.C.B.; Santos, J.V.L.D.; Santos, A.F.D.; Florêncio, T.M.d.M.T.; Bueno, N.B. Consumption of minimally processed food is inversely associated with excess weight in adolescents living in an underdeveloped city. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0188401, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0188401.
77. Rauber, F.; Campagnolo, P.D.; Hoffman, D.J.; Vitolo, M.R. Consumption of ultra-processed food products and its effects on children’s lipid profiles: A longitudinal study. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. NMCD 2015, 25, 116–122, doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2014.08.001.
78. Costa, C.S.; Rauber, F.; Leffa, P.S.; Sangalli, C.N.; Campagnolo, P.D.B.; Vitolo, M.R. Ultra-processed food consumption and its effects on anthropometric and glucose profile: A longitudinal study during childhood. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. NMCD 2019, 29, 177–184, doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2018.11.003.
79. Leffa, P.S.; Hoffman, D.J.; Rauber, F.; Sangalli, C.N.; Valmorbida, J.L.; Vitolo, M.R. Longitudinal associations between ultra-processed foods and blood lipids in childhood. Br. J. Nutr. 2020, 1–8, doi:10.1017/S0007114520001233.
80. Melo, B.; Rezende, L.; Machado, P.; Gouveia, N.; Levy, R. Associations of ultra-processed food and drink products with asthma and wheezing among Brazilian adolescents. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 2018, 29, 504– 511, doi:10.1111/pai.12911.
81. Queiroz, S.A.; de Sousa, I.M.; Silva, F.R.M.; Lyra, C.O.; Fayh, A.P.T. Nutritional and environmental risk factors for breast cancer: A case-control study. Sci. Med. 2018, 28, 1–8, doi:10.15448/1980-6108.2018.2.28723.
82. Machado Azeredo, C.; Cortese, M.; Costa, C.D.S.; Bjornevik, K.; Barros, A.J.D.; Barros, F.C.; Santos, I.S.; Matijasevich, A. Ultra-processed food consumption during childhood and asthma in adolescence: Data from the 2004 Pelotas birth cohort study. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 2020, 31, 27–37, doi:10.1111/pai.13126.
83. Srour, B.; Fezeu, L.K.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Alles, B.; Mejean, C.; Andrianasolo, R.M.; Chazelas, E.; Deschasaux, M.; Hercberg, S.; Galan, P.; et al. Ultra-processed food intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: Prospective cohort study (NutrNet-Sante). BMJ 2019, 365, l1451, doi:10.1136/bmj.l1451.
84. Fiolet, T.; Srour, B.; Sellem, L.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Allès, B.; Méjean, C.; Deschasaux, M.; Fassier, P.; Latino-Martel, P.; Beslay, M.; et al. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and cancer risk: Results from NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort. BMJ 2018, 360, k322, doi:10.1136/bmj.k322.
85. Schnabel, L.; Buscail, C.; Sabate, J.-M.; Bouchoucha, M.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Allès, B.; Touvier, M.; Monteiro, C.A.; Hercberg, S.; Benamouzig, R.; et al. Association between ultra-processed food consumption and functional gastrointestinal disorders: Results from the French NutriNet-Santé cohort. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2018, 113, 1217–1228, doi:10.1038/s41395-018-0137-1.
86. Schnabel, L.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Allès, B.; Touvier, M.; Srour, B.; Hercberg, S.; Buscail, C.; Julia, C. Association between ultraprocessed food consumption and risk of mortality among middle-aged adults in France. JAMA Int. Med. 2019, 179, 490–498, doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.7289.
87. Srour, B.; Fezeu, L.K.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Allès, B.; Debras, C.; Druesne-Pecollo, N.; Chazelas, E.; Deschasaux, M.; Hercberg, S.; Galan, P.; et al. Ultraprocessed food consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes among participants of the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort. JAMA Int. Med. 2019, 180, 283–291, doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.5942.
88. Vasseur, P.; Dugelay, E.; Benamouzig, R.; Savoye, G.; Lan, A.; Srour, B.; Hercberg, S.; Touvier, M.; Hugot, J.-P.; Julia, C.; et al. Dietary patterns, ultra-processed food, and the risk of inflammatory bowel diseases in the NutriNet-Santé Cohort. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2020, doi:10.1093/ibd/izaa018.
89. Adjibade, M.; Julia, C.; Allès, B.; Touvier, M.; Lemogne, C.; Srour, B.; Hercberg, S.; Galan, P.; Assmann, K.E.; Kesse-Guyot, E. Prospective association between ultra-processed food consumption and incident depressive symptoms in the French NutriNet-Santé cohort. BMC Med. 2019, 17, 78–78, doi:10.1186/s12916-019-1312-y.
90. Gómez-Donoso, C.; Sánchez-Villegas, A.; Martínez-González, M.A.; Gea, A.; Mendonça, R.d.D.; Lahortiga-Ramos, F.; Bes-Rastrollo, M. Ultra-processed food consumption and the incidence of depression in a Mediterranean cohort: The SUN project. Eur. J. Nutr. 2019, 59, 1093–1103, doi:10.1007/s00394-019-01970-1.
91. Rico-Campa, A.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A.; Alvarez-Alvarez, I.; de Deus Mendonca, R.; Fuente-Arrillaga, C.d.l.; Gomez-Donoso, C. Association between consumption of ultraprocessed foods and all cause mortality: SUN prospective cohort study. BMJ 2019, 365, 1949, doi:10.1136/bmj.l1949.
92. Blanco-Rojo, R.; Sandoval-Insausti, H.; López-Garcia, E.; Graciani, A.; Ordovás, J.M.; Banegas, J.R.; Rodríguez-Artalejo, F.; Guallar-Castillón, P. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and mortality: A national prospective cohort in Spain. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2019, 94, 2178–2188, doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.03.035.
93. Sandoval-Insausti, H.; Blanco-Rojo, R.; Graciani, A.; Lopez-Garcia, E.; Moreno-Franco, B.; Laclaustra, M.; Donat-Vargas, C.; Ordovas, J.M.; Rodriguez-Artalejo, F.; Guallar-Castillón, P. Ultra-processed food consumption and incident frailty: A prospective cohort study of older adults. J. Gerontol. Ser. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2019, 75, 1126–1133, doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz028.P01-012-19.
94. Kim, H.; Hu, E.A.; Rebholz, C.M. Ultra-processed food intake and mortality in the USA: Results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988-1994). Public Health Nutr. 2019, 22, 1777–1785, doi:10.1017/S1368980018003890.
95. Mendonca, R.D.; Pimenta, A.M.; Gea, A.; de la Fuente-Arrillaga, C.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A.; Lopes, A.C.S.; Bes-Rastrollo, M. Reply to T Bhurosy et al. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 105, 1012–1013, doi:10.3945/ajcn.116.149518
96. Mendonca, R.D.; Pimenta, A.M.; Gea, A.; de la Fuente-Arrillaga, C.; Martinez-Gonzalez, M.A.; Lopes, A.C.S.; Bes-Rastrollo, M. Reply to JM Cullin and CI Fernández. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2017, 105, 1013–1014, doi:10.3945/ajcn.116.149708.
97. Cannon, C.P. Cardiovascular disease and modifiable cardiometabolic risk factors. Clin. Cornerstone 2007, 8, 11–28.
98. Zinöcker, M.K.; Lindseth, I.A. The Western diet-microbiome-host interaction and its role in metabolic disease. Nutrients 2018, 10, 365, doi:10.3390/nu10030365.
99. Strasser, B. Immune-mediated inflammation as a driver of obesity and comorbid conditions. Obesity 2017, 25, 987–988.
100. Stecher, B. The role of inflammation, nutrient availability and the commensal microbiota in enteric pathogen infection. Microbiol. Spectr. 2015, 3; doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.MBP-0008-2014.
101. Ogata, B.N.; Hayes, D. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Nutrition guidance for healthy children ages 2 to 11 years. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2014, 114, 1257–1276, doi:10.1016/j.jand.2014.06.001.
102. Veronese, N.; Sigeirsdottir, K.; Eiriksdottir, G.; Marques, E.A.; Chalhoub, D.; Phillips, C.L.; Launer, L.J.; Maggi, S.; Gudnason, V.; Harris, T.B. Frailty and risk of cardiovascular diseases in older persons: The age, gene/environment susceptibility-Reykjavik Study. Rejuvenation Res. 2017, 20, 517–524, doi:10.1089/rej.2016.1905.
103. Shim, J.S.; Oh, K.; Kim, H.C. Dietary assessment methods in epidemiologic studies. Epidemiol. Health 2014, 36, e2014009, doi:10.4178/epih/e2014009.
104. Martínez, S.E.; Popkin, B.M.; Swinburn, B.; Monteiro, C.A. The share of ultra-processed foods and the overall nutritional quality of diets in the US: Evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional study. Popul. Health Metr. 2017, 15, 6; doi:10.1186/s12963-017-0119-3.
105. FAO. Guidelines on the Collection of Information on Food Processing through Food Consumption Surveys. 2015. FAO: Rome, Italy.
106. Leme, A.C.B.; Fisberg, R.M.; Thompson, D.; Philippi, S.T.; Nicklas, T.; Baranowski, T. Brazilian children’s dietary intake in relation to Brazil’s new nutrition guidelines: A systematic review. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2019, 8, 145–166, doi:10.1007/s13668-019-0261-6.
107. Kimenju, S.C. Ultra-Processed Foods and Obesity in Central Kenya. In Advances in Food Security and Sustainability; Barling, D., Fanzo, J., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Volume 3, pp. 69–92.
108. Bielemann, R.M.; Motta, J.V.S.; Minten, G.C.; Horta, B.L.; Gigante, D.P. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and their impact on the diet of young adults. Rev. Saude Publica 2015, 49, 28, doi:10.1590/s0034-8910.2015049005572.
109. Latasa, P.; da Coasta Louzada, M.L.; Martinez Steele, E.; Monteiro, C.A. Added sugars and ultra-processed foods in Spanish households (1990–2010). Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2018, 72, 1404–1412, doi:10.1038/s41430-017-0039-0.
110. Vandevijvere, S.; De Ridder, K.; Fiolet, T.; Bel, S.; Tafforeau, J. Consumption of ultra-processed food products and diet quality among children, adolescents and adults in Belgium. Eur. J. Nutr. 2018, 58, 3267– 3278, doi:10.1007/s00394-018-1870-3.
111. Martínez Steele, E.; Monteiro, C.A. Association between dietary share of ultra-processed foods and urinary concentrations of phytoestrogens in the US. Nutrients 2017, 9, 209.
112. Luiten, C.M.; Steenhuis, I.H.; Eyles, H.; Ni Mhurchu, C.; Waterlander, W.E. Ultra-processed foods have the worst nutrient profile, yet they are the most available packaged products in a sample of New Zealand supermarkets. Public Health Nutr. 2016, 19, 530–538, doi:10.1017/S1368980015002177.
113. Ni Mhurchu, C.; Brown, R.; Jiang, Y.; Eyles, H.; Dunford, E.; Neal, B. Nutrient profile of 23,596 packaged supermarket foods and non-alcoholic beverages in Australia and New Zealand. Public Health Nutr. 2016, 19, 401–408, doi:10.1017/S1368980015000968.
114. Poti, J.; Mendez, M.; Ng, S.; Popkin, B. Is the degree of food processing and convenience linked with the nutritional quality of foods purchased by US households? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2015, 101, 1251–1262, doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.100925.
115. Fardet, A. Minimally processed foods are more satiating and less hyperglycemic than ultra-processed foods: A preliminary study with 98 ready-to-eat foods. Food Funct. 2016, 7, 2338–2346.
116. Fardet, A.; Méjean, C.; Labouré, H.; Andreeva, V.A.; Feron, G. The degree of processing of foods which are most widely consumed by the French elderly population is associated with satiety and glycemic potentials and nutrient profiles. Food Funct. 2017, 8, 651–658, doi:10.1039/c6fo01495j.
117. de Graaf, C.; Kok, F.J. Slow food, fast food and the control of food intake. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2010, 6, 290– 293.
118. Small, D.; DiFeliceantonio, A. Processed foods and food reward. Science 2019, 363, 346–347.
119. European Food Safety Authority, EEFS Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM). Scientific opinion on acrylamide in food. EFSA J. 2015, 13, 4104, doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4104.
120. Gibis, M. Heterocyclic aromatic amines in cooked meat products: Causes, formation, occurrence, and risk assessment. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2016, 15, 269–302.
121. Lerner, A.; Matthias, T. Changes in intestinal tight junction permeability associated with industrial food additives explain the rising incidence of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun. Rev. 2015, 14, 479–489.
122. Miclotte, L.; Van de Wiele, T. Food processing, gut microbiota and the globesity problem. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 1–14, doi:10.1080/10408398.2019.1596878.
123. Ayton, A.; Ibrahim, A. The Western diet: A blind spot of eating disorder research?– A narrative review and recommendations for treatment and research. Nutr. Rev. 2019, doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz089.
124. Alexy, U.; Sichert-Hellert, W.; Rode, T.; Kersting, M. Convenience food in the diet of children and adolescents: Consumption and composition. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 99, 345–351.
125. Bellisle, F. Meals and snacking, diet quality and energy balance. Physiol. Behav. 2014, 134, 38–43, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.03.010.
126. Peltner, J.; Thiele, S. Convenience-based food purchase patterns: Identification and associations with dietary quality, sociodemographic factors and attitudes. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 558–570.
127. Gordon, E.L.; Ariel-Donges, A.H.; Bauman, V.; Merlo, L.J. What is the evidence for “food addiction”? A systematic review. Nutrients 2018, 10, 477.
128. Filgueiras, A.R.; Pires de Almeida, V.B.; Koch Nogueira, P.C.; Alvares Domene, S.M.; Eduardo da Silva, C.; Sesso, R.; Sawaya, A.L. Exploring the consumption of ultra-processed foods and its association with food addiction in overweight children. Appetite 2019, 135, 137–145, doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.005.
129. Lobstein, T.; Dibb, S. Evidence of a possible link between obesogenic food advertising and child overweight. Obes. Rev. 2005, 6, 203–208.
130. Mallarino, C.; Gómez, L.F.; González-Zapata, L.; Cadena, Y.; Parra, D.C. Advertising of ultra-processed foods and beverages: Children as a vulnerable population. Revista Saúde Pública 2013, 47, 1006–1010.
131. Pulker, C.E.; Scott, J.A.; Pollard, C.M. Ultra-processed family foods in Australia: Nutrition claims, health claims and marketing techniques. Public Health Nutr. 2018, 21, 38–48, doi:10.1017/S1368980017001148.
132. Gibney, M.J. Ultra-processed foods: Definitions and policy issues. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 2018, 3, nzy077, doi:10.1093/cdn/nzy077.
133. Gibney, M.J. Ultraprocessed foods and their application to nutrition policy. Nutr. Today 2020, 55, 16–21, doi:10.1097/NT.0000000000000393.
134. Djupegot, I.L.; Nenseth, C.B.; Bere, E.; Bjørnarå, H.B.T.; Helland, S.H.; Øverby, N.C.; Torstveit, M.K.; Stea, T.H. The association between time scarcity, sociodemographic correlates and consumption of ultra-processed foods among parents in Norway: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2017, 17, 447–447, doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4408-3.
135. Vale, D.; Morais, C.M.M.d.; Pedrosa, L.d.F.C.; Ferreira, M.Â.F.; Oliveira, Â.G.R.d.C.; Lyra, C.d.O. Spatial correlation between excess weight, purchase of ultra-processed foods, and human development in Brazil. Ciência Saúde Coletiva 2019, 24, 983–996.