Vascular Contributions to Cognitive Impairment and Treatments with Traditional Chinese Medicine

Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volumn 2016, Issue , 2016, Pages

  Zhou, Xinhua ^a   Cui, Guozhen ^b   Tseng, Hisa Hui Ling ^a   Lee, Simon Ming Yuen ^a   Leung, George Pak Heng ^c   Chan, Shun Wan ^c,d   Kwan, Yiu Wa ^e   Hoi, Maggie Pui Man ^a  

^a University of Macau   (Macao)

^b ZUNYI MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

^c HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY   (Hong Kong)

^d TECHNOLOGICAL AND HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTE OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^e CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; GINSENG EXTRACT; LIGUSTICUM CHUANXIONG EXTRACT; SALVIA MILTIORRHIZA EXTRACT;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BRAIN CIRCULATION; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; CHINESE MEDICINE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG CAPSULE; HUMAN; HUPERZIA; HUPERZIA SERRATA; MULTIINFARCT DEMENTIA; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; TABLET;

EID: 85006010400     PISSN: 1741427X     EISSN: 17414288     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2016/9627258     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. World Health Organization (WHO), "Dementia, " Fact Sheet 362, WHO, 2015.
2. Alzheimer's Disease International, World Alzheimer's Report 2015: Global Impact of Dementia, 2015.
3. P. B. Gorelick, A. Scuteri, S. E. Black et al., "Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/ American Stroke Association, " Stroke, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 2672-2713, 2011.
4. K. Y. Chan, W. Wang, J. J. Wu et al., "Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia in China, 1990-2010: A systematic review and analysis, " The Lancet, vol. 381, no. 9882, pp. 2016-2023, 2013.
5. M. Wiesmann, A. J. Kiliaan, and J. A. Claassen, "Vascular aspects of cognitive impairment and dementia, " Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 1696-1706, 2013.
6. B. V. Zlokovic, "Neurovascular pathways to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease and other disorders, " Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 12, no. 12, pp. 723-738, 2011.
7. J. E. Simpson, S. B. Wharton, J. Cooper et al., "Alterations of the blood-brain barrier in cerebral white matter lesions in the ageing brain, " Neuroscience Letters, vol. 486, no. 3, pp. 246-251, 2010.
8. A. D. Korczyn, V. Vakhapova, and L. T. Grinberg, "Vascular dementia, " Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol. 322, no. 1-2, pp. 2-10, 2012.
9. N. Lorius, J. J. Locascio, D. M. Rentz et al., "Vascular disease and risk factors are associated with cognitive decline in the Alzheimer disease spectrum, "Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 18-25, 2015.
10. B. N. Dugger, M. Malek-Ahmadi, S. E. Monsell et al., "A cross-sectional analysis of late-life cardiovascular factors and their relation to clinically defined neurodegenerative diseases, " Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 223-229, 2016.
11. M. C. Power, J. Weuve, J. J. Gagne, M. B. McQueen, A. Viswanathan, and D. Blackera, "The association between blood pressure and incident Alzheimer disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis, " Epidemiology, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 646-659, 2011.
12. C. Purnell, S. Gao, C. M. Callahan, and H. C. Hendrie, "Cardiovascular risk factors and incident alzheimer disease: A systematic review of the literature, " Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 1-10, 2009.
13. P.-P. Hao, F. Jiang, Y.-G. Chen et al., "Traditional Chinese medication for cardiovascular disease, " Nature Reviews Cardiology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 115-122, 2015.
14. Y.-S. Ho, K.-F. So, and R. C.-C. Chang, "Drug discovery from Chinese medicine against neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's and vascular dementia, " ChineseMedicine, vol. 6, article 15, 2011.
15. Z.-K. Sun, H.-Q. Yang, and S.-D. Chen, "Traditional Chinese medicine: A promising candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, " Translational Neurodegeneration, vol. 2, no. 1, article 6, 2013.
16. B. H. May, C. Lu, Y. Lu, A. L. Zhang, and C. C. L. Xue, "Chinese herbs for memory disorders: A reviewand systematic analysis of classical herbal literature, " Journal of Acupuncture andMeridian Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 2-11, 2013.
17. M. Feng, J. Lu, B. H. May et al., "Chinese herbal medicine for patients with vascular cognitive impairment no dementia: protocol for a systematic review, "BMJ Open, vol. 6, no. 3, Article ID e010295, 2016.
18. R. A. Corriveau, F. Bosetti, M. Emr et al., "The Science of VascularContributions toCognitive Impairment andDementia (VCID): A framework for advancing research priorities in the cerebrovascular biology of cognitive decline, " Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 281-288, 2016.
19. J. Ma, Y. Zhang, andQ. Guo, "Comparison of vascular cognitive impairment-no dementia by multiple classification methods, " International Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 125, no. 11, pp. 823-830, 2015.
20. J. V. Bowler, "Vascular cognitive impairment, " Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, vol. 76, supplement 5, pp. v35-v44, 2005.
21. J. V. Bowler, "Modern concept of vascular cognitive impairment, " British Medical Bulletin, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 291-305, 2007.
22. A. Consoli, M. Pasi, and L. Pantoni, "Vascular mild cognitive impairment: concept, definition, and directions for future studies, " Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 113-116, 2012.
23. J. G. Hanly, N. M. Walsh, J. D. Fisk et al., "Cognitive impairment and autoantlbodies in systemic lupus erythematosus, " Rheumatology, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 291-296, 1993.
24. M. Petri, M. Naqibuddin, K. A. Carson et al., "Depression and cognitive impairment in newly diagnosed systemic lupus erythematosus, " Journal of Rheumatology, vol. 37, no. 10, pp. 2032-2038, 2010.
25. P. S. Sachdev, X. Chen, H. Brodaty, C. Thompson, A. Altendorf, and W. Wen, "The determinants and longitudinal course of post-stroke mild cognitive impairment, " Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 915-923, 2009.
26. D. W. Desmond, J. T. Moroney, M. Sano, and Y. Stern, "Recovery of cognitive function after stroke, " Stroke, vol. 27, no. 10, pp. 1798-1803, 1996.
27. Neuropathology Group of the Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study (MRC CFAS), "Pathological correlates of late-onset dementia in a multicentre, communitybased population in England andWales, " The Lancet, vol. 357, no. 9251, pp. 169-175, 2001.
28. S. E. Vermeer, W. T. Longstreth Jr., and P. J. Koudstaal, "Silent brain infarcts: A systematic review, " The Lancet Neurology, vol. 6, no. 7, pp. 611-619, 2007.
29. H. C. Chui, "Subcortical ischemic vascular dementia, " Neurologic Clinics, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 717-740, 2007.
30. D. B. Stanimirovic and A. Friedman, "Pathophysiology of the neurovascular unit: disease cause or consequence, " Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 1207-1221, 2012.
31. D. Leys, H. Hénon, M.-A. Mackowiak-Cordoliani, and F. Pasquier, "Poststroke dementia, " The Lancet Neurology, vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 752-759, 2005.
32. D. Inzitari, A. Di Carlo, G. Pracucci et al., "Incidence and determinants of poststroke dementia as defined by an informant interview method in a hospital-based stroke registry, " Stroke, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 2087-2093, 1998.
33. J.-H. Sun, L. Tan, and J.-T. Yu, "Post-stroke cognitive impairment: epidemiology, mechanisms and management, " Annals of Translational Medicine, vol. 2, no. 8, article 80, 2014.
34. T. Pohjasvaara, T. Erkinjuntti, R. Ylikoski, M. Hietanen, R. Vataja, and M. Kaste, "Clinical determinants of poststroke dementia, " Stroke, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 75-81, 1998.
35. K. M. Langa, N. L. Foster, and E. B. Larson, "Mixed dementia: emerging concepts and therapeutic implications, " Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 292, no. 23, pp. 2901-2908, 2004.
36. R. O. Weller, D. Boche, and J. A. R. Nicoll, "Microvasculature changes and cerebral amyloid angiopathy inAlzheimer's disease and their potential impact on therapy, " Acta Neuropathologica, vol. 118, no. 1, pp. 87-102, 2009.
37. C. Iadecola, "Neurovascular regulation in the normal brain and in Alzheimer's disease, " Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 347-360, 2004.
38. M. J. Cipolla, The Cerebral Circulation, Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences, San Rafael, Calif, USA, 2009.
39. E. A. Neuwelt, B. Bauer, C. Fahlke et al., "Engaging neuroscience to advance translational research in brain barrier biology, " Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 169-182, 2011.
40. P. W. Pires, C. M. Dams Ramos, N. Matin, and A. M. Dorrance, "The effectsof hypertensionon the cerebral circulation, "American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology, vol. 304, no. 12, pp. H1598-H1614, 2013.
41. C. Iadecola, "The overlap between neurodegenerative and vascular factors in the pathogenesis of dementia, " Acta Neuropathologica, vol. 120, no. 3, pp. 287-296, 2010.
42. Z. S. Katusic and S. A. Austin, "Endothelial nitric oxide: protector of a healthy mind, " European Heart Journal, vol. 35, no. 14, pp. 888-894, 2014.
43. Z. Lin, J. Gu, J. Xiu, T. Mi, J. Dong, and J. K. Tiwari, "Traditional Chinesemedicine for senile dementia, " Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2012, Article ID 692621, 13 pages, 2012.
44. X. Qin, Y. Liu, Y. Wu et al., "A meta-analysis of Chinese herbal medicines for vascular dementia, " Neural Regeneration Research, vol. 8, no. 18, pp. 1685-1692, 2013.
45. J. Liang, F. Li, C. Wei et al., "Rationale and design of amulticenter, phase 2 clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine SaiLuoTong in vascular dementia, " Journal of Stroke & Cerebrovascular Diseases, vol. 23, no. 10, pp. 2626-2634, 2014.
46. G. Cui, L. Shan, M. Hung et al., "AnovelDanshensu derivative confers cardioprotection via PI3K/Akt and Nrf2 pathways, " International Journal of Cardiology, vol. 168, no. 2, pp. 1349-1359, 2013.
47. G. Cui, L. Shan, L. Guo et al., "Novel anti-thrombotic agent for modulation of protein disulfide isomerase family member ERp57 for prophylactic therapy, " Scientific Reports, vol. 5, article 10353, 2015.
48. G. Z. Cui, L. C. Shan, I. K. Chu et al., "Identification of disulfide isomerase ERp57 as a target for smallmolecule cardioprotective agents, " RSC Advances, vol. 5, no. 91, pp. 74605-74610, 2015.
49. T.-H. Lin and C.-L. Hsieh, "Pharmacological effects of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) on cerebral infarction, " Chinese Medicine, vol. 5, article 22, 2010.
50. C. Guo, Y. Yin, J. Duan et al., "Neuroprotective effect and underlying mechanism of sodium danshensu [3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl) lactic acid from Radix and Rhizoma Salviae miltiorrhizae = Danshen] against cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury in rats, " Phytomedicine, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 283-289, 2015.
51. C.-M. Chong, Z.-Y. Zhou, V. Razmovski-Naumovski et al., "Danshensu protects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced damage of PC12 cells in vitro and dopaminergic neurons in zebrafish, " Neuroscience Letters, vol. 543, pp. 121-125, 2013.
52. T. Wang, F. Fu, B. Han, L. Zhang, and X. Zhang, "Danshensu ameliorates the cognitive decline in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice by attenuating advanced glycation end productmediated neuroinflammation, " Journal of Neuroimmunology, vol. 245, no. 1-2, pp. 79-86, 2012.
53. Z. He, Z. Pan, andW. Lu, "Neuroprotective effects of tanshinone IIA on vascular dementia in rats, " Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, vol. 35, no. 14, pp. 1883-1886, 2010.
54. M. Imanshahidi and H. Hosseinzadeh, "The pharmacological effects of Salvia species on the central nervous system, " Phytotherapy Research, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 427-437, 2006.
55. S.-H. Xing, C.-X. Zhu, R. Zhang, and L. An, "Huperzine a in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: A meta-analysis, " Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2014, Article ID 363985, 10 pages, 2014.
56. Z. Hao, M. Liu, Z. Liu, and D. Lv, "Huperzine A for vascular dementia, " Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 2, Article ID CD007365, 2009.
57. Z. Q. Xu, X. M. Liang, W. Juan, Y. F. Zhang, C. X. Zhu, and X. J. Jiang, "Treatment with Huperzine A improves cognition in vascular dementia patients, " Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 55-58, 2012.
58. A. Zangara, "The psychopharmacology of huperzine A: An alkaloidwith cognitive enhancing and neuroprotective properties of interest in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, " Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, vol. 75, no. 3, pp. 675-686, 2003.
59. G. T. Ha, R. K. Wong, and Y. Zhang, "Huperzine a as potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease: An assessment on chemistry, pharmacology, and clinical studies, " Chemistry and Biodiversity, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 1189-1204, 2011.
60. W. Qian, X. Xiong, Z. Fang, H. Lu, and Z. Wang, "Protective effect of tetramethylpyrazine on myocardial ischemiareperfusion injury, " Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2014, Article ID 107501, 9 pages, 2014.
61. X. Cai, Z. Chen, X. Pan et al., "Inhibition of angiogenesis, fibrosis and thrombosis by tetramethylpyrazine: mechanisms contributing to the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis, " PLoS ONE, vol. 9, no. 2, Article ID e88176, 2014.
62. P. Wang, C.-H. Luo, Q.-X. Wang, Q.-Y. Li, P. Li, andX.-H. Yuan, "Antithrombotic effect of ligustrazine hydrochloride injection on the model of induced arteriovenous shunt thrombosis, " Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 704-706, 2013.
63. X. Wang and M. Zhao, "Ligustrazine and Salvia miltiorrhiza injection solution in complementary therapy of pregnancyinduced hypertension: clinical analysis of 60 cases, " Academic Journal of the First Medical College of PLA, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 969-971, 2003.
64. S.-L. Liao, T.-K. Kao, W.-Y. Chen et al., "Tetramethylpyrazine reduces ischemic brain injury in rats, " Neuroscience Letters, vol. 372, no. 1-2, pp. 40-45, 2004.
65. J.-B. Lin, C.-J. Zheng, X. Zhang, J. Chen, W.-J. Liao, and Q. Wan, "Effects of tetramethylpyrazine on functional recovery and neuronal dendritic plasticity after experimental stroke, " Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2015, Article ID 394926, 10 pages, 2015.
66. Y. Chang, G. Hsiao, S.-H. Chen et al., "Tetramethylpyrazine suppresses HIF-1, TNF-, and activated caspase-3 expression in middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced brain ischemia in rats, " Acta Pharmacologica Sinica, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 327-333, 2007.
67. T.-K. Kao, Y.-C. Ou, J.-S. Kuo et al., "Neuroprotection by tetramethylpyrazine against ischemic brain injury in rats, " Neurochemistry International, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 166-176, 2006.
68. W. Wu, X. Yu, X.-P. Luo, S.-H. Yang, and D. Zheng, "Tetramethylpyrazine protects against scopolamine-induced memory impairments in rats by reversing the cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway, " Behavioural Brain Research, vol. 253, pp. 212-216, 2013.
69. Z. Zhang, T. Wei, J. Hou, G. Li, S. Yu, andW. Xin, "Iron-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis in cerebellar granule cells: Attenuation by tetramethylpyrazine and ferulic acid, " European Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 467, no. 1-3, pp. 41-47, 2003.
70. Y. Sun, J. Jiang, Z. Zhang et al., "Antioxidative and thrombolytic TMP nitrone for treatment of ischemic stroke, " Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, vol. 16, no. 19, pp. 8868-8874, 2008.
71. Y. Sun, P. Yu, G. Zhang et al., "Therapeutic effects of tetramethylpyrazine nitrone in rat ischemic stroke models, " Journal of Neuroscience Research, vol. 90, no. 8, pp. 1662-1669, 2012.
72. B. Guo, D. Xu, H. Duan et al., "Therapeutic effectsofmultifunctional tetramethylpyrazine nitrone on models of Parkinson's disease in vitro and in vivo, " Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 274-285, 2014.
73. D. Xu, H. Duan, Z. Zhang et al., "Thenovel tetramethylpyrazine bis-nitrone (TN-2) protects against MPTP/MPP+-induced neurotoxicity via inhibition of mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis, " Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 245-258, 2014.
74. D.-P. Xu, K. Zhang, Z.-J. Zhang et al., "A novel tetramethylpyrazine bis-nitrone (TN-2) protects against 6-hydroxyldopamine-induced neurotoxicity via modulation of theNF-BandthePKC/PI3-K/Akt pathways, "Neurochemistry International, vol. 78, pp. 76-85, 2014.
75. H.-Y. Chen, D.-P. Xu, G.-L. Tan et al., "Apotentmulti-functional neuroprotective derivative of tetramethylpyrazine, " Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, vol. 56, no. 4, pp. 977-987, 2015.
76. R. Bridi, F. P. Crossetti, V. M. Steffen, and A. T. Henriques, "The antioxidant activity of standardized extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb 761) in rats, " Phytotherapy Research, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 449-451, 2001.
77. J. M. Kim, S. H. Ryou, Y. H. Kang, and J. S. Kang, "Effect of Ginkgo biloba leaf powder and extract on plasma and liver lipids, platelet aggregation and erythrocyte Na+ efflux in rats fed hypercholesterolemic diet, " The FASEB Journal, vol. 25, no. 1, supplement, pp. 980-988, 2011.
78. E. J. Lee, H.-Y. Chen, T.-S. Wu, T.-Y. Chen, I. A. Ayoub, and K. I. Maynard, "Acute administration of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) affords neuroprotection against permanent and transient focal cerebral ischemia in Sprague-Dawley rats, " Journal of Neuroscience Research, vol. 68, no. 5, pp. 636-645, 2002.
79. K. Chandrasekaran, Z. Mehrabian, B. Spinnewyn, C. Chinopoulos, K. Drieu, and G. Fiskum, "Neuroprotective effects of bilobalide, a component of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) in global brain ischemia and in excitotoxicityinduced neuronal death, " Pharmacopsychiatry, vol. 36, supplement 1, pp. S89-S94, 2003.
80. I. Domoráková, J. Burda, E. Mechrová, and M. Feriková, "Mapping of rat hippocampal neurons with NeuN after ischemia/reperfusion and Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) pretreatment, " Cellular andMolecularNeurobiology, vol. 26, no. 7-8, pp. 1193-1204, 2006.
81. R. A. Paganelli, A. Benetoli, and H. Milani, "Sustained neuroprotection and facilitation of behavioral recovery by the Ginkgo biloba extract, EGb 761, after transient forebrain ischemia in rats, " Behavioural Brain Research, vol. 174, no. 1, pp. 70-77, 2006.
82. M. Jahanshahi, E. Nikmahzar, N. Yadollahi, and K. Ramazani, "Protective effects of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGB 761) on astrocytes of rat hippocampus after exposure with scopolamine, " Anatomy & Cell Biology, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 92-96, 2012.
83. M. Jahanshahi, E. G. Nickmahzar, and F. Babakordi, "The effect of Ginkgo biloba extract on scopolamine-induced apoptosis in the hippocampus of rats, " Anatomical Science International, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 217-222, 2013.
84. K. Takuma, Y. Hoshina, S. Arai et al., "Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 attenuates hippocampal neuronal loss and cognitive dysfunction resulting from chronic restraint stress in ovariectomized rats, " Neuroscience, vol. 149, no. 2, pp. 256-262, 2007.
85. K. Tanaka, R. F. Galduroz, L. T. Gobbi, and J. C. Galduroz, "Ginkgo biloba extract in an animal model of parkinson's disease: A systematic review, " Current Neuropharmacology, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 430-435, 2013.
86. M. L. Ribeiro, L. M. Moreira, D. P. Arçari et al., "Protective effects of chronic treatment with a standardized extract of Ginkgo biloba L. in the prefrontal cortex and dorsal hippocampus of middle-aged rats, " Behavioural Brain Research, vol. 313, pp. 144-150, 2016.
87. F.-L. Yan, Y. Zheng, and F.-D. Zhao, "Effects of ginkgo biloba extract EGb761 on expression of RAGE and LRP-1 in cerebral microvascular endothelial cells under chronic hypoxia and hypoglycemia, " Acta Neuropathologica, vol. 116, no. 5, pp. 529-535, 2008.
88. W.-B. Wan, L. Cao, L.-M. Liu et al., "EGb761 provides a protective effect against A1-42 oligomer-induced cell damage and blood-brain barrier disruption in an in vitro bEnd. 3 endothelial model, " PLoS ONE, vol. 9, no. 11, Article ID 0113126, 2014.
89. S. Kanowski, W. M. Herrmann, K. Stephan, W. Wierich, and R. Horr, "Proof of efficacy of the ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 in outpatients suffering frommild tomoderate primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type or multi-infarct dementia, " Pharmacopsychiatry, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 47-56, 1996.
90. J. A. Mix and W. D. Crews Jr., "A double-blind, placebocontrolled, randomized trial of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761- in a sample of cognitively intact older adults: neuropsychological findings, " Human Psychopharmacology, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 267-277, 2002.
91. O. Napryeyenko, G. Sonnik, and I. Tartakovsky, "Efficacy and tolerability of Ginkgo bilobaextract EGb 761 by type of dementia: Analyses of a randomised controlled trial, " Journal of the Neurological Sciences, vol. 283, no. 1-2, pp. 224-229, 2009.
92. R. Ihl, M. Tribanek, and N. Bachinskaya, "Efficacy and tolerability of a once daily formulation of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761- in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: results from a randomised controlled trial, " Pharmacopsychiatry, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 41-46, 2012.
93. I.-H. Cho, "Efects of Panax ginseng in neurodegenerative diseases, " Journal of Ginseng Research, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 342-353, 2012.
94. V. Rastogi, J. Santiago-Moreno, and S. Doré, "Ginseng: A promising neuroprotective strategy in stroke, " Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, vol. 8, article 457, 2015.
95. S. F. Nabavi, A. Sureda, S. Habtemariam, and S. M. Nabavi, "Ginsenoside Rd and ischemic stroke; a short review of literatures, " Journal of Ginseng Research, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 299-303, 2015.
96. T.-F. Lee, Y.-J. Shiao, C.-F. Chen, and L. C. H. Wang, "Effect of ginseng saponins on-amyloid-suppressed acetylcholine release from rat hippocampal slices, " PlantaMedica, vol. 67, no. 7, pp. 634-637, 2001.
97. H. Zhao, Q. Li, X. Pei et al., "Long-term ginsenoside administration prevents memory impairment in aged C57BL/6J mice by up-regulating the synaptic plasticity-related proteins in hippocampus, " Behavioural Brain Research, vol. 201, no. 2, pp. 311-317, 2009.
98. G. Zhang, A. Liu, Y. Zhou, X. San, T. Jin, and Y. Jin, "Panax ginseng ginsenoside-Rg2 protects memory impairment via anti-apoptosis in a rat model with vascular dementia, " Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 115, no. 3, pp. 441-448, 2007.
99. L. Shen and J. Zhang, "NMDA receptor and iNOS are involved in the effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on hippocampal neurogenesis in ischemic gerbils, " Neurological Research, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 270-273, 2007.
100. J.-H. Lim, T.-C. Wen, S. Matsuda et al., "Protection of ischemic hippocampal neurons by ginsenoside Rb1, a main ingredient of ginseng root, " Neuroscience Research, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 191-200, 1997.
101. J.-H. Heo, S.-T. Lee, K. Chu et al., "An open-label trial of Korean red ginseng as an adjuvant treatment for cognitive impairment in patients with Alzheimer's disease, " European Journal of Neurology, vol. 15, no. 8, pp. 865-868, 2008.
102. S.-T. Lee, K. Chu, J.-Y. Sim, J.-H. Heo, and M. Kim, "Panax ginseng enhances cognitive performance in Alzheimer disease, " Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 222-226, 2008.
103. G. Z. Steiner, A. Yeung, J.-X. Liu et al., "The effect of Sailuotong (SLT) on neurocognitive and cardiovascular function in healthy adults: A randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled crossover pilot trial, " BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 16, article 15, 2016.
104. J. Tian, J. Shi, M. Wei et al., "The efficacy and safety of Fufangdanshen tablets (Radix Salviae miltiorrhizae formula tablets) for mild to moderate vascular dementia: A study protocol for a randomized controlled trial, " Trials, vol. 17, no. 1, p. 281, 2016.
105. J. Liang, F. Li, C. Wei et al., "Rationale and design of a multicenter, phase 2 clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine sailuotong in vascular dementia, " Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases, vol. 23, no. 10, pp. 2626-2634, 2014.
106. Chinese herbs may be key to unlocking dementia, November 2015, http://nicm. edu. Au/news/chinese herbs may be key to unlocking dementia.