Food processing, gut microbiota and the globesity problem

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 60, Issue 11, 2020, Pages 1769-1782

  Miclotte, Lisa ^a   Van de Wiele, Tom ^a  

^a GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

Author keywords

dietary additives; dietary fiber; food processing; gut microbiota; thermal processing; Western diseases

Indexed keywords

ADDITIVES; NUTRITION; THERMAL PROCESSING (FOODS);

ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS; DIETARY FIBERS; DIETARY PATTERNS; ENERGY DENSITY; GENERAL ASPECTS; GUT MICROBIOTA; HUMAN MICROBIOTA; NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASE;

PROCESSED FOODS;

DIET; DIETARY FIBER; FOOD HANDLING; HUMAN; INTESTINE FLORA; MICROBIOLOGY; NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASE; OBESITY;

DIET; DIETARY FIBER; FOOD HANDLING; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; HUMANS; NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES; OBESITY;

EID: 85085905509     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: 15497852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1596878     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Arnold, L. Eugene, Nicholas, Lofthouse, and Elizabeth, Hurt. 2012. Artificial food colors and attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms: Conclusions to dye for. Neurotherapeutics 9 (3):599–609. doi: 10.1007/s13311-012-0133-x.
2. Baothman, Othman A., Mazin A., Zamzami, Ibrahim, Taher, Jehad, Abubaker, and Mohamed, Abu-Farha. 2016. The role of gut microbiota in the development of obesity and diabetes. Lipids in Health and Disease 15 Disease 15:108.doi: 10.1186/s12944-016-0278-4.
3. Bergheim, Ina, Synia, Weber, Miriam, Vos, Sigrid, Krämer, Valentina, Volynets, Seline, Kaserouni, Craig J., McClain, and Stephan C., Bischoff. 2008. Antibiotics protect against fructose-induced hepatic lipid accumulation in mice: Role of endotoxin. Journal of Hepatology 48 (6):983–92. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2008.01.035.
4. Biesalski, Hans K. 2016. Nutrition meets the microbiome: Micronutrients and the microbiota. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1372 (1):53–64. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13145.
5. Borrelli, Rose C., and Vincenzo, Fogliano. 2005. Bread crust melanoidins as potential prebiotic ingredients. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 49 (7):673–8. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200500011.
6. Bray, George A., Samara Joy, Nielsen, and Barry M., Popkin. 2004. Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79:537–43. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/79.4.537.
7. Brewer, M. S. 2011. Natural antioxidants: Sources, compounds, mechanisms of action, and potential applications. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 10 (4):221–47. doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00156.x.
8. Brown, Rebecca J., Mary Ann, De Banate, and Kristina I., Rother. 2010. Artificial sweeteners: a systematic review of metabolic effects in youth. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity 5 (4):305–12. doi: 10.3109/17477160903497027.Artificial.
9. Bryan, Nathan S., Dominik D., Alexander, James R., Coughlin, Andrew L., Milkowski, and Paolo, Boffetta. 2012. Ingested nitrate and nitrite and stomach cancer risk: an updated review. Food and Chemical Toxicology 50 (10):3646–65. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.07.062.
10. Cani, P. D., S., Possemiers, T., Van de Wiele, Y., Guiot, A., Everard, O., Rottier, L., Geurts, D., Naslain, A., Neyrinck, and D. M., Lambert. 2009. Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-Driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut 58 (8):1091–103. doi: 10.1136/gut.2008.165886.
11. Cani, Patrice D., Melania, Osto, Lucie, Geurts, and Amandine, Everard. 2012. Involvement of gut microbiota in the development of Low-Grade inflammation and type 2 diabetes associated with obesity © 2012 landes bioscience. Do not distribute © 2012 landes bioscience. Do not distribute. Gut Microbes 3 (4):279–88. doi: 10.4161/gmic.19625.
12. Carocho, Márcio, Maria Filomena, Barreiro, Patricia, Morales, and Isabel C. F. R., Ferreira. 2014. Adding molecules to food, pros and cons: A review on synthetic and natural food additives. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 13 (4):377–99. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12065.
13. Chassaing, B., O., Koren, J. K., Goodrich, A. C., Poole, S., Srinivasan, R. E., Ley, and A. T., Gewirtz. 2015. Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome. Nature 519 (7541):92–6. doi: 10.1038/nature14232.
14. Chassaing, Benoit, Tom, Van de Wiele, Jana, De Bodt, Massimo, Marzorati, and Andrew T., Gewirtz. 2017. Dietary emulsifiers directly alter human microbiota composition and gene expression ex vivo potentiating intestinal inflammation. Gut 66 (8):1414–27. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313099.
15. Chattopadhyay, Sanchari, Utpal, Raychaudhuri, and Runu, Chakraborty. 2014. Artificial Sweeteners–A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 51 (4):611–21. doi: 10.1007/s13197-011-0571-1.
16. Clarke, Rachel E., Aimee L., Dordevic, Sih Min, Tan, Lisa, Ryan, and Melinda T., Coughlan. 2016. Dietary advanced glycation end products and risk factors for chronic disease: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Nutrients 8 (3):125. doi: 10.3390/nu8030125.
17. Cooper, Danielle, Roy, Martin, and Nancy, Keim. 2015. Does whole grain consumption alter gut microbiota and satiety? Healthcare 3 (2):364–92. doi: 10.3390/healthcare3020364.
18. Cordain, Loren, S. Boyd, Eaton, Anthony, Sebastian, Neil, Mann, Staffan, Lindeberg, Bruce A., Watkins, James H., O’Keefe, and Janette, Brand-Miller. 2005. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: Health implications for the. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81 (2):341–54. doi: 10.1093/ajcn.81.2.341.
19. DiBaise, John K., Husen, Zhang, Michael D., Crowell, Rosa, Krajmalnik-Brown, G. Anton, Decker, and Bruce E., Rittmann. 2008. Gut microbiota and its possible relationship with obesity. Mayo Clin Proc 83 (4):460–9. doi: 10.4065/83.4.460.
20. Dominika, Świątecka, Narbad, Arjan, Ridgway P., Karyn, and Kostyra, Henryk. 2011. The study on the impact of glycated pea proteins on human intestinal bacteria. International Journal of Food Microbiology 145 (1):267–72. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.01.002.
21. Edwards, Sara M., Solveig A., Cunningham, Anne L., Dunlop, and Elizabeth J., Corwin. 2017. The maternal gut microbiome during pregnancy. American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing 42 (6):310–6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28787280. doi: 10.1097/NMC.0000000000000372.
22. Egli, L., V., Lecoultre, F., Theytaz, V., Campos, L., Hodson, P., Schneiter, B., Mittendorfer, B. W., Patterson, B. A., Fielding, P. A., Gerber, et al. 2013. Exercise prevents fructose-induced hypertriglyceridemia in healthy young subjects. Diabetes 62 (7):2259–65. doi: 10.2337/db12-1651.
23. Erejuwa, Omotayo O., Siti A., Sulaiman, and Mohd S., Ab Wahab. 2014. Modulation of gut microbiota in the management of metabolic disorders: The prospects and challenges. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 15 (3):4158–88. doi: 10.3390/ijms15034158.
24. Everard, Amandine, Vladimir, Lazarevic, Nadia, Gaïa, Maria, Johansson, Marcus, Ståhlman, Fredrik, Backhed, Nathalie M., Delzenne, Jacques, Schrenzel, Patrice, François, and Patrice D., Cani. 2014. Microbiome of prebiotic-treated mice reveals novel targets involved in host response during obesity. The ISME Journal 8 (10):2116–30. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2014.45.
25. Fardet, Anthony. 2016. Minimally processed foods are more satiating and less hyperglycemic than ultra-processed foods: A preliminary study with 98 ready-to-eat foods. Food and Function 7 (5):2338–46. [Mismatch] doi: 10.1039/c6fo00107f.
26. Filippo, Carlotta De., Duccio, Cavalieri, Monica, Di Paola, Matteo, Ramazzotti, Jean, Baptiste Poullet, Sebastien, Massart, Silvia, Collini, Giuseppe, Pieraccini, and Paolo, Lionetti. 2010. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (33):14691–6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1005963107.
27. Fowler, S. P., K., Williams, R. G., Resendez, K. J., Hunt, H. P., Hazuda, and M. P., Stern. 2008. Fueling the obesity epidemic? Artificially sweetened beverage use and long-term weight gain. Obesity 16 (8):1894–900. doi: 10.1038/oby.2008.284.
28. Frazier, Thomas H., John K., Dibaise, and Craig J., McClain. 2011. Gut microbiota, intestinal permeability, obesity-induced inflammation, and liver injury. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 35 (5_suppl):14S–20S. doi: 10.1177/0148607111413772.
29. García, Olga P., Kurt Z., Long, and Jorge L., Rosado. 2009. Impact of micronutrient deficiencies on obesity. Nutrition Reviews 67 (10):559–72. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00228.x.
30. Glade, Michael J., Michael M., Meguid. 2016. A glance at … dietary emulsifiers, the human intestinal mucus and microbiome, and dietary fiber. Nutrition 32 (5):609–14. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2015.12.036.
31. Grand View Research. 2015. Global food emulsifiers market by product (mono-, di-glycerides & derivatives, lecithin, stearoyl lactylates), by application (bakery & confectionery, convenience foods, meat products), is expected to reach 3.18 billion USD by 2020. https://www.slideshare.net/Grandriewresearch/food-emulsifiers-market1.
32. GVR. 2016. Global food additives market analysis by product flavors & enhancers (natural, artificial), sweeteners (high intensity, HFCS), enzymes, emulsifiers (mono, di-glycerides, lecithin, stearoyl lactylates, sorbitan esters), shelf-life stabilizers, fat replacer. San Francisco. doi:978-1-68038-187-0.
33. Hariri, Niloofar, and Louise, Thibault. 2010. High-fat diet-induced obesity in animal models. Nutrition Research Reviews 23 (2):270–99. doi: 10.1017/S0954422410000168.
34. Hegab, Zeinab, Stephen, Gibbons, Ludwig, Neyses, and Mamas A., Mamas. 2012. Role of advanced glycation end products in cardiovascular disease. World Journal of Cardiology 4 (4):90–102. doi: 10.4330/wjc.v4.i4.90.
35. Hibberd, Matthew C., Meng, Wu, Dmitry A., Rodionov, Xiaoqing, Li, Jiye, Cheng, Nicholas W., Griffin, Michael J., Barratt, Richard J., Giannone, Robert L., Hettich, and Andrei L., Osterman. 2017. The effects of micronutrient deficiencies on bacterial species from the human gut microbiota. Science Translational Medicine 9 (390):eaal4069. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aal4069.
36. Hildebrandt, Marie A., Christian, Hoffmann, Scott A., Sherrill–Mix, Sue A., Keilbaugh, Micah, Hamady, Ying–Yu, Chen, Rob, Knight, Rexford S., Ahima, Frederic, Bushman, and Gary D., Wu. 2009. High fat diet determines the composition of the murine gut microbiome independently of obesity. Gastroenterology 137 (5):1716–24. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.08.042.High.
37. Hill, James O., and John C., Peters. 1998. Environmental contributions to the obesity epidemic. Science 280 (5368):1371–5.
38. Hoffman, Richard, and Mariette, Gerber. 2015. Food processing and the Mediterranean diet. Nutrients 7 (9):7925–64. doi: 10.3390/nu7095371.
39. Hughes, Virginia. 2014. Weight-loss surgery: A gut-wrenching question. Nature 511 (7509):282–4. doi: 10.1038/511282a.
40. Jeffery, Ian B., Marcus J., Claesson, Paul W., O'Toole, and Fergus, Shanahan. 2012. Categorization of the gut microbiota: Enterotypes or gradients? Nature Reviews Microbiology 10 (9):591–2. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro2859.
41. Jones, Julie M., and Roger A., Clemens. 2017. Processed and ultraprocessed foods defined — An alice in wonderland question? In Cereals 17 Symposium–Food Selection According to Food Processing: Fabulous or Flawed? 62:120–3. doi: 10.1094/CFW-62-3-0120.
42. Juul, Filippa, Euridice, Martinez-Steele, Niyati, Parekh, Carlos A., Monteiro, and Virginia W., Chang. 2018. Ultra-Processed food consumption and excess weight among US adults. British Journal of Nutrition 120 (1):90–100. doi: 10.1017/S0007114518001046.
43. Karmas, Endel, and Robert S., Harris. 1988. Nutritional evaluation of food processing. 3rd ed. London, UK: Van Nostrand Reinold company. https://books.google.be/books?hl=nl&lr=&id=ipOrBgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT24&dq=nutrition+loss+in+food+processing&ots=e7mt8q4M2d&sig=6QoPZIKqj4s6m2bb_p7dEnlYz7U#v=onepage&q=nutrition%20loss%20in%20food%20processing&f=false.
44. Khan, M. Tanweer, Sylvia H., Duncan, Alfons J. M., Stams, Jan Maarten, Van Dijl, Harry J., Flint, and Hermie J. M., Harmsen. 2012. The gut anaerobe Faecalibacterium prausnitzii uses an extracellular electron shuttle to grow at oxic-anoxic interphases. The ISME Journal 6 (8):1578–85. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2012.5.
45. Lecoultre, V., L., Egli, G., Carrel, F., Theytaz, R., Kreis, P., Schneiter, A., Boss, K., Zwygart, K.-A., Lê, M., Bortolotti, et al. 2013. Effects of fructose and glucose overfeeding on hepatic insulin sensitivity and intrahepatic lipids in healthy humans. Obesity 21 (4):782–5. doi: 10.1002/oby.20377.
46. Ley, R. E., P. J., Turnbaugh, S., Klein, and J. I., Gordon. 2006. Microbial ecology: Human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature 444 (7122):1022–3. doi:10.1038/nature4441021a.
47. Ley, Ruth E., Fredrik, Backhed, Peter, Turnbaugh, Catherine A., Lozupone, Robin D., Knight, and Jeffrey I., Gordon. 2005. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 (31):11070–5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0504978102.
48. Lin, Tracy Kuo., Yasmin, Teymourian, and Maitri Shila, Tursini. 2018. The effect of sugar and processed food imports on the prevalence of overweight and obesity in 172 countries. Globalization and Health 14 (1):35.
49. Liu, Hu, Ji, Wang, Ting, He, Sage, Becker, Guolong, Zhang, Defa, Li, and Xi, Ma. 2018. Butyrate: A double-edged sword for health? Advances in Nutrition 9 (1):21–9. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmx009.
50. Luccia, Blanda Di, Raffaella, Crescenzo, Arianna, Mazzoli, Luisa, Cigliano, Paola, Venditti, Jean Claude, Walser, Alex, Widmer, Loredana, Baccigalupi, Ezio, Ricca, and Susanna, Iossa. 2015. Rescue of fructose-induced metabolic syndrome by antibiotics or faecal transplantation in a rat model of obesity. PLoS One 10 (8):1–19. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134893.
51. Lutsey, Pamela L., Lyn M., Steffen, and June, Stevens. 2008. Dietary intake and the development of the metabolic syndrome: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Circulation 117 (6):754–61. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.716159.
52. Mach, Núria, and Allison, Clark. 2017. Micronutrient deficiencies and the human gut microbiota. Trends in Microbiology xx:1–3. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.06.004.
53. McGill, Anne Thea, Joanna M., Stewart, Fiona E., Lithander, Caroline M., Strik, and Sally D., Poppitt. 2008. Relationships of low serum vitamin D3 with anthropometry and markers of the metabolic syndrome and diabetes in overweight and obesity. Nutrition Journal 7 (1):3–7. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-7-4.
54. Meijnikman, Abraham S., Victor E., Gerdes, Max, Nieuwdorp, and Hilde, Herrema. 2018. Evaluating causality of gut microbiota in obesity. Endocrine Reviews 39 (2):133–53. doi: 10.1210/er.2017-00192.
55. Mills, D. J. S., K. M., Tuohy, J., Booth, M., Buck, M. J. C., Crabbe, G. R., Gibson, and J. M., Ames. 2008. Dietary glycated protein modulates the colonic microbiota towards a more detrimental composition in ulcerative colitis patients and non-ulcerative colitis subjects. Journal of Applied Microbiology 105 (3):706–14. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.03783.x.
56. Monteiro, C. A. 2009. Nutrition and health. The issue is not food, nor nutrients, so much as processing. Public Health Nutrition 12 (5):729. doi: 10.1017/S1368980009005291.
57. Monteiro, C. A., J. C., Moubarac, G., Cannon, S. W., Ng, and B., Popkin. 2013. Ultra-processed products are becoming dominant in the global food system. Obesity Reviews 14 (S2):21–8. doi: 10.1111/obr.12107.
58. Monteiro, Carlos Augusto, Geoffrey, Cannon, Jean-claude, Moubarac, Renata Bertazzi, Levy, Maria Laura C., Louzada, and Patrícia Constante, Jaime. 2018. Commentary the UN decade of nutrition, the NOVA food classi Fi cation and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutrition 21 (01):5–17. doi: 10.1017/S1368980017000234.
59. Monteiro, Carlos Augusto, Renata Bertazzi, Levy, Rafael Moreira, Claro, Inês Rugani Ribeiro, de Castro, and Geoffrey, Cannon. 2011. Increasing consumption of ultra-processed foods and likely impact on human health: Evidence from Brazil. Public Health Nutrition 14 (01):5–13. doi: 10.1017/S1368980010003241.
60. Moubarac, Jean-Claude, Diana C., Parra, Geoffrey, Cannon, and Carlos a, Monteiro. 2014. Food classification systems based on food processing: Significance and implications for policies and actions: a systematic literature review and assessment. Current Obesity Reports 3 (2):256–72. doi: 10.1007/s13679-014-0092-0.
61. Musso, Giovanni, Roberto, Gambino, and Maurizio, Cassader. 2010. Obesity, diabetes, and gut microbiota: The hygiene hypothesis expanded? Diabetes Care 33 (10):2277–84. doi: 10.2337/dc10-0556.
62. Nardocci, Milena, Bernard-simon, Leclerc, Maria-laura, Louzada, Carlos Augusto, Monteiro, Malek, Batal, and Jean-claude, Moubarac. 2019. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health 110 (1):4–14. doi:10.17269/s41997-018-0130-x. doi: 10.17269/s41997-018-0130-x.
63. Need, Allan G., Peter D., O'Loughlin, Michael, Horowitz, and B. E. Christopher, Nordin. 2005. Relationship between fasting serum glucose, age, body mass index and serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D in postmenopausal women. Clinical Endocrinology 62 (6):738–41. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2005.02288.x.
64. Ochoa, Melissa, Jean Paul, Lallès, Charles, Henri Malbert, and David, Val-Laillet. 2015. Dietary sugars: Their detection by the gut-brain axis and their peripheral and central effects in health and diseases. European Journal of Nutrition 54 (1):1–24. doi: 10.1007/s00394-014-0776-y.
65. Ortega-Rivas, Enrique. 2012. Non-Thermal food engineering operations. Boston, MA: Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4614-2038-5#about.
66. Ozata, Metin, Mehmet, Mergen, Cagatay, Oktenli, Ahmet, Aydin, S., Yavuz Sanisoglu, Erol, Bolu, M., Ilker Yilmaz, Ahmet, Sayal, Askin, Isimer, and I., Caglayan Ozdemir. 2002. Increased oxidative stress and hypozincemia in male obesity. Clinical Biochemistry 35 (8):627–31. doi: 10.1016/S0009-9120(02)00363-6.
67. Payne, A. N., C., Chassard, and C., Lacroix. 2012. Gut microbial adaptation to dietary consumption of fructose, artificial sweeteners and sugar alcohols: Implications for host-microbe interactions contributing to obesity. Obesity Reviews 13 (9):799–809. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01009.x.
68. Peng, Luying, Zhong-Rong, Li, Robert S., Green, Ian R., Holzman, and Jing, Lin. 2009. Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in caco-2 cell monolayers. The Journal of Nutrition 139 (9):1619–25. doi: 10.3945/jn.109.104638.
69. Pourshahidi, L. Kirsty. 2015. Vitamin D and obesity: Current perspectives and future directions. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 74 (2):115–24. doi: 10.1017/S0029665114001578.
70. Qu, Wanting, Xiaojin, Yuan, Jinsong, Zhao, Yingxiao, Zhang, Jing, Hu, Jiawei, Wang, and Juxiu, Li. 2017. [Dietary advanced glycation end products modify gut microbial composition and partially increase Colon permeability in rats]. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 61 (10):1–36. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201700118.
71. Reed, Spenser, Hadar, Neuman, Sharon, Moscovich, Raymond P., Glahn, Omry, Koren, and Elad, Tako. 2015. Chronic zinc deficiency alters chick gut microbiota composition and function. Nutrients 7 (12):9768–84. doi: 10.3390/nu7125497.
72. Rolls, Bárbara. 2009. The relationship between dietary energy density and energy intake. Physiology & Behavior 97 (5):609–15. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.03.011.The.
73. Saarela, M., L., Lähteenmäki, R., Crittenden, S., Salminen, and T., Mattila-Sandholm. 2002. Gut bacteria and health foods–The European perspective. International Journal of Food Microbiology 78 (1-2):99–117. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00235-0.
74. Sayej, Wael N., Paul R., Knight, Weidun Alan, Guo, Barbara, Mullan, Patricia J., Ohtake, Bruce A., Davidson, Abdur, Khan, Robert D., Baker, and Susan S., Baker. 2016. Advanced glycation end products induce obesity and hepatosteatosis in CD-1 wild-type mice. BioMed Research International 2016:1. doi: 10.1155/2016/7867852.
75. Seiquer, Isabel, José Díaz-alguacil, Cristina Delgado-andrade, Magdalena Lopez-Frias, Antonio Munoz Hoyos, Gabriel Galdo, and Maria Pilar Navarro. 2006. Diets Rich in Maillard Reaction Products Affect Protein Digestibility in Adolescent Males Aged 11–14 Y 1–3. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83:1082–88.
76. Seiquer, Isabel, Luis a, Rubio, M. Jesús, Peinado, Cristina, Delgado-Andrade, and María Pilar, Navarro. 2014. Maillard reaction products modulate gut microbiota composition in adolescents. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 58 (7):1552–60. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201300847.
77. Sharma, Chetan, Amarjeet, Kaur, S. S., Thind, Baljit, Singh, and Shiveta, Raina. 2015. Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs): An emerging concern for processed food industries. Journal of Food Science and Technology 52 (12):7561–76. doi: 10.1007/s13197-015-1851-y.
78. Singh, Ratnesh Kumar, and Seiichi, Ishikawa. 2016. Food additive P-80 impacts mouse gut microbiota promoting intestinal inflammation, obesity and liver dysfunction. SOJ Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 4 (1):01–10. doi: 10.15226/sojmid/4/1/00148.
79. Sonneburg, Erica D., Hongjun, Zheng, Payal, Joglekar, Steven, Higginbottom, Susan J., Firbank, Daniel N., Bolami, and Justin L., Sonnenburg. 2010. Specificity of polysaccharide use in intestinal bacteroides species determines Diet-Induced microbiota alterations. Cell 141 (7):1241–52. doi: 10.1007/s11103-011-9767-z.Plastid.
80. Spencer, Marisa, Amit Gupta, Lauren Van Dam, Carol Shannon, Stacy Menees, and William D. Chey. 2016. Artificial Sweeteners: A Systematic Review and Primer for Gastroenterologists. Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility 22 (2):168–80. doi:10.5056/jnm15206.
81. Spruss, Astrid, Giridhar, Kanuri, Sabine, Wagnerberger, Synia, Haub, Stephan C., Bischoff, and Ina, Bergheim. 2009. Toll-like receptor 4 is involved in the development of fructose-induced hepatic steatosis in mice. Hepatology 50 (4):1094–104. doi: 10.1002/hep.23122.
82. Stellman, S. D., and L., Garfinkel. 1986. Artificial sweetener use and One-Year weight change among women. Preventive Medicine 15 (2):195–202. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3714671. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(86)90089-7.
83. Suez, Jotham, Tal, Korem, David, Zeevi, Gili, Zilberman-Schapira, Christoph A., Thaiss, Ori, Maza, David, Israeli, Niv, Zmora, Shlomit, Gilad, Adina, Weinberger, et al. 2014. Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. Nature 514 (7521):181–6. doi: 10.1038/nature13793.
84. Suez, Jotham, Tal, Korem, Gili, Zilberman-Schapira, Eran, Segal, and Eran, Elinav. 2015. Non-caloric artificial sweeteners and the microbiome: Findings and challenges. Gut Microbes 6 (2):149–55. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2015.1017700.
85. Swidsinski, Alexander, Victoria, Ung, Beate C., Sydora, Vera, Loening-Baucke, Yvonne, Doerffel, Hans, Verstraelen, and Richard N., Fedorak. 2009. Bacterial overgrowth and inflammation of small intestine after carboxymethylcellulose ingestion in genetically susceptible mice. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 15 (3):359–64. doi: 10.1002/ibd.20763.
86. The European Parliament, and The Council of the European Union. 2008. Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of The Council of 16 December 2008. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008R1333&from=EN.
87. Tilg, H., and A., Kaser. 2011. Gut microbiome, obesity, and metabolic dysfunction. Journal of Clinical Investigation 121 (6):2126–32. doi: 10.1172/JCI58109.2126.
88. Tremaroli, Valentina, and Fredrik, Bäckhed. 2012. Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature 489 (7415):242–9. doi: 10.1038/nature11552.
89. Turnbaugh, Peter J., Ruth E., Ley, Michael A., Mahowald, Vincent, Magrini, Elaine R., Mardis, and Jeffrey I., Gordon. 2006. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444 (7122):1027–31. doi: 10.1038/nature05414.
90. Uribarri, Jaime, Weijing, Cai, Mark, Woodward, Elizabeth, Tripp, Laurie, Goldberg, Renata, Pyzik, Kalle, Yee, Laurie, Tansman, Xue, Chen, Venkatesh, Mani, et al. 2015. Elevated serum advanced glycation endproducts in obese indicate risk for the metabolic syndrome: A link between healthy and unhealthy obesity? Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 100 (5):1957–66. doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-3925.
91. Uribarri, Jaime, Sandra, Woodruf, Susan, Goodman, Weijing, Cai, Xue, Chen, Renata, Pyzik, Angie, Yong, Gary E., Striker, and Helen, Vlassara. 2010. Advanced glycation end products in foods and a practical guide to their reduction in the diet. J Am Diet Assoc 110 (6):911–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018.Advanced.
92. Via, Michael. 2012. The malnutrition of obesity: Micronutrient deficiencies that promote diabetes. ISRN Endocrinology 2012:1–8. doi: 10.5402/2012/103472.
93. Viennois, Emilie, Didier, Merlin, Andrew T., Gewirtz, and Benoit, Chassaing. 2017. Dietary emulsifier-induced low-grade inflammation promotes colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Research 77 (1):27–40. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-16-1359.
94. Villaça Chaves, Gabriela, Silvia Elaine, Pereira, Carlos José, Saboya, and Andréa, Ramalho. 2008. Non-Alcoholic fatty liver disease and its relationship with the nutritional status of vitamin a in individuals with class III obesity. Obesity Surgery 18 (4):378–85. doi: 10.1007/s11695-007-9361-2.
95. Viroonudomphol, D., P., Pongpaew, R., Tungtrongchitr, S., Changbumrung, A., Tungtrongchitr, B., Phonrat, N., Vudhivai, and F. P., Schelp. 2003. The relationships between anthropometric measurements, serum vitamin a and E concentrations and lipid profiles in overweight and obese subjects. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 12 (1):73–9.
96. Vlassara, Helen, and Jaime, Uribarri. 2014. Advanced glycation end products (AGE) and diabetes: Cause, effect, or both? Current Diabetes Reports 14 (1):453doi:10.1007/s11103-011-9767-z.Plastid.
97. Wanders, A. J., J. J. G. C., van den Borne, C., de Graaf, T., Hulshof, M. C., Jonathan, M., Kristensen, M., Mars, H. A., Schols, and E. J. M., Feskens. 2011. Effects of dietary fibre on subjective appetite, energy intake and body weight: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Obesity Reviews 12 (9):724–39. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00895.x.
98. WHO/FAO. 2002. Food energy–Methods of analysis and conversion. Report of a technical workshop. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 93, Rome. ISSN: 0254-4725.
99. Wu, G. D., J., Chen, C., Hoffmann, K., Bittinger, Y.-Y., Chen, S. A., Keilbaugh, M., Bewtra, D., Knights, W. A., Walters, R., Knight, et al. 2011. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science 334 (6052):105–8. doi: 10.1126/science.1208344.
100. Zhang, Husen, Joshua B., Sparks, Saikumar V., Karyala, Robert, Settlage, and Xin M., Luo. 2015. Host adaptive immunity alters gut microbiota. The ISME Journal 9 (3):770–81. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2014.165.
101. Zinöcker, Marit K., and Inge A., Lindseth. 2018. The Western diet–Microbiome-host interaction and its role in metabolic disease. Nutrients 10 (3):E365. doi: 10.3390/nu10030365.