Self-assembly for semiconductor industry

IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing

Volumn 20, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 421-431

  Lu, Wei ^a   Sastry, Ann Marie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FABRICATION TECHNOLOGIES; FUNDAMENTAL LIMITS; NANO-SCALE; NANO-SCALE SYSTEMS; SELF- ASSEMBLIES; SELF-ASSEMBLED; SELF-ASSEMBLY METHODS; SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRIES; THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURES;

ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY; NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS; SELF ASSEMBLY; SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE MANUFACTURE; SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS; THREE DIMENSIONAL;

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES;

EID: 49149085246     PISSN: 08946507     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/TSM.2007.907622     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. A. V. Zayats, J. Elliott, I. I. Smolyaninov, and C. C. Davis, "Imaging with short-wavelength surface plasmon polaritons," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 86, pp. 151114-, 2005.
2. W. Chao, B. D. Harteneck, J. A. Liddle, E. H. Anderson, and D. T. Attwood, "Soft X-ray microscopy at a spatial resolution better than 15 nm," Nature, vol. 435, pp. 1210-1213, 2005.
3. G. R. Mclntyre, "Phase-shifting mask polarimetry: Monitoring polarization at 193-nm high numerical aperture and immersion lithography with phase shifting masks," J. Microlith. Microfab. Microsyst., vol. 4, pp. 031102-, 2005.
4. P. Gupta, A. B. Kahng, C.-H. Park, K. Samadi, and X. Xu, "Wafer topography- aware optical proximity correction," IEEE Trans. Comput.- Aided Des. Integ. Circ. Syst., vol. 25, no. 10, pp. 2747-2756, Oct. 2006.
5. M. T. Bohr, "Nanotechnology goals and challenges for electronic applications," IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 56-62, Mar. 2002.
6. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, , 2005.
7. A. M. Goethals, P. D. Bisschop, J. Hermans, R. Jonckheere, F. V. Roey, D. V. D. Heuvel, A. Eliat, and K. Ronse, "Introducing 157 nm full field lithography," J. Photopolym. Sci. Technol., vol. 16, pp. 549-556, 2003.
8. K. E. Gonsalves, M. Thiyagarajan, J. H. Choi, P. Zimmerman, F. Cerrina, P. Nealey, V. Golovkina, J.Wallace, and N. Batina, "High performance resist for EUV lithography," Microelectron. Eng., vol. 77, pp. 27-35, 2005.
9. F. Cerrina, "X-ray imaging: Applications to patterning and lithography," J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., vol. 33, pp. R103-R116, 2000.
10. K. Gamo, "Nanofabrication by FIB," Microelectron. Eng., vol. 32, pp. 159-171, 1996.
11. T. Morita, R. Kometani, K. Watanabe, K. Kanda, Y. Haruyama, T. Hoshino, K. Kondo, T. Kaito, T. Ichihashi, J.-I. Fujita, M. Ishida, Y. Ochiai, T. Tajima, and S. Matsui, "Free-space-wiring fabrication in nano-space by focused-ion-beam chemical vapor deposition," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, vol. 21, pp. 2737-2741, 2003.
12. T. Nagata, P. Ahmet, Y. Sakuma, T. Sekiguchi, and T. Chikyow, "GaN nanostructure fabrication by focused-ion-beam-assisted chemical vapor deposition," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 87, p. 013103, 2005.
13. K. M. Choi, "Photopatternable silicon elastomers with enhanced mechanical properties for high-fidelity nanoresolution soft lithography," J. Phys. Chem. B, vol. 109, pp. 21525-21531, 2005.
14. K. M. Choi and J. A. Rogers, "A photocurable poly(dimethylsiloxane) chemistry designed for soft lithographic molding and printing in the nanometer regime," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 125, pp. 4060-4061, 2003.
15. J. P. Rolland, E. C. Hagberg, G. M. Denison, K. R. Carter, and J. M. D. Simone, "High-resolution soft lithography: Enabling materials for nanotechnologies," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 43, pp. 5796-5799, 2004.
16. D. H. Kim, Z. Lin, H.-C. Kim, U. Jeong, and T. P. Russell, "On the replication of block copolymer templates by poly(dimethylsiloxane) elastomers," Adv. Mater., vol. 15, pp. 811-814, 2003.
17. B. D. Gates and G. M. Whitesides, "Replication of vertical features smaller than 2 nm by soft lithography," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 125, pp. 14986-14987, 2003.
18. F. Hua, A. Gaur, Y. Sun, M. Word, N. Jin, I. Adesida, M. Shim, A. Shim, and J. A. Rogers, "Processing dependent behavior of soft imprint lithography on the 1-10-nm scale," IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 301-308, Jun. 2006.
19. M. F. Crommie, C. P. Lutz, and D. M. Eigler, "Confinement of electrons to quantum corrals on a metal surface," Science, vol. 262, pp. 218-220, 1993.
20. D. M. Eigler and E. K. Schweizer, "Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunnelling microscope," Nature, vol. 344, pp. 524-526, 1990.
21. R. D. Piner, J. Zhu, F. Xu, S. Hong, and C. A. Mirkin, ""Dip-pen" nanolithography," Science, vol. 283, pp. 661-663, 1999.
22. S. Sun and G. J. Leggett, "Matching the resolution of electron beam lithography by scanning near-field photolithography," Nano Lett., vol. 4, pp. 1381-1384, 2004.
23. S. Hong and C. A. Mirkin, "A nanoplotter with both parallel and serial writing capabilities," Science, vol. 288, pp. 1808-1811, 2000.
24. P. Vettiger, M. Despont, U. Drechsler, U. During, W. Haberle, M. I. Lutwyche, H. E. Rothuizen, R. Stutz, R. Widmer, and G. K. Binng, "The "millipede"-More than one thousand tips for future AFM data storage," IBM J. Res. Devel., vol. 44, pp. 323-340, 2000.
25. J. Aizenberg, A. J. Black, and G. M. Whitesides, "Controlling local disorder in self-assembled monolayers by patterning the topography of their metallic supports," Nature, vol. 394, pp. 868-871, 1998.
26. N. A. Melosh, A. Boukai, F. Diana, B. Gerardot, A. Badolato, P. M. Petroff, and J. R. Heath, "Ultrahigh-density nanowire lattice and circuits," Science, vol. 300, pp. 112-115, 2003.
27. Y.-K. Choi, J. Zhu, J. Grunes, J. Bokor, and G. A. Somorjai, "Fabrication of sub-10-nm silicon nanowire arrays by size reduction lithography," J. Phys. Chem. B, vol. 107, pp. 3340-3343, 2003.
28. F. Favier, E. C. Walter, M. P. Zach, T. Benter, and R. M. Penner, "Hydrogen sensors and switches from electrodeposited palladium mesowire arrays," Science, vol. 293, pp. 2227-2231, 2001.
29. Z.-Y. Li, Y. Yin, and Y. Xia, "Optimization of elastomeric phase masks for near-field photolithography," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 78, pp. 2431-2433, 2001.
30. B. D. Gates, Q. Xu, V. R. Thalladi, T. Cao, T. Knickerbocker, and G. M. Whitesides, "Shear patterning of microdominos: A new class of procedures for making micro- and nanostructures," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 43, pp. 2779-2783, 2004.
31. R. D. Picciotto, H. L. Stormer, L. N. Pfeiffer, K.W. Baldwin, and K. W. West, "Four-terminal resistance of a ballistic quantum wire," Nature, vol. 411, pp. 51-54, 2001.
32. Q. Xu, B. D. Gates, and G. M. Whitesides, "Fabrication of metal structures with nanometer-scale lateral dimensions by sectioning using a microtome," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 126, pp. 1332-1333, 2004.
33. J.-M. Lehn, "Perspective in supramolecular chemistry-from molecular recognition towards molecular information processing and self-organization, " Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., vol. 29, pp. 1304-1319, 1990.
34. A. Ulman, "Formation and structure of self-assembled monolayers," Chem. Rev., vol. 96, pp. 1533-1554, 1996.
35. J. C. Love, D. B. Wolfe, R. Haasch, M. L. Chabinyc, K. E. Paul, G. M. Whitesides, and P. G. Nuzzo, "Formation and structure of self-assembled monolayers of alkanethiolates on palladium," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 125, pp. 2597-2609, 2003.
36. K. S. Schneider, W. Lu, D. R. Fosnacht, B. G. Orr, and M. M. B. Holl, "Dynamic in situ characterization of organic monolayer formation via a novel substrate-mediated mechanism," Langmuir, vol. 20, pp. 1258-1268, 2004.
37. K. S. Schneider, W. Lu, T. M. Owens, D. R. Fosnacht, M. M. B. Holl, and B. G. Orr, "Monolayer pattern evolution via substrate strain-mediated spinodal decomposition," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 2004, p. 166104, 2004.
38. M. Volmer,M. Stratmann, and H. Viefhaus, "Electrochemical and electron spectroscopic investgations of iron surfaces modified with thiols," Surf. Interface Anal., vol. 16, pp. 278-282, 1990.
39. C. W. Sheen, J.-X. Shi, J. Martensson, A. N. Parikh, and D. L. Allara, "A new class of organized self-assembled monolayers: Alkane thiols on GaAs (100)," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 114, pp. 1514-1515, 1992.
40. W. Lu and Z. Suo, "Dynamics of nanoscale pattern formation of an epitaxial monolayer," J. Mech. Phys. Solids, vol. 49, pp. 1937-1950, 2001.
41. W. Lu and Z. Suo, "Symmetry breaking in self-assembled monolayers on solid surfaces-Anisotropic substrate elasticity," Phys. Rev. B, vol. 65, p. 205418, 2002.
42. W. Lu and Z. Suo, "Symmetry breaking in self-assembled monolayers on solid surfaces: Anisotropic surface stress," Phys. Rev. B., vol. 65, pp. 85401-, 2002.
43. R. Plass, J. A. Last, N. C. Bartelt, and G. L. Kellogg, "Self-assembled domain patterns," Nature, vol. 412, pp. 875-, 2001.
44. K. Pohl, M. C. Bartelt, J. D. L. Figuera, N. C. Bartelt, J. Hrbek, and R. Q. Hwang, "Identifying the forces responsible for self-organization of nanostructures at crystal surfaces," Nature, vol. 397, pp. 238-241, 1999.
45. S. Forster and M. Antonietti, "Amphiphilic block copolymers in structure-controlled nanomaterial hybrids," Adv. Mater., vol. 10, pp. 195-217, 1998.
46. G. Krausch and R. Magerle, "Nanostructured thin films via self-assembly of block copolymers," Adv. Mater., vol. 14, pp. 1579-1583, 2002.
47. W. A. Lopes and H. M. Jaeger, "Hierarchical self-assembly of metal nanostructures on diblock copolymer scaffolds," Nature, vol. 414, pp. 735-738, 2001.
48. A. M. Urbas, M. Maldovan, P. DeRege, and E. L. Thomas, "Bicontinuous cubic block copolymer photonic crystals," Adv. Mater., vol. 14, pp. 1850-1853, 2002.
49. G. Markovich, C. P. Collier, and J. R. Heath, "Reversible metal-insulator transition in ordered metal nanocrystal monolayers observed by impedance spectroscopy," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 80, pp. 3807-3810, 1998.
50. M. P. Pileni, Nanocrystal self-assemblies: Fabrication and collective properties vol. 105, pp. 3358-3371, 2001.
51. S. Sun, C. B. Murray, D. Weller, L. Folks, and A. Moser, "Monodisperse FePt nanoparticles and ferromagnetic FePt nanocrystal supertattices," Science, vol. 287, pp. 1989-1992, 2000.
52. Y. Wu, H. Yan, M. Huang, B. Messer, J. H. Song, and P. Yang, "Inorganic semiconductor nanowires: Rational growth, assembly, and novel properties," Chem.-Eur. J., vol. 8, pp. 1260-1268, 2002.
53. Y. Xia, P. Yang, Y. Sun, Y. Wu, B. Mayers, B. Gates, Y. Yin, F. Kim, and H. Yan, "One-dimensional nanostructures: Synthesis, characterization, and applications," Adv. Mater., vol. 15, pp. 353-389, 2003.
54. Y. Huang, X. Duan, Q. Wei, and C. M. Lieber, "Directed assembly of one-dimensional nanostructures into functional networks," Science, vol. 26, pp. 630-633, 2001.
55. P. A. Smith, C. D. Nordquist, T. N. Jackson, T. S. Mayer, B. R. Martin, J. Mbindyo, and T. E. Mallouk, "Electric-field assisted assembly and alignment of metallic nanowires," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, pp. 1399-1401, 2000.
56. D. J. Bell, Y. Sun, L. Zhang, L. X. Dong, B. J. Nelson, and D. Grützmacher, "Three-dimensional nanosprings for electromechanical sensors," Sens. Actuators A, vol. 130-131, pp. 54-61, 2006.
57. C. T. Black, K. W. Guarini, K. R. Milkove, S. M. Baker, T. P. Russell, and M. T. Tuominen, "Integration of self-assembled diblock copolymers for semiconductor capacitor fabrication," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 79, pp. 409-411, 2001.
58. C. Li, W. Fan, B. Lei, D. Zhang, S. Han, T. Tang, X. Liu, Z. Liu, S. Asano, M. Meyyappan, J. Han, and C. Zhou, "Multilevel memory based on molecular devices," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 84, pp. 1949-1951, 2004.
59. A. O'Riordan, P. Delaney, and G. Redmond, "Field configured assembly: Programed manipulation and self-assembly at the mesoscale," Nano Lett., vol. 4, pp. 761-765, 2004.
60. C.-Y. Tsai, T.-L. Chang, C.-C. Chen, F.-H. Ko, and P.-H. Chen, "An ultra sensitive DNA detection by using gold nanoparticle multilayer in nano-gap electrodes," Microelectron. Eng., vol. 78-79, pp. 546-555, 2005.
61. H.-J. J. Yeh and J. S. Smith, "Fluidic self-aseembly for the integration of GaAs light-emitting diodes on Si substrates," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 6, no. 7, pp. 706-708, Jul. 1994.
62. S. A. Stauth and B. A. Parviz, "Self-assembled single-crystal silicon circuits on plastic," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 103, pp. 13922-13927, 2006.
63. K. F. Bohringer, U. Srinivasan, and R. T. Howe, "Modeling of capillary forces and binding sites for fluidic self-assembly," Proc. IEEE Conf. Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Interlaken, Switzerland, pp. 369-374, 2001.
64. U. Srinivasan, M. A. Helmbrecht, C. Rembe, R. S. Muller, and R. T. Howe, "Fluidic self-assembly of micromirrors onto microactuators using capillary forces," IEEE J. Select Topics Quantum Electron., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 4-11, Jan. 2002.
65. U. Srinivasan, D. Liepmann, and R. T. Howe, "Microstructure to substrate self-assembly using capillary forces," J. Microelectromech. Syst., vol. 10, pp. 17-24, 2001.
66. X. Xiong, Y. Hanein, J. Fang, Y. Wang, W. Wang, D. T. Schwartz, and K. F. Bohringer, "Controlled multibatch self-assembly of microdevices," J. Microelectromech. Syst., vol. 12, pp. 117-127, 2003.
67. K.-F. Bohringer, K. Goldberg, M. Cohn, and R. Howe, "Parallel microassembly with electrostatic force fields," in Proc. 1998 IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics Automation, Leuven, Belgium, 1998, pp. 1204-1211.
68. S. W. Lee and R. Bashir, "Dielectrophoresis and electrohydrodynamics- mediated fluidic assembly of silicon resistors," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 83, pp. 3833-3835, 2003.
69. J. Sasaki, M. Itoh, T. Tamanuki, H. Hatakeyama, S. Kitamura, T. Shimoda, and T. Kato, "Multiple-chip precise self-aligned assembly for hybrid integrated optical modules using Au-Sn solder bumps," IEEE Trans. Adv. Packag., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 569-575, Aug. 2001.
70. R. R. A. Syms, E. M. Yeatman, V. M. Bright, and G. M. Whitesides, "Surface tension-powered self-assembly of microstructures-The state of the art," J. Microelectromech. Syst., vol. 12, pp. 387-417, 2003.
71. W. Zheng, P. Buhlmann, and H. O. Jacobs, "Sequential shape-andsolder- directed self-assembly of functional microsystems," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 101, pp. 12814-12817, 2004.
72. M. Boncheva and G. M. Whitesides, "Templated self-assembly: Formation of folded structures by relaxation of pre-stressed, planar tapes," Adv. Mater., vol. 17, pp. 553-557, 2005.
73. T. L. Breen, J. Tien, S. R. J. Oliver, T. Hadzic, and G. M. Whitesides, "Design and self-assembly of open, regular, 3D mesostructures," Science, vol. 284, pp. 948-952, 1999.
74. A. H. Cannon, Y. Hua, C. L. Henderson, and W. P. King, "Self-assembly for three-dimensional integration of functional electrical components," J. Micromech. Microeng., vol. 15, pp. 2172-2178, 2005.
75. H. Onoe, K. Matsumoto, and I. Shimoyama, "Three-dimensional micro-self-assembly using hydrophobic interaction controlled by self-assembled monolayers," J. Microelectromech. Syst., vol. 13, pp. 603-611, 2004.
76. T. D. Clark, J. Tien, D. C. Duffy, K. E. Paul, and G. M. Whitesides, "Self-assembly of 10-micro meter sized objects into ordered three-dimensional arrays," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 123, pp. 7677-7682, 2001.
77. Q. Li, G. Mathur, M. Homsi, S. Surthi, and V. Misra, Capacitance and conductance characterization of ferrocene-containing self-assembled monolayers 2002.
78. Q. Zhao, Y. Luo, S. Surthi, Q. Li, G. Mathur, S. Gowda, P. R. Larson, M. B. Johnson, and V. Misra, "Redox-active monolayers on nano-scale silicon electrodes," Nanotechnology, vol. 16, pp. 257-261, 2005.
79. G. R. Dholakia, W. Fan, and M. Meyyappan, "Effect of monolayer order and dynamics on the electronic transport of molecular wires," Appl. Phys. A, vol. 80, pp. 1215-1223, 2005.
80. S. Hong, R. Reifenberger, W. Tian, S. Datta, J. Henderson, and C. P. Kubiak, "Molecular conductance spectroscopy of conjugated, phenylbased molecules on Au(111): The effect of end groups on molecular conduction," Superlattices Microstruct., vol. 28, pp. 289-303, 2000.
81. J. J. Stapleton, T. A. Daniel, S. Uppili, O. M. Cabarcos, J. Naciri, R. Shashidhar, and D. L. Allara, "Self-assembly, characterization, and chemical stability of isocryanide-bound molecular wire monolayers on gold and palladium surfaces," Langmuir, vol. 21, pp. 11061-11070, 2005.
82. C. B. Gorman, R. L. Carroll, and R. R. Fuierer, "Negative differential resistance in patterned electroactive self-assembled monolayers," Langmuir, vol. 17, pp. 6923-6930, 2001.
83. A. Salomon, R. Arad-Yellin, A. Shanzer, A. Karton, and D. Cahen, "Stable room-temperature molecular negative differential resistance based on molecule-electrode interface chemistry," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 126, pp. 11648-11657, 2004.
84. S. Zalis, I. Kratochvilova, A. Zambova, J. Mbindyo, and T. S. Mayer, "Combined experimental and theoretical DFT study of molecular nanowires negative differential resistnace and interaction with gold clusters," Eur. Phys. J. E., vol. 18, pp. 201-206, 2005.
85. R. Maboudian, W. R. Ashurst, and C. Carraro, "Self-assembled monolayers as anti-stiction coatings for MEMS: Characteristics and recent developments," Sens. Actuators A, vol. 82, pp. 219-223, 2000.
86. J. A. Rogers, Z. Bao, A. Dodabalapur, and A. Makhija, "Organic smart pixels and complementary inverter circuits formed on plastic substrates by casting and rubber stamping," IEEE Electron Dev. Lett., vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 100-103, Feb. 2000.
87. J. A. Rogers, Z. Bao, M. Meier, A. Dodabalapur, O. J. A. Schueller, and G. M. Whitesides, "Printing, molding, and near-field photolithographic methods for patterning organic lasers, smart pixels and simple circuits," Synth. Met., vol. 115, pp. 5-11, 2000.
88. K. H. Choi, J. P. Bourgoin, S. Auvray, D. Esteve, G. S. Duesberg, S. Roth, and M. Burghard, "Controlled deposition of carbon nanotubes on a patterned substrate," Surface Sci., vol. 462, pp. 195-202, 2000.
89. J. Liu, M. J. Casavant, M. Cox, D. A. Walters, P. Boul, W. Lu, A. J. Rimberg, K. A. Smith, D. T. Colbert, and R. E. Smalley, "Controlled deposition of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes on chemically functionalized templates," Chem. Phys. Lett., vol. 303, pp. 125-129, 1999.
90. S. G. Rao, L. Huang, W. Setyawan, and S. Hong, "Large-scale assembly of carbon nanotubes," Nature, vol. 425, pp. 36-37, 2003.
91. K. K. Berggren, A. Bard, J. L. Wilbur, J. D. Gillaspy, A. G. Helg, J. J. McClelland, S. L. Rolston, W. D. Phillips, M. Prentiss, and G. M. Whitesides, "Microlithography by using neutral metastable atoms and self-assembled monolayers," Science, vol. 269, pp. 1255-1257, 1995.
92. S. Sun and G. J. Leggett, "Generation of nanostructures by scanning near-field photolithography of self-assembled monolayers and wet chemical etching," Nano Lett., vol. 2, pp. 1223-1227, 2002.
93. Z. Deng and C. Mao, "Molecular lithography with DNA nanostructures," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 43, pp. 4068-4070, 2004.
94. N. L. Rosi, C. S. Thaxton, and C. A. Mirkin, "Control of nanoparticle assembly by using DNA-modified diatom templates," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 43, pp. 5500-5503, 2004.
95. J. Yang, M. Mayer, J. K. Kriebel, P. Garstecki, and G. M. Whitesides, "Self-assembled aggregates of IgGs as templates for the growth of clusters of gold nanoparticles," Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 43, pp. 1555-1558, 2004.
96. Z. Deng and C. Mao, "DNA-templated fabrication of 1D parallel and 2D crossed metallic nanowire arrays," Nano Lett., vol. 3, pp. 1545-1548, 2003.
97. J. Zhang, Y. Ma, S. Stachura, and H. He, "Assembly of highly aligned DNA strands onto Si chips," Langmuir, vol. 21, pp. 4180-4184, 2005.
98. H. Yan, S. H. Park, G. Finkelstein, J. H. Reif, and T. H. LaBean, "DNA-templated self-assembly of protein arrays and highly conductive nanowires," Science, vol. 301, pp. 1882-1884, 2003.
99. E. Jeoung, T. H. Galow, J. Schotter, M. Bal, A. Ursache, M. T. Tuominen, C. M. Stafford, T. P. Russell, and V. M. Rotello, "Fabrication and characterization of nanoelectrode arrays formed via block copolymer self-assembly," Langmuir, vol. 17, pp. 6396-6398, 2001.
100. A. C. Edrington, A. M. Urbas, P. DeRege, C. X. Chen, T. M. Swager,N. Hadjichristidis, M. Xenidou, L. J. Fetters, J. D. Joannopoulos, Y. Fink, and E. L. Thomas, "Polymer-based photonic crystals," Adv. Mater., vol. 13, pp. 421-425, 2001.
101. J. Germain, J. Hradil, J. M. J. Frechet, and F. Svec, "High surface area nanoporous polymers for reversible hydrogen storage," Chem. Mater., vol. 18, pp. 4430-4435, 2006.
102. J. Y. Cheng, A. M. Mayes, and C. A. Ross, "Nanostructure engineering by templated self-assembly of block copolymers," Nat. Mater., vol. 3, pp. 823-828, 2004.
103. K. C. Daoulas, M. Muller, M. P. Stoykovich, S. M. Park, Y. J. Papakonstantopoulos, J. J. de Pablo, P. F. Nealey, and H. H. Solak, "Fabrication of complex three-dimensional nanostructures from self-assembling block copolymer materials on two-dimensional chemically patterned templates with mismatched symmetry," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 96, pp. 036104-, 2006.
104. S. O. Kim, H. H. Solak, M. P. Stoykovich, N. J. Ferrier, J. J. de Pablo, and P. F. Nealey, "Epitaxial self-assembly of block copolymers on lithographically defined nanopatterned substrates," Nature, vol. 424, pp. 411-414, 2003.
105. S. M. Park, M. P. Stoykovich, R. Ruiz, Y. Zhang, C. T. Black, and P. E. Nealey, "Directed assembly of lamellae-forming block copolymers by using chemically and topographically patterned substrates," Adv. Mater., vol. 19, pp. 607-, 2007.
106. H.-C. Kim, X. Jia, C. M. Stafford, D. H. Kim, T. J. McCarthy, M. Tuominen, C. J. Hawker, and T. P. Russell, A route to nanoscopic SiO posts via block copolymer templates vol. 13, pp. 795-797, 2001.
107. T. Thum-Albrecht, J. Schotter, G. A. Kastle, N. Emley, T. Shibauchi, L. Krusin-Elbaum, K. Guarini, C. T. Black, M. T. Tuominen, and T. P. Russell, "Ultrahigh-density nanowire arrays grown in self-assembled diblock copolymer templates," Science, vol. 290, pp. 2126-2129, 2000.
108. V. Gowrishankar, N. Miller, M. D. McGehee, M. J. Misner, D. Y. Ryu, T. P. Russell, E. Drockenmuller, and C. J. Hawker, "Fabrication of densely packed, well-ordered, high-aspect-ratio silicon nanopillars over large areas using block copolymer lithography," Thin Solid Films, vol. 513, pp. 289-294, 2006.
109. D. Zschech, D. H. Kim, A. P. Milenin, S. Hopfe, R. Scholz, P. Goring, R. Hillebrand, S. Senz, C. J. Hawker, T. P. Russell, M. Steinhart, and U. Gosele, "High-temperature resistant, ordered gold nanoparticle arrays," Nanotechnology, vol. 17, pp. 2122-2126, 2006.
110. D. H. Kim, K. H. A. Lau, W. Joo, J. Peng, U. Jeong, C. J. Hawker, J. K. Kim, T. P. Russell, and W. Knoll, "An optical waveguide study on the nanopore formation in block copolymer/homopolymer thin films by selective solvent swelling," J. Phys. Chemistry B, vol. 110, pp. 15381-15388, 2006.
111. J. Y. Cheng, C. A. Ross, V. Z.-H. Chan, E. L. Thomas, R. G. H. Lammertink, and G. J. Vancso, "Formation of a cobalt magnetic dot array via block copolymer lithography," Adv. Mater., vol. 13, pp. 1174-1178, 2001.
112. T. B. Stachowiak, F. Svec, and J. M. J. Frechet, "Patternable protein resistant surfaces for multifunctional microfluidic devices via surface hydrophilization of porous polymer monoliths using photografting," Chemistry Mater., vol. 18, pp. 5950-5957, 2006.
113. T. Breiner, K. Kreger, R. Hagen, M. Hackel, L. Kador, A. H. E.Muller, E. J. Kramer, and H. W. Schmidt, "Blends of poly(methacrylate) block copolymers with photoaddressable segments," Macromolecules, vol. 40, pp. 2100-2108, 2007.
114. A. O'Neil and J. J. Watkins, "Fabrication of device nanostructures using supercritical fluids," MRS Bull., vol. 30, pp. 967-975, 2005.
115. T. J. Francis, B. D. Vogt, M. X. Wang, and J. J. Watkins, "Scaling of interdomain spacing of diblock copolymers in a selective diluent," Macromolecules, vol. 40, pp. 2515-2519, 2007.
116. L. Dong, V. Chirayos, J. Bush, J. Jiao, V. M. Dubin, R. V. Chebian, Y. Ono, J. F. C. Jr, and B. D. Ulrich, "Floating-potential dielectrophoresiscontrolled fabrication of single-carbon-nanotube transistors and their electrical properties," J. Phys. Chem. B, vol. 109, pp. 13148-13153, 2005.
117. R. Krupke, F. Hennrich, H. V. Lohneysen, and M. M. Kappes, "Separation of metallic from semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes," Science, vol. 301, pp. 344-347, 2003.
118. M. D. Morariu, N. E. Voicu, E. Schaffer, Z. Lin, T. P. Russell, and U. Steiner, "Hierarchical structure formation and pattern replication induced by an electric field," Nature, vol. 2, pp. 48-52, 2002.
119. T. Thurn-Albrecht, J. DeRouchey, T. P. Russell, and H. M. Jaeger, "Overcoming interfacial interactions with electric fields," Macromolecules, vol. 33, pp. 3250-3253, 2000.
120. H. Xiang, Y. Lin, and T. P. Russell, "Electrically induced patterning in block copolymer films," Macromolecules, vol. 37, pp. 5358-5363, 2004.
121. K. Schmidt, H. G. Schoberth, F. Schubert, H. Hansel, F. Fischer, T.M. Weiss, G. J. A. Sevink, A. V. Zvelindovsky, A. Boker, and G. Krausch, "Scaling behavior of the reorientation kinetics of block copolymers exposed to electric fields," Soft Matter, vol. 3, pp. 448-453, 2007.
122. E. Schaffer, T. Thurn-Albrecht, T. P. Russell, and U. Steiner, "Electrically induced structure formation and pattern transfer," Nature, vol. 403, pp. 874-877, 2000.
123. D. Kim and W. Lu, "Three-dimensional model of electrostatically induced pattern formation in thin polymer films," Phys. Rev. B, vol. 73, pp. 035206-, 2006.
124. W. Lu and D. Kim, "Patterning nanoscale structures by surface chemistry," Nano Lett., vol. 4, pp. 313-316, 2004.
125. W. Lu and D. Kim, "Engineering nanophase self-assembly with elastic field," Acta Mater., vol. 53, pp. 3689-3694, 2005.
126. D. Salac, W. Lu, C. W. Wang, and A. M. Sastry, "Pattern formation in a polymer thin film induced by an in-plane electric field," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 85, pp. 1161-1163, 2004.
127. W. Lu and D. Salac, "Patterning multilayers of molecules via self-organization," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 94, pp. 146103-, 2005.
128. W. Lu, H. Koerner, and R. Vaia, "Effect of electric field on exfoliation of nanoplates," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 89, pp. 223118-, 2006.
129. H. Omi, D. J. Bottomley, and T. Ogino, "Strain distribution control on the silicon wafer scale for advanced nanostructure fabrication," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 80, pp. 1073-1075, 2002.
130. H. Omi, D. J. Bottomley, Y. Homma, and T. Ogino, "Wafer-scale strain engineering on silicon for fabrication of ultimately controlled nanostructures," Phys. Rev. B, vol. 67, p. 115302, 2003.
131. D. Salac and W. Lu, "Design nanocrack patterns in heterogeneous films," Nanotechnology, vol. 17, pp. 5185-5191, 2006.
132. J. Li, R. Xing, W. Huang, and Y. Han, "A self-assembly approach to fabricate the patterned colloidal crystals with a tunable structure," Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, vol. 269, pp. 22-27, 2005.
133. H. Miguez, S. M.Yang, and G. A. Ozin, "Optical properties of colloidal photonic crystals confined in rectangular microchannels," Langmuir, vol. 19, pp. 3479-3485, 2003.
134. X. Xu, S. A. Majetich, and S. A. Asher, "Mesoscopic monodisperse ferromagnetic colloids enable magnetically controlled photonic crystals," J. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 124, pp. 13864-13868, 2002.
135. J. L. Gray, S. Atha, R. Hull, and J. A. Floro, "Hierarchical self-assembly of epitaxial semiconductor nanostructures," Nano Lett., vol. 4, pp. 2447-2450, 2004.
136. J. L. Gray, N. Singh, D. M. Elzey, and R. Hull, "Kinetic size selection mechanisms in heteroepitaxial quantum dot molecules," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 92, pp. 135504-, 2004.
137. 1-x Ge /Si via combinatorial deposition," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 83, pp. 5205-5207, 2003.
138. I. Amlani, A. O. Orlov, G. Toth, G. H. Bernstein, C. S. Lent, and G. L. Snider, "Digital logic gate using quantum-dot cellular automata," Science, vol. 284, pp. 289-291, 1999.
139. C. S. Lent, P. D. Tougaw, W. Porod, and G. H. Bernstein, "Quantum cellular automata," Nanotechnology, vol. 1, pp. 49-57, 1993.
140. W. Lu and D. Salac, "Interactions of metallic quantum dots on a semiconductor substrate," Phys. Rev. B, vol. 74, p. 073304, 2006.