Ethnopharmacological approaches for dementia therapy and significance of natural products and herbal drugs

Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience

Volumn 10, Issue FEB, 2018, Pages

  Tewari, Devesh ^a   Stankiewicz, Adrian M ^b   Mocan, Andrei ^c,d   Sah, Archana N ^a   Tzvetkov, Nikolay T ^e   Huminiecki, Lukasz ^b   Horbanczuk, Jaroslaw O ^b   Atanasov, Atanas G ^b,f  

^a KUMAUN UNIVERSITY   (India)

^b INSTITUTE OF GENETICS AND ANIMAL BREEDING   (Poland)

^c IULIU HATIEGANU UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY   (Romania)

^d UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES AND VETERINARY MEDICINE   (Romania)

^e INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY   (Bulgaria)

^f UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid fibrils; Dementia; Ethnopharmacology; Herbal drugs; amyloid

Indexed keywords

ACORUS CALAMUS EXTRACT; AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA EXTRACT; AGAPANTHUS AFRICANUS EXTRACT; AMMOCHARIS CORANICA EXTRACT; ANANAS COMOSUS EXTRACT; ANGELICA ARCHANGELICA EXTRACT; ANGELICA SINENSIS EXTRACT; ANNONA SENEGALENSIS EXTRACT; ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM EXTRACT; ASPARAGUS AFRICANUS EXTRACT; ASPARAGUS CONCINNUS EXTRACT; BACOPA MONNIERI EXTRACT; BARBIERIA PINNATA EXTRACT; BOOPHONE DISTICHA EXTRACT; CURCUMIN; DONEPEZIL; DONEPEZIL PLUS MEMANTINE; GALANTAMINE; GINSENOSIDE; GLYCYRRHIZIC ACID; HALOPERIDOL; MEMANDO; MEMANTINE; NOOTROPIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PLANT EXTRACT; PLATYCLADUS ORIENTALIS EXTRACT; RISPERIDONE; RIVASTIGMINE; SINECATECHINS; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACORUS CALAMUS; AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA; AGAPANTHUS AFRICANUS; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMARYLLIDACEAE; AMMOCHARIS CORANICA; ANGELICA ARCHANGELICA; ANGELICA SINENSIS; ANNONA SENEGALENSIS; ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM; ASPARAGUS (GENUS); ASPARAGUS AFRICANUS; ASPARAGUS CONCINNUS; BACOPA MONNIERI; BARBIERIA PINNATA; BOOPHONE DISTICHA; BRADYCARDIA; CAMELLIA SINENSIS; CONFUSION; CONSTIPATION; CUPRESSACEAE; CURCUMA; DEMENTIA; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; DIZZINESS; DRUG DATABASE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG STRUCTURE; ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY; FABACEAE; FAINTNESS; GINKGO BILOBA; GINSENG; GLYCYRRHIZA; HEADACHE; HERBAL MEDICINE; HUMAN; LOSS OF APPETITE; MEDICINAL PLANT; MUSCLE DISEASE; NAUSEA; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; PINEAPPLE; PLATYCLADUS ORIENTALIS; PROBLEM BEHAVIOR; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SPECIES DIVERSITY; STOMACH ACID SECRETION; VOMITING; ZINGIBERACEAE;

EID: 85042408183     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16634365     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00003     Document Type: Review

References (283)

1. Abbott, A. (2011). Dementia: a problem for our age. Nature 475, S2-S4. doi: 10.1038/475S2a
2. Abdel-Kader, R., Hauptmann, S., Keil, U., Scherping, I., Leuner, K., Eckert, A., et al. (2007). Stabilization of mitochondrial function by Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761). Pharmacol. Res. 56, 493-502. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2007.09.011
3. Abdou, H. M., Yousef, M. I., El Mekkawy, D. A., and Al-Shami, A. S. (2016). Prophylactic neuroprotective efficiency of co-administration of Ginkgo biloba and Trifolium pretense against sodium arsenite-induced neurotoxicity and dementia in different regions of brain and spinal cord of rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 94, 112-127. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.05.015
4. Adams, M., Gmünder, F., and Hamburger, M. (2007). Plants traditionally used in age related brain disorders-a survey of ethnobotanical literature. J. Ethnopharmacol. 113, 363-381. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.07.016
5. Adsersen, A., Gauguin, B., Gudiksen, L., and Jäger, A. K. (2006). Screening of plants used in Danish folk medicine to treat memory dysfunction for acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 104, 418-422. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2005.09.032
6. Ahlemeyer, B., and Krieglstein, J. (2003). Neuroprotective effects of Ginkgo biloba extract. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. C. 60, 1779-1792. doi: 10.1007/s00018-003-3080-1
7. Akhondzadeh, S., Noroozian, M., Mohammadi, M., Ohadinia, S., Jamshidi, A. H., and Khani, M. (2003). Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 28, 53-59. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2710.2003.00463.x
8. Akinyemi, A. J., Oboh, G., Oyeleye, S. I., and Ogunsuyi, O. (2017). Anti-amnestic effect of curcumin in combination with donepezil, an anticholinesterase drug: involvement of cholinergic system. Neurotox. Res. 31, 560-569. doi: 10.1007/s12640-017-9701-5
9. Alam, M. M., Okazaki, K., Nguyen, L. T. T., Ota, N., Kitamura, H., Murakami, S., et al. (2017). Glucocorticoid receptor signaling represses the antioxidant response by inhibiting histone acetylation mediated by the transcriptional activator NRF2. J. Biol. Chem. 292, 7519-7530. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M116.773960
10. Albuquerque, E. X., Santos, M. D., Alkondon, M., Pereira, E. F., and Maelicke, A. (2001). Modulation of nicotinic receptor activity in the central nervous system: a novel approach to the treatment of Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 15(Suppl. 1), S19-25. doi: 10.1097/00002093-200108001-00004
11. Aminzadeh, M., Roghani, M., Sarfallah, A., and Riazi, G. H. (2018). TRPM2 dependence of ROS-induced NLRP3 activation in Alzheimer's disease. Int. Immunopharmacol. 54, 78-85. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2017.10.024
12. Amri, H., Ogwuegbu, S. O., Boujrad, N., Drieu, K., and Papadopoulos, V. (1996). In vivo regulation of peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor and glucocorticoid synthesis by Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 and isolated ginkgolides. Endocrinology 137, 5707-5718. doi: 10.1210/endo.137.12.8940403
13. Anjomshoa, S., Namazian, M., and Noorbala, M. R. (2016). The effect of solvent on tautomerism, acidity and radical stability of curcumin and its derivatives based on thermodynamic quantities. J. Solution Chem. 45, 1021-1030. doi: 10.1007/s10953-016-0481-y
14. Antico Arciuch, V. G., Elguero, M. E., Poderoso, J. J., and Carreras, M. C. (2012). Mitochondrial regulation of cell cycle and proliferation. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 16, 1150-1180. doi: 10.1089/ars.2011.4085
15. Aravindan, N., Madhusoodhanan, R., Ahmad, S., Johnson, D., and Herman, T. S. (2008). Curcumin inhibits NFκB mediated radioprotection and modulate apoptosis related genes in human neuroblastoma cells. Cancer Biol. Ther. 7, 569-576. doi: 10.4161/cbt.7.4.5534
16. Asl, M. N., and Hosseinzadeh, H. (2008). Review of pharmacological effects of Glycyrrhiza sp. and its bioactive compounds. Phyther. Res. 22, 709-724. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2362
17. Atanasov, A. G., Waltenberger, B., Pferschy-Wenzig, E.-M., Linder, T., Wawrosch, C., Uhrin, P., et al. (2015). Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: a review. Biotechnol. Adv. 33, 1582-1614. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001
18. Ayoub, S., and Melzig, M. F. (2006). Induction of neutral endopeptidase (NEP) activity of SK-N-SH cells by natural compounds from green tea. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 58, 495-501. doi: 10.1211/jpp.58.4.0009
19. Ballard, C., and Howard, R. (2006). Neuroleptic drugs in dementia: benefits and harm. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 492-500. doi: 10.1038/nrn1926
20. Baloh, R. H. (2011). TDP-43: the relationship between protein aggregation and neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal lobar degeneration. FEBS J. 278, 3539-3549. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08256.x
21. Banasch, M., Ellrichmann, M., Tannapfel, A., Schmidt, W. E., and Goetze, O. (2011). The non-invasive (13)C-methionine breath test detects hepatic mitochondrial dysfunction as a marker of disease activity in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Eur. J. Med. Res. 16:258. doi: 10.1186/2047-783X-16-6-258
22. Bartus, R. T., Dean, R. L. III., Beer, B., and Lippa, A. S. (1982). The cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction. Science 217, 408-414. doi: 10.1126/science.7046051
23. Beal, M. F. (2005). Mitochondria take center stage in aging and neurodegeneration. Ann. Neurol. 58, 495-505. doi: 10.1002/ana.20624
24. Belkacemi, A., Doggui, S., Dao, L., and Ramassamy, C. (2011). Challenges associated with curcumin therapy in Alzheimer disease. Expert Rev. Mol. Med. 13, e34. doi: 10.1017/S1462399411002055
25. Bennett, S., Grant, M. M., and Aldred, S. (2009). Oxidative stress in vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease: a common pathology. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 17, 245-257. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2009-1041
26. Berridge, M. J. (1995). Calcium signalling and cell proliferation. Bioessays 17, 491-500. doi: 10.1002/bies.950170605
27. Berridge, M. J. (2011). Calcium signalling and Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem. Res. 36, 1149-1156. doi: 10.1007/s11064-010-0371-4
28. Blennow, K., de Leon, M. J., and Zetterberg, H. (2006). Alzheimer's disease. Lancet (London, England) 368, 387-403. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69113-7
29. Blumenthal, M., Goldberg, A., and Brinkmann, J. (2000). Herbal Medicine, Expanded Commission E Monographs Cd-Rom. Austin, TX: American Botanical Council/Integrative Medical
30. Bridi, R., Crossetti, F. P., Steffen, V. M., and Henriques, A. T. (2001). The antioxidant activity of standardized extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb 761) in rats. Phytother. Res. 15, 449-451. doi: 10.1002/ptr.814
31. Brondino, N., Re, S., Boldrini, A., Cuccomarino, A., Lanati, N., Barale, F., et al. (2014). Curcumin as a therapeutic agent in dementia: a mini systematic review of human studies. Sci. World J. 2014:174282. doi: 10.1155/2014/174282
32. Brun, A. (1987). Frontal lobe degeneration of non-Alzheimer type. I. Neuropathology. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 6, 193-208. doi: 10.1016/0167-4943(87)90021-5
33. Burgess, L., Page, S., and Hardman, P. (2002). Changing attitudes in dementia care and the role of nurses. Nurs. Times 99, 18-19
34. Burte, F., Carelli, V., Chinnery, P. F., and Yu-Wai-Man, P. (2015). Disturbed mitochondrial dynamics and neurodegenerative disorders. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 11, 11-24. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2014.228
35. Butterfield, D. A., Swomley, A. M., and Sultana, R. (2013). Amyloid beta-peptide (1-42)-induced oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease: importance in disease pathogenesis and progression. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 19, 823-835. doi: 10.1089/ars.2012.5027
36. Cai, H., Cong, W., Ji, S., Rothman, S., Maudsley, S., and Martin, B. (2012). Metabolic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative disorders. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 9, 5-17. doi: 10.2174/156720512799015064
37. Callender, V. D., St Surin-Lord, S., Davis, E. C., and Maclin, M. (2011). Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation: etiologic and therapeutic considerations. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 12, 87-99. doi: 10.2165/11536930-000000000-00000
38. CESA (1992). Usos Tradicionales de las Especies Forestales Nativas en el Ecuador. Tomo II. CESA: Central Ecuatoriana de Servicios Agrícolas
39. CESA (1993). Usos Tradicionales de las Especies Forestales Nativas en el Ecuador. Tomo III. CESA: Central Ecuatoriana de Servicios Agrícolas
40. Chacko, S. M., Thambi, P. T., Kuttan, R., and Nishigaki, I. (2010). Beneficial effects of green tea: a literature review. Chin. Med. 5:13. doi: 10.1186/1749-8546-5-13
41. Chan, D. C. (2006). Mitochondria: dynamic organelles in disease, aging, and development. Cell 125, 1241-1252. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2006.06.010
42. Chandrasekaran, K., Mehrabian, Z., Spinnewyn, B., Chinopoulos, C., Drieu, K., and Fiskum, G. (2003). Neuroprotective effects of bilobalide, a component of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761®) in global brain ischemia and in excitotoxicity-induced neuronal death. Pharmacopsychiatry 36, 89-94. doi: 10.1055/s-2003-40447
43. Chang, H.-M., But, P. P. H., and Yao, S.-C. (1986). Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Materia Medica. Singapore: World Scientific
44. Chang, K.-H., Chen, I.-C., Lin, H.-Y., Chen, H.-C., Lin, C.-H., Lin, T.-H., et al. (2016). The aqueous extract of Glycyrrhiza inflata can upregulate unfolded protein response-mediated chaperones to reduce tau misfolding in cell models of Alzheimer's disease. Drug Des. Devel. Ther. 10, 885-896. doi: 10.2147/DDDT.S96454
45. Chen, C.-M., Weng, Y.-T., Chen, W.-L., Lin, T.-H., Chao, C.-Y., Lin, C.-H., et al. (2014). Aqueous extract of Glycyrrhiza inflata inhibits aggregation by upregulating PPARGC1A and NFE2L2-ARE pathways in cell models of spinocerebellar ataxia 3. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 71, 339-350. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.03.023
46. Chen, F., Eckman, E. A., and Eckman, C. B. (2006). Reductions in levels of the Alzheimer's amyloid beta peptide after oral administration of ginsenosides. FASEB J. Off. Publ. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 20, 1269-1271. doi: 10.1096/fj.05-5530fje
47. Chen, J. X., and Yan, S. S. (2010). Role of mitochondrial amyloid-beta in Alzheimer's disease. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 20(Suppl. 2), S569-S578. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2010-100357
48. Chevallier, A. (1996). The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. London: Dorling Kindersley publishers
49. Chin, D., Huebbe, P., Pallauf, K., and Rimbach, G. (2013). Neuroprotective properties of curcumin in Alzheimer's disease-merits and limitations. Curr. Med. Chem. 20, 3955-3985. doi: 10.2174/09298673113209990210
50. Chrusciel, M., and Varagic, V. (1966). The effect of galantamine on the blood pressure of the rat. Br. J. Pharmacol. 26, 295-301. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1966.tb01908.x
51. Corder, E. H., Saunders, A. M., Strittmatter, W. J., Schmechel, D. E., Gaskell, P. C., Small, G. W., et al. (1993). Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families. Science 261, 921-923
52. Corrada, M. M., Brookmeyer, R., Paganini-Hill, A., Berlau, D., and Kawas, C. H. (2010). Dementia incidence continues to increase with age in the oldest old: the 90+ study. Ann. Neurol. 67, 114-121. doi: 10.1002/ana.21915
53. Cox, K. H. M., Pipingas, A., and Scholey, A. B. (2015). Investigation of the effects of solid lipid curcumin on cognition and mood in a healthy older population. J. Psychopharmacol. 29, 642-651. doi: 10.1177/0269881114552744
54. Cummings, J., Aisen, P. S., DuBois, B., Frölich, L., Jack, C. R., Jones, R. W., et al. (2016). Drug development in Alzheimer's disease: the path to 2025. Alzheimer's Res. Ther. 8:39. doi: 10.1186/s13195-016-0207-9
55. Dai, D.-F., Chiao, Y. A., Marcinek, D. J., Szeto, H. H., and Rabinovitch, P. S. (2014). Mitochondrial oxidative stress in aging and healthspan. Longev. Heal. 3:6. doi: 10.1186/2046-2395-3-6
56. Damasio, A. R., and Gabrowski, T. J. (2004). "Definition, clinical features and neuroanatomical basis of dementia," in The Neuropathology of Dementia, eds M. M. Esiri, V. M.-Y. Lee, and J. Q. Trojanowski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 1-34
57. Dandekar, A., Mendez, R., and Zhang, K. (2015). Cross talk between ER stress, oxidative stress, and inflammation in health and disease. Methods Mol. Biol. 1292, 205-214. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2522-3_15
58. Danysz, W., and Parsons, C. G. (2003). The NMDA receptor antagonist memantine as a symptomatological and neuroprotective treatment for Alzheimer's disease: preclinical evidence. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 18, S23-S32. doi: 10.1002/gps.938
59. Daverey, A., and Agrawal, S. K. (2016). Curcumin alleviates oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in astrocytes. Neuroscience 333, 92-103. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.07.012
60. Dávila, D., Fernández, S., and Torres-Alemán, I. (2016). Astrocyte resilience to oxidative stress induced by insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) involves preserved AKT (protein kinase B) activity. J. Biol. Chem. 291, 12039. doi: 10.1074/jbc.A115.695478
61. de Barradas, J. P. (1957). Plantas Mágicas Americanas. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto "Bernardino de Sahagún."
62. de Mejia, E. G., Ramirez-Mares, M. V., and Puangpraphant, S. (2009). Bioactive components of tea: cancer, inflammation and behavior. Brain. Behav. Immun. 23, 721-731. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.02.013
63. Dhingra, D., Parle, M., and Kulkarni, S. K. (2004). Memory enhancing activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in mice. J. Ethnopharmacol. 91, 361-365. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.01.016
64. Dkhar, P., and Sharma, R. (2010). Effect of dimethylsulphoxide and curcumin on protein carbonyls and reactive oxygen species of cerebral hemispheres of mice as a function of age. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 28, 351-357. doi: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2010.04.005
65. Doggui, S., Belkacemi, A., Paka, G. D., Perrotte, M., Pi, R., and Ramassamy, C. (2013). Curcumin protects neuronal-like cells against acrolein by restoring Akt and redox signaling pathways. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 57, 1660-1670. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201300130
66. Dolgin, E. (2016). How to defeat dementia. Nature 539, 156-158. doi: 10.1038/539156a
67. Domoráková, I., Burda, J., Mechírová, E., and Feriková, M. (2006). Mapping of rat hippocampal neurons with NeuN after ischemia/reperfusion and Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) pretreatment. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 26, 1191-1202. doi: 10.1007/s10571-006-9080-6
68. Dong, S., Zeng, Q., Mitchell, E. S., Xiu, J., Duan, Y., Li, C., et al. (2012). Curcumin enhances neurogenesis and cognition in aged rats: implications for transcriptional interactions related to growth and synaptic plasticity. PLoS ONE 7:e31211. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031211
69. Doody, R. S., Stevens, J. C., Beck, C., Dubinsky, R. M., Kaye, J. A., Gwyther, L., et al. (2001). Practice parameter: management of dementia (an evidence-based review) Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 56, 1154-1166. doi: 10.1212/WNL.56.9.1154
70. Dragicevic, N., Smith, A., Lin, X., Yuan, F., Copes, N., Delic, V., et al. (2011). Green tea epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) and other flavonoids reduce Alzheimer's amyloid-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 26, 507-521. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2011-101629
71. Dringen, R. (2000). Metabolism and functions of glutathione in brain. Prog. Neurobiol. 62, 649-671. doi: 10.1016/S0301-0082(99)00060-X
72. Duke, J. A., and Ayensu, E. S. (1985). Medicinal Plants of China. Algonac: Reference Publications
73. Eckert, A., Keil, U., Scherping, I., Hauptmann, S., and Muller, W. E. (2005). Stabilization of mitochondrial membrane potential and improvement of neuronal energy metabolism by Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1056, 474-485. doi: 10.1196/annals.1352.023
74. Eckert, G. P., Schiborr, C., Hagl, S., Abdel-Kader, R., Muller, W. E., Rimbach, G., et al. (2013). Curcumin prevents mitochondrial dysfunction in the brain of the senescence-accelerated mouse-prone 8. Neurochem. Int. 62, 595-602. doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2013.02.014
75. Egashira, N., Hayakawa, K., Osajima, M., Mishima, K., Iwasaki, K., Oishi, R., et al. (2007). Involvement of GABA(A) receptors in the neuroprotective effect of theanine on focal cerebral ischemia in mice. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 105, 211-214. doi: 10.1254/jphs.SCZ070901
76. Egashira, N., Ishigami, N., Pu, F., Mishima, K., Iwasaki, K., Orito, K., et al. (2008). Theanine prevents memory impairment induced by repeated cerebral ischemia in rats. Phytother. Res. 22, 65-68. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2261
77. Ezoulin, M. J. M., Ombetta, J.-E., Dutertre-Catella, H., Warnet, J.-M., and Massicot, F. (2008). Antioxidative properties of galantamine on neuronal damage induced by hydrogen peroxide in SK-N-SH cells. Neurotoxicology 29, 270-277. doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2007.11.004
78. Farkas, E., and Luiten, P. G. (2001). Cerebral microvascular pathology in aging and Alzheimer's disease. Prog. Neurobiol. 64, 575-611. doi: 10.1016/S0301-0082(00)00068-X
79. Fatumbi, P. V. P. (1995). Ewé: The Use of Plants in Yoruba Society. Salvador: Oderbrecht
80. Favaloro, B., Allocati, N., Graziano, V., Di Ilio, C., and De Laurenzi, V. (2012). Role of Apoptosis in disease. Aging (Albany NY) 4, 330-349. doi: 10.18632/aging.100459
81. Finkler, K. (1985). Spiritualist Healers in Mexico: Successes and Failures of Alternative Therapeutics. Salem, WI: Praeger Publishers
82. Fox, C., Crugel, M., Maidment, I., Auestad, B. H., Coulton, S., Treloar, A., et al. (2012). Efficacy of memantine for agitation in Alzheimer's dementia: a randomised double-blind placebo controlled trial. PLoS ONE 7:e35185. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035185
83. Franzblau, M., Gonzales-Portillo, C., Gonzales-Portillo, G. S., Diamandis, T., Borlongan, M. C., Tajiri, N., et al. (2013). Vascular damage: a persisting pathology common to Alzheimer's disease and traumatic brain injury. Med. Hypotheses 81, 842-845. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2013.09.012
84. Fuchs, L. (1543). Kräuterbuch. Michael Isingrin. Basel
85. Gao, H.-M., Zhou, H., and Hong, J.-S. (2014). "Oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration," in Neuroinflammation, and Neurodegeneration, eds P. K. Peterson and M. Toborek (New York, NY: Springer New York), 81-104
86. Gate, D., Rezai-Zadeh, K., Jodry, D., Rentsendorj, A., and Town, T. (2010). Macrophages in Alzheimer's disease: the blood-borne identity. J. Neural Transm. 117, 961-970. doi: 10.1007/s00702-010-0422-7
87. Geeganage, C., Wilcox, R., and Bath, P. M. W. (2010). Triple antiplatelet therapy for preventing vascular events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 8:36. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-8-36
88. Giacobini, E. (2004). Cholinesterase inhibitors: new roles and therapeutic alternatives. Pharmacol. Res. 50, 433-440. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2003.11.017
89. Giri, M., Zhang, M., and Lu, Y. (2016). Genes associated with Alzheimer's disease: an overview and current status. Clin. Interv. Aging 11, 665-681. doi: 10.2147/CIA.S105769
90. Goenka, P., Sarawgi, A., Karun, V., Nigam, A. G., Dutta, S., and Marwah, N. (2013). Camellia sinensis (Tea): implications and role in preventing dental decay. Pharmacogn. Rev. 7, 152-156. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.120515
91. Gómez-Sámano, M. á., Grajales-Gómez, M., Zuarth-Vázquez, J. M., Navarro-Flores, M. F., Martínez-Saavedra, M., Juárez-León, ó. A., et al. (2017). Fibroblast growth factor 21 and its novel association with oxidative stress. Redox Biol. 11, 335-341. doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2016.12.024
92. González Ayala, J. C. (1994). Botánica Medicinal Popular: Etnobotánica Medicinal de El Salvador. Jardín Botànico La Laguna
93. Grand, J. H., Caspar, S., and Macdonald, S. W. (2011). Clinical features and multidisciplinary approaches to dementia care. J Multidiscip Heal. 2011, 125-147. doi: 10.2147/JMDH.S17773
94. Guan, R., Zhao, Y., Zhang, H., Fan, G., Liu, X., Zhou, W., et al. (2016). Draft genome of the living fossil Ginkgo biloba. Gigascience 5, 49. doi: 10.1186/s13742-016-0154-1
95. Gurib-Fakim, A. (2006). Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol. Aspects Med. 27, 1-93. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.008
96. Hajnoczky, G., Davies, E., and Madesh, M. (2003). Calcium signaling and apoptosis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 304, 445-454. doi: 10.1016/S0006-291X(03)00616-8
97. Hardy, J. A., and Higgins, G. A. (1992). Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis. Science (256, 184
98. Haskell, C. F., Kennedy, D. O., Milne, A. L., Wesnes, K. A., and Scholey, A. B. (2008). The effects of L-theanine, caffeine and their combination on cognition and mood. Biol. Psychol. 77, 113-122. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.09.008
99. Heim, C., Khan, M. A., Motsch, B., Gocht, A., Ramsperger-Gleixner, M., Stamminger, T., et al. (2017). microvascular integrity can be preserved by anti-platelet therapy and in combination with mTOR inhibitor. J. Hear. Lung Transplant. 36, S376. doi: 10.1016/j.healun.2017.01.1069
100. Hikino, H. (1985). Recent research on oriental medicinal plants. Econ. Med. Plant. Res. 1, 53-85
101. Hoppe, J. B., Coradini, K., Frozza, R. L., Oliveira, C. M., Meneghetti, A. B., Bernardi, A., et al. (2013a). Free and nanoencapsulated curcumin suppress beta-amyloid-induced cognitive impairments in rats: involvement of BDNF and Akt/GSK-3beta signaling pathway. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 106, 134-144. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.08.001
102. Hoppe, J. B., Haag, M., Whalley, B. J., Salbego, C. G., and Cimarosti, H. (2013b). Curcumin protects organotypic hippocampal slice cultures from Abeta1-42-induced synaptic toxicity. Toxicol. In Vitro 27, 2325-2330. doi: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.10.002
103. Howard, R. J., Juszczak, E., Ballard, C. G., Bentham, P., Brown, R. G., Bullock, R., et al. (2007). Donepezil for the treatment of agitation in Alzheimer's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 357, 1382-1392. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa066583
104. Howes, M.-J. R., and Houghton, P. J. (2003). Plants used in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine for improvement of memory and cognitive function. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 75, 513-527. doi: 10.1016/S0091-3057(03)00128-X
105. Howes, M.-J. R., and Perry, E. (2011). The role of phytochemicals in the treatment and prevention of dementia. Drugs Aging 28, 439-468. doi: 10.2165/11591310-000000000-00000
106. Howes, M. R., Perry, N. S. L., and Houghton, P. J. (2003). Plants with traditional uses and activities, relevant to the management of Alzheimer's disease and other cognitive disorders. Phyther. Res. 17, 1-18. doi: 10.1002/ptr.1280
107. Huang, H.-C., Tang, D., Xu, K., and Jiang, Z.-F. (2014). Curcumin attenuates amyloid-beta-induced tau hyperphosphorylation in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells involving PTEN/Akt/GSK-3beta signaling pathway. J. Recept. Signal Transduct. Res. 34, 26-37. doi: 10.3109/10799893.2013.848891
108. Hügel, H. M., and Jackson, N. (2015). Polyphenols for the prevention and treatment of dementia diseases. Neural Regen. Res. 10, 1756-1758. doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.169609
109. Huminiecki, L., Horbanczuk, J., and Atanasov, A. G. (2017). The functional genomic studies of curcumin. Semin. Cancer Biol. 46, 107-118. doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2017.04.002
110. Hung, C. H.-L., Cheng, S. S.-Y., Cheung, Y.-T., Wuwongse, S., Zhang, N. Q., Ho, Y.-S., et al. (2018). A reciprocal relationship between reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial dynamics in neurodegeneration. Redox Biol. 14, 7-19. doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2017.08.010
111. Hurd, M. D., Martorell, P., and Langa, K. M. (2013). Monetary costs of dementia in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 369, 489-490. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1305541
112. Iadecola, C. (2013). The pathobiology of vascular dementia. Neuron 80, 844-866. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.008
113. IARC Working Group (2016). Some Drugs and Herbal Products. Lyon: Ginkgo Biloba. International Agency for Research and Cancer (IARC) Monographs, WHO
114. Ibrahim, F., Knight, S. R., and Cramer, R. L. (2012). Addressing the controversial use of antipsychotic drugs for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. J. Pharm. Technol. 28, 3-9. doi: 10.1177/875512251202800102
115. Ihl, R., Tribanek, M., and Bachinskaya, N. (2012). Efficacy and tolerability of a once daily formulation of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761(R) in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: results from a randomised controlled trial. Pharmacopsychiatry 45, 41-46. doi: 10.1055/s-0031-1291217
116. Ikarashi, Y., and Mizoguchi, K. (2016). Neuropharmacological efficacy of the traditional Japanese Kampo medicine yokukansan and its active ingredients. Pharmacol. Ther. 166, 84-95. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.06.018
117. Iqbal, K., Liu, F., and Gong, C.-X. (2016). Tau and neurodegenerative disease: the story so far. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 12, 15-27. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2015.225
118. Iqbal, K., Liu, F., Gong, C.-X., and Grundke-Iqbal, I. (2010). Tau in Alzheimer disease and related tauopathies. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 7, 656-664. doi: 10.2174/156720510793611592
119. Isah, T. (2015). Rethinking Ginkgo biloba L.: medicinal uses and conservation. Pharmacogn. Rev. 9, 140-148. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.162137
120. Izzo, A. A. (2012). Interactions between herbs and conventional drugs: overview of the clinical data. Med. Princ. Pract. 21, 404-428. doi: 10.1159/000334488
121. Jahanshahi, M., Nickmahzar, E. G., and Babakordi, F. (2013). Effect of Gingko biloba extract on scopolamine-induced apoptosis in the hippocampus of rats. Anat. Sci. Int. 88, 217-222. doi: 10.1007/s12565-013-0188-8
122. Jahanshahi, M., Nikmahzar, E., Yadollahi, N., and Ramazani, K. (2012). Protective effects of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGB 761) on astrocytes of rat hippocampus after exposure with scopolamine. Anat. Cell Biol. 45, 92-96. doi: 10.5115/acb.2012.45.2.92
123. Jelenkovic, A., Jovanovic, M. D., Stevanovic, I., Petronijevic, N., Bokonjic, D., Zivkovic, J., et al. (2014). Influence of the green tea leaf extract on neurotoxicity of aluminium chloride in rats. Phytother. Res. 28, 82-87. doi: 10.1002/ptr.4962
124. Ju, H. S., Li, X. J., Zhao, B. L., Han, Z. W., and Xin, W. J. (1989). Effects of glycyrrhiza flavonoid on lipid peroxidation and active oxygen radicals. Yao Xue Xue Bao 24, 807-812
125. Kanno, H., Kawakami, Z., Tabuchi, M., Mizoguchi, K., Ikarashi, Y., and Kase, Y. (2015). Protective effects of glycycoumarin and procyanidin B1, active components of traditional Japanese medicine yokukansan, on amyloid beta oligomer-induced neuronal death. J. Ethnopharmacol. 159, 122-128. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.058
126. Kanowski, S., Herrmann, W. M., Stephan, K., Wierich, W., and Horr, R. (1996). Proof of efficacy of the Ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 in outpatients suffering from mild to moderate primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type or multi-infarct dementia. Pharmacopsychiatry 29, 47-56. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-979544
127. Katsel, P., Tan, W., Fam, P., Purohit, D. P., and Haroutunian, V. (2013). Cell cycle checkpoint abnormalities during dementia: a plausible association with the loss of protection against oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease [corrected]. PLoS ONE 8:e68361. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068361
128. Kaur, U., Banerjee, P., Bir, A., Sinha, M., Biswas, A., and Chakrabarti, S. (2015). Reactive oxygen species, redox signaling and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease: the NF-kappaB connection. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 15, 446-457. doi: 10.2174/1568026615666150114160543
129. Kihara, T., and Shimohama, S. (2004). Alzheimer's disease and acetylcholine receptors. Acta Neurobiol. Exp. (Wars). 64, 99-105
130. Kim, J. M., Ryou, S. H., Kang, Y. H., and Kang, J. S. (2011). Effect of Ginkgo biloba leaf powder and extract on plasma and liver lipids, platelet aggregation and erythrocyte Na+ efflux in rats fed hypercholesterolemic diet. FASEB J. 25, 980-988
131. Kim, J., Shim, J., Lee, S., Cho, W.-H., Hong, E., Lee, J. H., et al. (2016). Rg3-enriched ginseng extract ameliorates scopolamine-induced learning deficits in mice. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 16:66. doi: 10.1186/s12906-016-1050-z
132. Kim, M.-S., Lee, J.-I., Lee, W.-Y., and Kim, S.-E. (2004). Neuroprotective effect of Ginkgo biloba L. extract in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Phytother. Res. 18, 663-666. doi: 10.1002/ptr.1486
133. Kim, T. I., Lee, Y. K., Park, S. G., Choi, I. S., Ban, J. O., Park, H. K., et al. (2009). l-Theanine, an amino acid in green tea, attenuates beta-amyloid-induced cognitive dysfunction and neurotoxicity: reduction in oxidative damage and inactivation of ERK/p38 kinase and NF-kappaB pathways. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 47, 1601-1610. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2009.09.008
134. Kim, Y. C., Kim, S. R., Markelonis, G. J., and Oh, T. H. (1998). Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg3 protect cultured rat cortical cells from glutamate-induced neurodegeneration. J. Neurosci. Res. 53, 426-432
135. Kimura, K., Ozeki, M., Juneja, L. R., and Ohira, H. (2007). L-Theanine reduces psychological and physiological stress responses. Biol. Psychol. 74, 39-45. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.006
136. Knapp, M., Prince, M., Albanese, E., Banerjee, S., Dhanasiri, S., and Fernandez, J. L. (2007). Dementia UK: The Full Report. London: Alzheimer's Society
137. Koola, M. M., Buchanan, R. W., Pillai, A., Aitchison, K. J., Weinberger, D. R., Aaronson, S. T., et al. (2014). Potential role of the combination of galantamine and memantine to improve cognition in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 157, 84-89. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.04.037
138. Kumar, A., Prakash, A., and Pahwa, D. (2011). Galantamine potentiates the protective effect of rofecoxib and caffeic acid against intrahippocampal Kainic acid-induced cognitive dysfunction in rat. Brain Res. Bull. 85, 158-168. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2011.03.010
139. Kumar, A., and Singh, A. (2015). A review on mitochondrial restorative mechanism of antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease and other neurological conditions. Front. Pharmacol. 6:206. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00206
140. LeBlanc, A. C. (2005). The role of apoptotic pathways in Alzheimer's disease neurodegeneration and cell death. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2, 389-402. doi: 10.2174/156720505774330573
141. Lee, J., Kim, Y., Liu, T., Hwang, Y. J., Hyeon, S. J., Im, H., et al. (2017). SIRT3 deregulation is linked to mitochondrial dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. Aging Cell. doi: 10.1111/acel.12679. [Epub ahead of print]
142. Lee, T.-K., Johnke, R. M., Allison, R. R., O'Brien, K. F., and Dobbs, L. J. J. (2005). Radioprotective potential of ginseng. Mutagenesis 20, 237-243. doi: 10.1093/mutage/gei041
143. Li, W., Chu, Y., Zhang, L., Yin, L., and Li, L. (2012). Ginsenoside Rg1 attenuates tau phosphorylation in SK-N-SH induced by Abeta-stimulated THP-1 supernatant and the involvement of p38 pathway activation. Life Sci. 91, 809-815. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2012.08.028
144. Lilienfeld, S. (2002). Galantamine-a novel cholinergic drug with a unique dual mode of action for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease. CNS Drug Rev. 8, 159-176. doi: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2002.tb00221.x
145. Lim, S. L., Rodriguez-Ortiz, C. J., and Kitazawa, M. (2015). Infection, systemic inflammation, and Alzheimer's disease. Microbes Infect. 17, 549-556. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2015.04.004
146. Lin, M. T., and Beal, M. F. (2006). Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Nature 443, 787-795. doi: 10.1038/nature05292
147. Liu, C.-C., Liu, C.-C., Kanekiyo, T., Xu, H., and Bu, G. (2013). Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: risk, mechanisms and therapy. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 9, 106-118. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2012.263
148. Liu, X., Xu, K., Yan, M., Wang, Y., and Zheng, X. (2010). Protective effects of galantamine against Aβ-induced PC12 cell apoptosis by preventing mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Neurochem. Int. 57, 588-599. doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.07.007
149. Long, F., Yang, H., Xu, Y., Hao, H., and Li, P. (2015). A strategy for the identification of combinatorial bioactive compounds contributing to the holistic effect of herbal medicines. Sci. Rep. 5:12361. doi: 10.1038/srep12361
150. Lonicerus, A. (1679). Kräuterbuch, Matthias Wagner. Ulm
151. Loy, C., and Schneider, L. (2006). Galantamine for Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane database Syst. Rev. 25:CD001747. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001747.pub3
152. Luengo-Fernandez, R., Leal, J., and Gray, A. (2010). Dementia 2010: The Economic Burden of Dementia and Associated Research Funding in the United Kingdom. Oxford: Cambridge Alzheimer's Research Trust
153. Ma, B., Meng, X., Wang, J., Sun, J., Ren, X., Qin, M., et al. (2014). Notoginsenoside R1 attenuates amyloid-beta-induced damage in neurons by inhibiting reactive oxygen species and modulating MAPK activation. Int. Immunopharmacol. 22, 151-159. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.06.018
154. Mahley, R. W., and Rall, S. C. Jr. (2000). Apolipoprotein E: far more than a lipid transport protein. Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet. 1, 507-537. doi: 10.1146/annurev.genom.1.1.507
155. Mahmood, T., Akhtar, N., and Khan, B. A. (2010). The morphology, characteristics, and medicinal properties of Camellia sinensis tea. J. Med. Plants Res. 4, 2028-2033. doi: 10.5897/JMPR10.010
156. Mandel, S. A., Amit, T., Weinreb, O., and Youdim, M. B. H. (2011). Understanding the broad-spectrum neuroprotective action profile of green tea polyphenols in aging and neurodegenerative diseases. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 25, 187-208. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2011-101803
157. Mantle, D., Pickering, A. T., and Perry, E. K. (2000). Medicinal plant extracts for the treatment of dementia. CNS Drugs 13, 201-213. doi: 10.2165/00023210-200013030-00006
158. Manyam, B. V. (1999). Dementia in ayurveda. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 5, 81-88. doi: 10.1089/acm.1999.5.81
159. McKhann, G. M., Albert, M. S., Grossman, M., Miller, B., Dickson, D., and Trojanowski, J. Q. (2001). Clinical and pathological diagnosis of frontotemporal dementia: report of the Work Group on Frontotemporal Dementia and Pick's Disease. Arch. Neurol. 58, 1803-1809. doi: 10.1001/archneur.58.11.1803
160. Mehan, S., Sharma, D., Sharma, G., Arora, R., and Sehgal, V. (2012). Dementia-A Complete Literature Review on Various Mechanisms Involves in Pathogenesis and an Intracerebroventricular Streptozotocin Induced Alzheimer's Disease. INTECH Open Access Publisher. Available online at: http://www.intechopen.com/books/inflammatory-diseases-immunopathology-clinical-and-pharmacologicalbases/alzheimer-s-disease-an-updated-review-on-pathogenesis-and-intracerebroventricular-streptozotocin-ind
161. Miao, Y., Zhao, S., Gao, Y., Wang, R., Wu, Q., Wu, H., et al. (2016). Curcumin pretreatment attenuates inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction in experimental stroke: the possible role of Sirt1 signaling. Brain Res. Bull. 121, 9-15. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.11.019
162. Mills, S. Y. (1991). Out of the Earth: The Essential Book of Herbal Medicine. London: Viking
163. Mishra, S., and Palanivelu, K. (2008). The effect of curcumin (turmeric) on Alzheimer's disease: an overview. Ann. Indian Acad. Neurol. 11, 13-19. doi: 10.4103/0972-2327.40220
164. Misra, R. (1998). Modern drug development from traditional medicinal plants using radioligand receptor-binding assays. Med. Res. Rev. 18, 383-402
165. Monsch, A. U., and Giannakopoulos, P. (2004). Effects of galantamine on behavioural and psychological disturbances and caregiver burden in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 20, 931-938. doi: 10.1185/030079904125003890
166. Moreira, P. I., Carvalho, C., Zhu, X., Smith, M. A., and Perry, G. (2010). Mitochondrial dysfunction is a trigger of Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1802, 2-10. doi: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.10.006
167. Müller-Ebeling, C., and Rätsch, C. (1989). Heilpflanzen der Seychellen.VWB-Verlag für Wissenschaft und Bildung. Berlin
168. Nah, S.-Y. (2014). Ginseng ginsenoside pharmacology in the nervous system: involvement in the regulation of ion channels and receptors. Front. Physiol. 5:98. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00098
169. Namanja, H. A., Emmert, D., Pires, M. M., Hrycyna, C. A., and Chmielewski, J. (2009). Inhibition of human P-glycoprotein transport and substrate binding using a galantamine dimer. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 388, 672-676. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.08.056
170. Napryeyenko, O., Sonnik, G., and Tartakovsky, I. (2009). Efficacy and tolerability of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 by type of dementia: analyses of a randomised controlled trial. J. Neurol. Sci. 283, 224-229. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2009.02.353
171. Narlawar, R., Pickhardt, M., Leuchtenberger, S., Baumann, K., Krause, S., Dyrks, T., et al. (2008). Curcumin-derived pyrazoles and isoxazoles: swiss army knives or blunt tools for Alzheimer's disease?. ChemMedChem 3, 165-172. doi: 10.1002/cmdc.200700218
172. Navia, B. A., and Rostasy, K. (2005). The AIDS dementia complex: clinical and basic neuroscience with implications for novel molecular therapies. Neurotox. Res. 8, 3-24. doi: 10.1007/BF03033817
173. Ng, T.-P., Chiam, P.-C., Lee, T., Chua, H.-C., Lim, L., and Kua, E.-H. (2006). Curry consumption and cognitive function in the elderly. Am. J. Epidemiol. 164, 898-906. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwj267
174. Ng, Y. P., Or, T. C. T., and Ip, N. Y. (2015). Plant alkaloids as drug leads for Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem. Int. 89, 260-270. doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.07.018
175. Ngan, F., Shaw, P., But, P., and Wang, J. (1999). Molecular authentication of Panax species. Phytochemistry 50, 787-791. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00606-2
176. Niikura, T., Tajima, H., and Kita, Y. (2006). Neuronal cell death in Alzheimer's disease and a neuroprotective factor, humanin. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 4, 139-147. doi: 10.2174/157015906776359577
177. Nimmrich, V., and Eckert, A. (2013). Calcium channel blockers and dementia. Br. J. Pharmacol. 169, 1203-1210. doi: 10.1111/bph.12240
178. Nishida, K., Yasuda, E., Nagasawa, K., and Fujimoto, S. (2008). Altered levels of oxidation and phospholipase C isozyme expression in the brains of theanine-administered rats. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 31, 857-860. doi: 10.1248/bpb.31.857
179. Nishiyama, N., Chu, P. J., and Saito, H. (1995). Beneficial effects of Biota, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine on learning impairment induced by basal forebrain-lesion in mice. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 28, 1513-1517
180. Olin, J., and Schneider, L. (2002). Galantamine for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane database Syst. Rev. 3:CD001747. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001747
181. Ortiz de Montellano, B. R. (1990). Aztec Medicine, Health and Nutrition. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press
182. Owen, G. N., Parnell, H., De Bruin, E. A., and Rycroft, J. A. (2008). The combined effects of L-theanine and caffeine on cognitive performance and mood. Nutr. Neurosci. 11, 193-198. doi: 10.1179/147683008X301513
183. Paganelli, R. A., Benetoli, A., and Milani, H. (2006). Sustained neuroprotection and facilitation of behavioral recovery by the Ginkgo biloba extract, EGb 761, after transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Behav. Brain Res. 174, 70-77. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.07.005
184. Parle, M., Dhingra, D., and Kulkarni, S. K. (2004). Memory-strengthening activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in exteroceptive and interoceptive behavioral models. J. Med. Food 7, 462-466. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2004.7.462
185. Pasqualetti, G., Brooks, D. J., and Edison, P. (2015). The role of neuroinflammation in dementias. Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep. 15:17. doi: 10.1007/s11910-015-0531-7
186. Pastor, P., Roe, C. M., Villegas, A., Bedoya, G., Chakraverty, S., Garcia, G., et al. (2003). Apolipoprotein Eepsilon4 modifies Alzheimer's disease onset in an E280A PS1 kindred. Ann. Neurol. 54, 163-169. doi: 10.1002/ana.10636
187. Pathak, L., Agrawal, Y., and Dhir, A. (2013). Natural polyphenols in the management of major depression. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 22, 863-880. doi: 10.1517/13543784.2013.794783
188. Perry, E., and Howes, M. R. (2011). Medicinal plants and dementia therapy: herbal hopes for brain aging?. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 17, 683-698. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00202.x
189. Perry, E. K., Pickering, A. T., Wang, W. W., Houghton, P., and Perry, N. S. L. (1998). Medicinal plants and Alzheimer's disease: integrating ethnobotanical and contemporary scientific evidence. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 4, 419-428
190. Pohl, S., Zobel, J., and Moffat, A. (2010). "Extended boolean retrieval for systematic biomedical reviews," in Proceedings of the Thirty-Third Australasian Conferenc on Computer Science-Volume 102 ACSC'10. (Darlinghurst, NSW: Australian Computer Society, Inc.), 117-126. Available online at: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1862199.1862212
191. Popovich, D. G., and Kitts, D. D. (2004). Generation of ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2 from North American ginseng. Phytochemistry 65, 337-344. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2003.11.020
192. Power, M. C., Adar, S. D., Yanosky, J. D., and Weuve, J. (2016). Exposure to air pollution as a potential contributor to cognitive function, cognitive decline, brain imaging, and dementia: a systematic review of epidemiologic research. Neurotoxicology 56, 235-253. doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2016.06.004
193. Price, S., and Price, L. (1995). Aromatherapy for Health Professionals. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingston
194. Prince, M., Comas-Herrera, A., Knapp, M., Guerchet, M., and Karagiannidou, M. (2016). World Alzheimer Report 2016: Improving Healthcare for People Living with Dementia: Coverage, Quality and Costs Now and in the Future. London: Personal Social Services Research Unit; London School of Economics and Political Science
195. Qiao, X., Ji, S., Yu, S.-W., Lin, X.-H., Jin, H.-W., Duan, Y.-K., et al. (2014). Identification of key licorice constituents which interact with cytochrome P450: evaluation by LC/MS/MS cocktail assay and metabolic profiling. AAPS J. 16, 101-113. doi: 10.1208/s12248-013-9544-9
196. Qiu, C., Kivipelto, M., and von Strauss, E. (2009). Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease: occurrence, determinants, and strategies toward intervention. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 11, 111-128
197. Quaglio, G., Brand, H., and Dario, C. (2016). Fighting dementia in Europe: the time to act is now. Lancet Neurol. 15, 452-454. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(16)00079-X
198. Rabinovici, G. D., and Miller, B. L. (2010). Frontotemporal lobar degeneration: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management. CNS Drugs 24, 375-398. doi: 10.2165/11533100-000000000-00000
199. Raina, A. K., Zhu, X., Rottkamp, C. A., Monteiro, M., Takeda, A., and Smith, M. A. (2000). Cyclin' toward dementia: cell cycle abnormalities and abortive oncogenesis in Alzheimer disease. J. Neurosci. Res. 61, 128-133. doi: 10.1002/1097-4547(20000715)61:2<128::AID-JNR2>3.0.CO;2-H
200. Ramkumar, M., Rajasankar, S., Gobi, V. V., Dhanalakshmi, C., Manivasagam, T., Justin Thenmozhi, A., et al. (2017). Neuroprotective effect of Demethoxycurcumin, a natural derivative of Curcumin on rotenone induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY 5Y Neuroblastoma cells. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 17, 217. doi: 10.1186/s12906-017-1720-5
201. Rastogi, M., Ojha, R. P., Sagar, C., Agrawal, A., and Dubey, G. P. (2014). Protective effect of curcuminoids on age-related mitochondrial impairment in female Wistar rat brain. Biogerontology 15, 21-31. doi: 10.1007/s10522-013-9466-z
202. Reddy, A. P., and Reddy, P. H. (2017). mitochondria-targeted molecules as potential drugs to treat patients with Alzheimer's disease. Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci. 146, 173-201. doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2016.12.010
203. Rezai-Zadeh, K., Arendash, G. W., Hou, H., Fernandez, F., Jensen, M., Runfeldt, M., et al. (2008). Green tea epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) reduces beta-amyloid mediated cognitive impairment and modulates tau pathology in Alzheimer transgenic mice. Brain Res. 1214, 177-187. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.02.107
204. Rhein, V., Giese, M., Baysang, G., Meier, F., Rao, S., Schulz, K. L., et al. (2010). Ginkgo biloba extract ameliorates oxidative phosphorylation performance and rescues abeta-induced failure. PLoS ONE 5:e12359. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012359
205. Ribeiro, M. L., Moreira, L. M., Arcari, D. P., Dos Santos, L. F., Marques, A. C., Pedrazzoli, J. J., et al. (2016). Protective effects of chronic treatment with a standardized extract of Ginkgo biloba L. in the prefrontal cortex and dorsal hippocampus of middle-aged rats. Behav. Brain Res. 313, 144-150. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.06.029
206. Ridley, N. J., Draper, B., and Withall, A. (2013). Alcohol-related dementia: an update of the evidence. Alzheimers. Res. Ther. 5, 3. doi: 10.1186/alzrt157
207. Rivas-Arancibia, S., Hernández-Zimbrón, L. F., Rodríguez-Martínez, E., Borgonio-Pérez, G., Velumani, V., and Durán-Bedolla, J. (2013). Chronic exposure to low doses of ozone produces a state of oxidative stress and blood-brain barrier damage in the hippocampus of rat. Adv. Biosci. Biotechnol. 4:24. doi: 10.4236/abb.2013.411A2004
208. Roeder, B.A. (1988). Chicano Folk Medicine from Los Angeles. Berkeley; Los Angeles: CA: University of California Press
209. Romero, A., Egea, J., Garcia, A. G., and Lopez, M. G. (2010). Synergistic neuroprotective effect of combined low concentrations of galantamine and melatonin against oxidative stress in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. J. Pineal Res. 49, 141-148. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2010.00778.x
210. Ross, I. A. (2001). Medicinal Plants of the World: Chemical Constituents, Traditional and Modern Medicinal Uses. New York, NY: Humana Press
211. Ruttkay-Nedecky, B., Nejdl, L., Gumulec, J., Zitka, O., Masarik, M., Eckschlager, T., et al. (2013). The role of metallothionein in oxidative stress. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 14, 6044-6066. doi: 10.3390/ijms14036044
212. Saharan, S., and Mandal, P. K. (2014). The emerging role of glutathione in Alzheimer's disease. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 40, 519-529. doi: 10.3233/JAD-132483
213. Sahne, F., Mohammadi, M., Najafpour, G. D., and Moghadamnia, A. A. (2017). Enzyme-assisted ionic liquid extraction of bioactive compound from turmeric (Curcuma longa L.): isolation, purification and analysis of curcumin. Ind. Crops Prod. 95, 686-694. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.11.037
214. Sama, D. M., and Norris, C. M. (2013). Calcium dysregulation and neuroinflammation: discrete and integrated mechanisms for age-related synaptic dysfunction. Ageing Res. Rev. 12, 982-995. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2013.05.008
215. Savelev, S. U., Okello, E. J., and Perry, E. K. (2004). Butyryl-and acetyl-cholinesterase inhibitory activities in essential oils of Salvia species and their constituents. Phyther. Res. 18, 315-324. doi: 10.1002/ptr.1451
216. Schultes, R. E. (1993). Plants in treating senile dementia in the Northwest Amazon. J. Ethnopharmacol. 38, 121-128. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(93)90007-R
217. Schultes, R. E. (1994). Amazonian Ethnobotany and the Search for New Drugs BT-Ciba Foundation Symposium 185. Chichester: Wiley
218. Schulz, R., McGinnis, K. A., Zhang, S., Martire, L. M., Hebert, R. S., Beach, S. R., et al. (2008). Dementia patient suffering and caregiver depression. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 22, 170-176. doi: 10.1097/WAD.0b013e31816653cc
219. Schwarzkopf, T. M., Koch, K. A., and Klein, J. (2013). Neurodegeneration after transient brain ischemia in aged mice: beneficial effects of bilobalide. Brain Res. 1529, 178-187. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.07.003
220. Schweitzer de Palacios, D. (1994). Cambiashun. Las prácticas médicas tradicionales y sus expertos en San Miguel del Común, una comuna indígena en los alrededores de Quito. Berlin: Holos-Verlag; Free University of Berlin
221. Sfikas, G. (1980). Heilpflanzen Griechenlands. P. Efstathiadis & Söhne AG. Athen
222. Shankar, G. M., and Walsh, D. M. (2009). Alzheimer's disease: synaptic dysfunction and Aβ. Mol. Neurodegener. 4:48. doi: 10.1186/1750-1326-4-48
223. Sirirugsa, P., Larsen, K., and Maknoi, C. (2007). The genus Curcuma L.(zingiberaceae): distribution and classification with reference to species diversity in Thailand. Gard. Bull. Singapore 59, 203-320
224. Solfrizzi, V., and Panza, F. (2015). Plant-based nutraceutical interventions against cognitive impairment and dementia: meta-analytic evidence of efficacy of a standardized Gingko biloba extract. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 43, 605-611. doi: 10.3233/JAD-141887
225. Song, L., Xu, M.-B., Zhou, X.-L., Zhang, D.-P., Zhang, S.-L., and Zheng, G.-Q. (2017). A Preclinical systematic review of ginsenoside-Rg1 in experimental Parkinson's disease. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2017:2163053. doi: 10.1155/2017/2163053
226. Spano, M., Signorelli, M., Vitaliani, R., Aguglia, E., and Giometto, B. (2015). The possible involvement of mitochondrial dysfunctions in Lewy body dementia: a systematic review. Funct. Neurol. 30, 151-158. doi: 10.11138/FNeur/2015.30.3.151
227. Stackman, R. W., Eckenstein, F., Frei, B., Kulhanek, D., Nowlin, J., and Quinn, J. F. (2003). Prevention of age-related spatial memory deficits in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease by chronic Ginkgo biloba treatment. Exp. Neurol. 184, 510-520. doi: 10.1016/S0014-4886(03)00399-6
228. Stafford, G. I., Pedersen, M. E., van Staden, J., and Jäger, A. K. (2008). Review on plants with CNS-effects used in traditional South African medicine against mental diseases. J. Ethnopharmacol. 119, 513-537. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.08.010
229. Sun, M., Ye, Y., Xiao, L., Duan, X., Zhang, Y., and Zhang, H. (2017). Anticancer effects of ginsenoside Rg3 (Review). Int. J. Mol. Med. 39, 507-518. doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2017.2857
230. Sun, S., Wang, C.-Z., Tong, R., Li, X.-L., Fishbein, A., Wang, Q., et al. (2010). Effects of steaming the root of Panax notoginseng on chemical composition and anticancer activities. Food Chem. 118, 307-314. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.04.122
231. Sun, Z.-K., Yang, H.-Q., and Chen, S.-D. (2013). Traditional Chinese medicine: a promising candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Transl. Neurodegener. 2:6. doi: 10.1186/2047-9158-2-6
232. Swerdlow, R. H., Burns, J. M., and Khan, S. M. (2010). The Alzheimer's disease mitochondrial cascade hypothesis. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 20(Suppl. 2), S265-S279. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2010-100339
233. Swerdlow, R. H., Koppel, S., Weidling, I., Hayley, C., Ji, Y., and Wilkins, H. M. (2017). mitochondria, cybrids, aging, and Alzheimer's disease. Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci. 146, 259-302. doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2016.12.017
234. Tabernaemontanus, D. I. T. (1987). Kräuterbuch, Johann Ludwig König/Johann Brandmüller. Basel
235. Takuma, K., Hoshina, Y., Arai, S., Himeno, Y., Matsuo, A., Funatsu, Y., et al. (2007). Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 attenuates hippocampal neuronal loss and cognitive dysfunction resulting from chronic restraint stress in ovariectomized rats. Neuroscience 149, 256-262. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.07.042
236. Tanaka, A., Arai, Y., Kim, S.-N., Ham, J., and Usuki, T. (2011). Synthesis and biological evaluation of bilobol and adipostatin A. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res. 13, 290-296. doi: 10.1080/10286020.2011.554828
237. Taylor, L. (1998). Herbal Secrets of the Rainforest: The Healing Power of over 50 Medicinal Plants You Should Know About. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing
238. Tayyem, R. F., Heath, D. D., Al-Delaimy, W. K., and Rock, C. L. (2006). Curcumin content of turmeric and curry powders. Nutr. Cancer 55, 126-131. doi: 10.1207/s15327914nc5502_2
239. Tewari, D., Mocan, A., Parvanov, E. D., Sah, A. N., Nabavi, S. M., Huminiecki, L., et al. (2017). Ethnopharmacological approaches for therapy of jaundice: Part II. Highly used plant species from Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Combretaceae, and Fabaceae families. Front. Pharmacol. 8:519. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00518
240. Tian, J., Zhang, S., Li, G., Liu, Z., and Xu, B. (2009). 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3, a neuroprotective agent, inhibits mitochondrial permeability transition pores in rat brain. Phytother. Res. 23, 486-491. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2653
241. Tripathi, M., and Vibha, D. (2009). Reversible dementias. Indian J. Psychiatry 51, S52
242. Tsvetkova, D., Obreshkova, D., Zheleva-Dimitrova, D., and Saso, L. (2013). Antioxidant activity of galantamine and some of its derivatives. Curr. Med. Chem. 20, 4595-4608. doi: 10.2174/09298673113209990148
243. Tzvetkov, N. T., and Antonov, L. (2017). Subnanomolar indazole-5-carboxamide inhibitors of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) continued: indications of iron binding, experimental evidence for optimised solubility and brain penetration. J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. 32, 960-967. doi: 10.1080/14756366.2017.1344980
244. van Horssen, J., van Schaik, P., and Witte, M. (2017). Inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction: a vicious circle in neurodegenerative disorders?. Neurosci. Lett. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.06.050. [Epub ahead of print]
245. Waldemar, G., Dubois, B., Emre, M., Georges, J., McKeith, I. G., Rossor, M., et al. (2007). Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders associated with dementia: EFNS guideline. Eur. J. Neurol. 14, e1-e26. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01605.x
246. Walsh, C., Barrow, S., Voronina, S., Chvanov, M., Petersen, O. H., and Tepikin, A. (2009). Modulation of calcium signalling by mitochondria. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1787, 1374-1382. doi: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2009.01.007
247. Waltenberger, B., Mocan, A., Smejkal, K., Heiss, E. H., and Atanasov, A. G. (2016). Natural Products to counteract the epidemic of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders. Molecules 21, 1-33. doi: 10.3390/molecules21060807
248. Wan, W., Cao, L., Liu, L., Kalionis, B., Chen, C., Tai, X., et al. (2014). EGb761 provides a protective effect against Aβ(1-42) oligomer-induced cell damage and blood-brain barrier disruption in an in vitro bEnd.3 endothelial model. PLoS ONE 9:e113126. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113126
249. Wang, C., and Wang, B. (2016). Ginkgo biloba extract attenuates oxidative stress and apoptosis in mouse cochlear neural stem cells. Phytother. Res. 30, 774-780. doi: 10.1002/ptr.5572
250. Wang, C., and Youle, R. J. (2009). The Role of Mitochondria in Apoptosis. Annu. Rev. Genet. 43, 95-118. doi: 10.1146/annurev-genet-102108-134850
251. Wang, D.-S., Dickson, D. W., and Malter, J. S. (2006). beta-Amyloid degradation and Alzheimer's disease. J. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2006:58406. doi: 10.1155/JBB/2006/58406
252. Wang, P., Su, C., Li, R., Wang, H., Ren, Y., Sun, H., et al. (2014). Mechanisms and effects of curcumin on spatial learning and memory improvement in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. J. Neurosci. Res. 92, 218-231. doi: 10.1002/jnr.23322
253. Wang, Y.-H., and Du, G.-H. (2009). Ginsenoside Rg1 inhibits beta-secretase activity in vitro and protects against Abeta-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res. 11, 604-612. doi: 10.1080/10286020902843152
254. Wang, Y., Huang, L., Tang, X., and Zhang, H. (2010). Retrospect and prospect of active principles from Chinese herbs in the treatment of dementia. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 31, 649-664. doi: 10.1038/aps.2010.46
255. Wang, Y., Yang, G., Gong, J., Lu, F., Diao, Q., Sun, J., et al. (2016). Ginseng for Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 16, 529-536. doi: 10.2174/1568026615666150813143753
256. Weksler, M. E., Szabo, P., Relkin, N. R., Reidenberg, M. M., Weksler, B. B., and Coppus, A. M. W. (2013). Alzheimer's disease and Down's syndrome: treating two paths to dementia. Autoimmun. Rev. 12, 670-673. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.10.013
257. Winblad, B., Amouyel, P., Andrieu, S., Ballard, C., Brayne, C., Brodaty, H., et al. (2016). Defeating Alzheimer's disease and other dementias: a priority for European science and society. Lancet Neurol. 15, 455. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(16)00062-4
258. Wolters, B. (1994). Drogen, Pfeilgift und Indianermedizin: Arzneipflanzen aus Südamerika. Greifenberg: Urs Freud Verlag GmbH
259. Xiong, Z., Hongmei, Z., Lu, S., and Yu, L. (2011). Curcumin mediates presenilin-1 activity to reduce beta-amyloid production in a model of Alzheimer's Disease. Pharmacol. Rep. 63, 1101-1108. doi: 10.1016/S1734-1140(11)70629-6
260. Yamada, T., Terashima, T., Honma, H., Nagata, S., Okubo, T., Juneja, L. R., et al. (2008). Effects of theanine, a unique amino acid in tea leaves, on memory in a rat behavioral test. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 72, 1356-1359. doi: 10.1271/bbb.70669
261. Yan, D., Zhang, Y., Liu, L., and Yan, H. (2016). Pesticide exposure and risk of Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 6:32222. doi: 10.1038/srep32222
262. Yan, F.-L., Zheng, Y., and Zhao, F.-D. (2008). Effects of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb761 on expression of RAGE and LRP-1 in cerebral microvascular endothelial cells under chronic hypoxia and hypoglycemia. Acta Neuropathol. 116, 529-535. doi: 10.1007/s00401-008-0435-6
263. Yan, J., Hu, J., Liu, A., He, L., Li, X., and Wei, H. (2017). Design, synthesis, and evaluation of multitarget-directed ligands against Alzheimer's disease based on the fusion of donepezil and curcumin. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 25, 2946-2955. doi: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.02.048
264. Yanagisawa, D., Taguchi, H., Yamamoto, A., Shirai, N., Hirao, K., and Tooyama, I. (2011). Curcuminoid binds to amyloid-beta1-42 oligomer and fibril. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 24(Suppl. 2), 33-42. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2011-102100
265. Yang, E.-J., Min, J. S., Ku, H.-Y., Choi, H.-S., Park, M., Kim, M. K., et al. (2012). Isoliquiritigenin isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis protects neuronal cells against glutamate-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 421, 658-664. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.04.053
266. Yang, L., Hao, J., Zhang, J., Xia, W., Dong, X., Hu, X., et al. (2009). Ginsenoside Rg3 promotes beta-amyloid peptide degradation by enhancing gene expression of neprilysin. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 61, 375-380. doi: 10.1211/jpp.61.03.0013
267. Ye, J., and Zhang, Y. (2012). Curcumin protects against intracellular amyloid toxicity in rat primary neurons. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med. 5, 44-49
268. Ye, R., Zhang, X., Kong, X., Han, J., Yang, Q., Zhang, Y., et al. (2011). Ginsenoside Rd attenuates mitochondrial dysfunction and sequential apoptosis after transient focal ischemia. Neuroscience 178, 169-180. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.01.007
269. Yim, S. B., Park, S. E., and Lee, C. S. (2007). Protective effect of glycyrrhizin on 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium-induced mitochondrial damage and cell death in differentiated PC12 cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 321, 816-822. doi: 10.1124/jpet.107.119602
270. Yin, S. Y., Kim, H. J., and Kim, H.-J. (2013). A comparative study of the effects of whole red ginseng extract and polysaccharide and saponin fractions on influenza A (H1N1) virus infection. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 36, 1002-1007. doi: 10.1248/bpb.b13-00123
271. Yokota, T., Nishio, H., Kubota, Y., and Mizoguchi, M. (1998). The inhibitory effect of glabridin from licorice extracts on melanogenesis and inflammation. Pigment cell Res. 11, 355-361. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0749.1998.tb00494.x
272. Yun, T. K. (2001). Brief introduction of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. J. Korean Med. Sci. 16(Suppl.) S3-S5. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2001.16.S.S3
273. Zhang, L., Fang, Y., Xu, Y., Lian, Y., Xie, N., Wu, T., et al. (2015). Curcumin improves amyloid beta-peptide (1-42) induced spatial memory deficits through BDNF-ERK signaling pathway. PLoS ONE 10:e0131525. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131525
274. Zhang, L., Fiala, M., Cashman, J., Sayre, J., Espinosa, A., Mahanian, M., et al. (2006). Curcuminoids enhance amyloid-beta uptake by macrophages of Alzheimer's disease patients. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 10, 1-7. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2006-10101
275. Zhou, J.-S., Wang, J.-F., He, B.-R., Cui, Y.-S., Fang, X.-Y., Ni, J.-L., et al. (2014). Ginsenoside Rd attenuates mitochondrial permeability transition and cytochrome c release in isolated spinal cord mitochondria: involvement of kinase-mediated pathways. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 15, 9859-9877. doi: 10.3390/ijms15069859
276. Zhou, S., Lim, L. Y., and Chowbay, B. (2004). Herbal modulation of P-glycoprotein. Drug Metab. Rev. 36, 57-104. doi: 10.1081/DMR-120028427
277. Zhou, X., Cui, G., Tseng, H. H. L., Lee, S. M.-Y., Leung, G. P. H., Chan, S. W., et al. (2016a). Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and treatments with traditional chinese medicine. Evid. Based. Complement. Alternat. Med. 2016, 9627258. doi: 10.1155/2016/9627258
278. Zhou, X., Seto, S. W., Chang, D., Kiat, H., Razmovski-Naumovski, V., Chan, K., et al. (2016b). Synergistic effects of chinese herbal medicine: a comprehensive review of methodology and current research. Front. Pharmacol. 7:201. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00201
279. Zhou, X., Wang, H.-Y., Wu, B., Cheng, C.-Y., Xiao, W., Wang, Z.-Z., et al. (2017). Ginkgolide K attenuates neuronal injury after ischemic stroke by inhibiting mitochondrial fission and GSK-3beta-dependent increases in mitochondrial membrane permeability. Oncotarget 8, 44682-44693. doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.17967
280. Zhu, X., Chen, C., Ye, D., Guan, D., Ye, L., Jin, J., et al. (2012). Diammonium glycyrrhizinate upregulates PGC-1a and protects against Aβ 1-42-induced neurotoxicity. PLoS ONE 7:e35823. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035823
281. Zhu, X., Perry, G., Smith, M. A., and Wang, X. (2013). Abnormal mitochondrial dynamics in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 33(Suppl. 1), S253-S262. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2012-129005
282. Zlokovic, B. V. (2011). Neurovascular pathways to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease and other disorders. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 12, 723-738. doi: 10.1038/nrn3114
283. Zupancic, M., Mahajan, A., and Handa, K. (2011). Dementia with lewy bodies: diagnosis and management for primary care providers. Prim. Care Companion CNS Disord. 13:PCC.11r01190