Scanning probe characterization of heterostructured colloidal nanomaterials

Chemical Reviews

Volumn 115, Issue 16, 2015, Pages 8157-8181

  Nanayakkara, Sanjini U ^a   Van De Lagemaat, Jao ^a   Luther, Joseph M ^a  

^a NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHEMICAL DETECTION; NANOTECHNOLOGY;

COLLOIDAL NANOMATERIALS; ENERGY LEVEL ALIGNMENT; HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION; HIGH-RESOLUTION MEASUREMENTS; MULTIDIMENSIONAL SPECTROSCOPY; NANO-CRYSTAL MATERIALS; SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION; SINGLE-MOLECULE DETECTION;

LEAD METALLOGRAPHY;

EID: 84940517381     PISSN: 00092665     EISSN: 15206890     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/cr500280t     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. Alferov, Z. I. Nobel Lecture: The double heterostucture concept and its application in physics, electronics, and technology. Rev. Mod. Phys. 2001, 73, 767-782.
2. Gubanov, A. I. Theory of the contact between two semiconductors with different types of conduction. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 1950, 20, 1287.
3. Gubanov, A. I. Theory of the contact of two semiconductors of the same conductivity. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 1951, 21, 304.
4. Kroemer, H. Theory of a wide-gap emitter for transistors. Proc. IRE 1957, 45, 1535.
5. Kroemer, H. Quasi-electric and quasi-magnetic fields in nonuniform semiconductor. RCA Rev. 1957, 28.
6. Beneking, H.; Grote, A.; Roth, W.; Svilans, M. N. GaAs-GaAlAs phototransistor/laser light amplifier. Electron. Lett. 1980, 16, 602-603.
7. Feng, M.; Holonyak, N.; Chan, R. Quantum-well-base heterojunction bipolar light-emitting transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 84, 1952-1954.
8. Feng, M.; Holonyak, N.; Hafez, W. Light-emitting transistor: Light emission from InGaP/GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistors. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 84, 151-153.
9. Xu, H.; Iverson, E. W.; Cheng, K. Y.; Feng, M. Physical origins of nonlinearity in InP double heterojunction bipolar transistors. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2012, 100, 100.
10. Kulkarni, A. P.; Tonzola, C. J.; Babel, A.; Jenekhe, S. A. Electron transport materials for organic light-emitting diodes. Chem. Mater. 2004, 16, 4556-4573.
11. So, F.; Kido, J.; Burrows, P. Organic light-emitting devices for solid-state lighting. MRS Bull. 2008, 33, 663-669.
12. Wu, Q.-H. Progress in Modification of Indium-Tin Oxide/ Organic Interfaces for Organic Light-Emitting Diodes. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2013, 38, 318-352.
13. Kroemer, H. A proposed class of heterojunction injection lasers. Proc. IEEE 1963, 51, 1782.
14. Walter, G.; Holonyak, N.; Feng, M.; Chan, R. Laser operation of a heterojunction bipolar light-emitting transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 85, 4768-4770.
15. Chu, T. L.; Chu, S. S. Thin-Film Ii-Vi Photovoltaics. Solid-State Electron. 1995, 38, 533-549.
16. Fthenakis, V. Sustainability of photovoltaics: The case for thinfilm solar cells. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 2009, 13, 2746-2750.
17. Hagfeldt, A.; Gratzel, M. Molecular photovoltaics. Acc. Chem. Res. 2000, 33, 269-277.
18. Romeo, A.; Terheggen, A.; Abou-Ras, D.; Batzner, D. L.; Haug, F. J.; Kalin, M.; Rudmann, D.; Tiwari, A. N. Development of thin-film Cu(In,Ga)Se-2 and CdTe solar cells. Prog. Photovoltaics 2004, 12, 93-111.
19. Shah, A.; Torres, P.; Tscharner, R.; Wyrsch, N.; Keppner, H. Photovoltaic technology: The case for thin-film solar cells. Science 1999, 285, 692-698.
20. Margaritondo, G. Heterojunction Band Discontinuities - a Fundamental Problem in Solid-State Science. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B: Microelectron. Process. Phenom. 1993, 11, 1362-1369.
21. Tejedor, C.; Flores, F. A simple approach to heterojunctions. J. Phys. C: Solid State Phys. 1978, 11, L19-L24.
22. Mahler, B.; Spinicelli, P.; Buil, S.; Quelin, X.; Hermier, J. P.; Dubertret, B. Towards non-blinking colloidal quantum dots. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 659-664.
23. Reiss, P.; Protiere, M.; Li, L. Core/Shell Semiconductor Nanocrystals. Small 2009, 5, 154-168.
24. Spinicelli, P.; Buil, S.; Quelin, X.; Mahler, B.; Dubertret, B.; Hermier, J. P. Bright and Grey States in CdSe-CdS Nanocrystals Exhibiting Strongly Reduced Blinking. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2009, 102, 136801.
25. Wang, X. Y.; Ren, X. F.; Kahen, K.; Hahn, M. A.; Rajeswaran, M.; Maccagnano-Zacher, S.; Silcox, J.; Cragg, G. E.; Efros, A. L.; Krauss, T. D. Non-blinking semiconductor nanocrystals. Nature 2009, 459, 686-689.
26. Pandey, A.; Guyot-Sionnest, P. Slow Electron Cooling in Colloidal Quantum Dots. Science 2008, 322, 929-932.
27. Garcia-Santamaria, F.; Chen, Y. F.; Vela, J.; Schaller, R. D.; Hollingsworth, J. A.; Klimov, V. I. Suppressed Auger Recombination in "Giant" Nanocrystals Boosts Optical Gain Performance. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 3482-3488.
28. Luther, J. M.; Blackburn, J. L. Optoelectronics Plasmon- Enhanced Plastic Devices. Nat. Photonics 2013, 7, 675-677.
29. Lee, J. S.; Shevchenko, E. V.; Talapin, D. V. Au-PbS core-shell nanocrystals: Plasmonic absorption enhancement and electrical doping via intra-particle charge transfer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 9673.
30. Amirav, L.; Alivisatos, A. P. Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production with Tunable Nanorod Heterostructures. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2010, 1, 1051-1054.
31. Nanayakkara, S. U.; Cohen, G.; Jiang, C.-S.; Romero, M. J.; Maturova, K.; Al-Jassim, M. M.; van de Lagemaat, J.; Rosenwaks, Y.; Luther, J. M. Built-in potential and charge distribution within single heterostructured nanorods measured by scanning Kelvin probe microscopy. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 1278-1284.
32. Rivest, J. B.; Swisher, S. L.; Fong, L. K.; Zheng, H. M.; Alivisatos, A. P. Assembled Monolayer Nanorod Heterojunctions. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 3811-3816.
33. Klar, T. A.; Franzl, T.; Rogach, A. L.; Feldmann, J. Superefficient exciton funneling in layer-by-layer semiconductor nanocrystal structures. Adv. Mater. 2005, 17, 769-773.
34. Rogach, A. L.; Klar, T. A.; Lupton, J. M.; Meijerink, A.; Feldmann, J. Energy transfer with semiconductor nanocrystals. J. Mater. Chem. 2009, 19, 1208-1221.
35. Smith, A. M.; Mohs, A. M.; Nie, S. Tuning the optical and electronic properties of colloidal nanocrystals by lattice strain. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2009, 4, 56-63.
36. Choi, J. S.; Jun, Y. W.; Yeon, S. I.; Kim, H. C.; Shin, J. S.; Cheon, J. Biocompatible heterostructured nanoparticles for multimodal biological detection. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 15982-15983.
37. Fang, C.; Zhang, M. Q. Multifunctional magnetic nanoparticles for medical imaging applications. J. Mater. Chem. 2009, 19, 6258-6266.
38. Beard, M. C.; Luther, J. M.; Semonin, O. E.; Nozik, A. J. Third Generation Photovoltaics based on Multiple Exciton Generation in Quantum Confined Semiconductors. Acc. Chem. Res. 2013, 46, 1252-1260.
39. Kumar, S.; Jones, M.; Lo, S. S.; Scholes, G. D. Nanorod heterostructures showing photoinduced charge separation. Small 2007, 3, 1633-1639.
40. Lee, H.; Yoon, S. W.; Ahn, J. P.; Suh, Y. D.; Lee, J. S.; Lim, H.; Kim, D. Synthesis of type II CdTe/CdSe heterostructure tetrapod nanocrystals for PV applications. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2009, 93, 779-782.
41. Schrier, J.; Demchenko, D. O.; Lin-Wang; Alivisatos, A. P. Optical properties of ZnO/ZnS and ZnO/ZnTe heterostructures for photovoltaic applications. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2377-2382.
42. Semonin, O. E.; Luther, J. M.; Beard, M. C. Quantum dots for next-generation photovoltaics. Mater. Today 2012, 15, 508-515.
43. Acharya, K. P.; Khnayzer, R. S.; O'Connor, T.; Diederich, G.; Kirsanova, M.; Klinkova, A.; Roth, D.; Kinder, E.; Imboden, M.; Zamkov, M. The Role of Hole Localization in Sacrificial Hydrogen Production by Semiconductor-Metal Heterostructured Nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 2919-2926.
44. Wang, C. J.; Kwon, K. W.; Odlyzko, M. L.; Lee, B. H.; Shim, M. PbSe nanocrystal/TiOx heterostructured films: A simple route to nanoscale heterointerfaces and photocatalysis. J. Phys. Chem. C 2007, 111, 11734-11741.
45. Zheng, Y. H.; Zheng, L. R.; Zhan, Y. Y.; Lin, X. Y.; Zheng, Q.; Wei, K. M. Ag/ZnO heterostructure nanocrystals: Synthesis, characterization, and photocatalysis. Inorg. Chem. 2007, 46, 6980-6986.
46. Carbone, L.; Cozzoli, P. D. Colloidal heterostructured nanocrystals: Synthesis and growth mechanisms. Nano Today 2010, 5, 449-493.
47. Costi, R.; Saunders, A. E.; Banin, U. Colloidal Hybrid Nanostructures: A New Type of Functional Materials. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2010, 49, 4878-4897.
48. Hughes, B. K.; Luther, J. M.; Beard, M. C. The Subtle Chemistry of Colloidal, Quantum-Confined Semiconductor Nanostructures. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 4573-4579.
49. Luther, J. M.; Pietryga, J. M. Stoichiometry Control in Quantum Dots: A Viable Analog to Impurity Doping of Bulk Materials. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 1845-1849.
50. Bonnell, D. Pushing resolution limits of functional imaging to probe atomic scale properties. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 1753-1759.
51. Bonnell, D. A.; Basov, D. N.; Bode, M.; Diebold, U.; Kalinin, S. V.; Madhavan, V.; Novotny, L.; Salmeron, M.; Schwarz, U. D.; Weiss, P. S. Imaging physical phenomena with local probes: From electrons to photons. Rev. Mod. Phys. 2012, 84, 1343.
52. Claridge, S. A.; Schwartz, J. J.; Weiss, P. S. Electrons, Photons, and Force: Quantitative Single-Molecule Measurements from Physics to Biology. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 693-729.
53. Moore, A. M.; Weiss, P. S. Functional and Spectroscopic Measurements with Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2008, 1, 857-882.
54. Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. Helv. Phys. Acta. 1982, 55, 726-735.
55. Binnig, G.; Quate, C. F.; Gerber, C. Atomic Force Microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1986, 56, 930-933.
56. Feenstra, R. M.; Stroscio, J. A. Reconstruction of Steps on the Si(111)2 × 1 Surface. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 59, 2173-2176.
57. Feenstra, R. M.; Stroscio, J. A.; Tersoff, J.; Fein, A. P. Atom- Selective Imaging of the Gaas(110) Surface. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 58, 1192-1195.
58. Hamers, R. J.; Tromp, R. M.; Demuth, J. E. Electronic and Geometric Structure of Si(111)-(7 × 7) and Si(001) Surfaces. Surf. Sci. 1987, 181, 346-355.
59. Lyo, I. W.; Avouris, P. Field-Induced Nanometer-Scale to Atomic-Scale Manipulation of Silicon Surfaces with the Stm. Science 1991, 253, 173-176.
60. Barlow, S. M.; Raval, R. Complex organic molecules at metal surfaces: bonding, organisation and chirality. Surf. Sci. Rep. 2003, 50, 201-341.
61. De Feyter, S.; De Schryver, F. C. Two-dimensional supramolecular self-assembly probed by scanning tunneling microscopy. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2003, 32, 139-150.
62. De Wild, M.; Berner, R.; Suzuki, H.; Ramoino, L.; Baratoff, A.; Junga, T. A. Molecular Assembly and Self-Assembly: Molecular Nanoscience for Future Technologies. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006, 1006, 291-305.
63. Dorogi, M.; Gomez, J.; Osifchin, R.; Andres, R. P.; Reifenberger, R. Room-Temperature Coulomb-Blockade from a Self-Assembled Molecular Nanostructure. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1995, 52, 9071-9077.
64. Osifchin, R. G.; Mahoney, W. J.; Bielefeld, J. D.; Andres, R. P.; Henderson, J. I.; Kubiak, C. P. Superlattices Microstruct. 1995, 18, 283.
65. Smith, R. K.; Nanayakkara, S. U.; Woehrle, G. H.; Pearl, T. P.; Blake, M. M.; Hutchison, J. E.; Weiss, P. S. Spectral diffusion in the tunneling spectra of ligand-stabilized undecagold clusters. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 9266-9267.
66. Trudeau, P. E.; Escorcia, A.; Dhirani, A. A. Variable single electron charging energies and percolation effects in molecularly linked nanoparticle films. J. Chem. Phys. 2003, 119, 5267-5273.
67. Wang, B.; Wang, H.; Li, H.; Zeng, C.; Hou, J. G.; Xiao, X. Tunable single-electron tunneling behavior of ligand-stabilized gold particles on self-assembled monolayers. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2000, 63, 035403.
68. Xue, Y.; Ratner, M. A. Microscopic theory of single-electron tunneling through molecular-assembled metallic nanoparticles. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2003, 68, 235410.
69. Bakkers, E. P. A. M.; Hens, Z.; Zunger, A.; Franceschetti, A.; Kouwenhoven, L. P.; Gurevich, L.; Vanmaekelbergh, D. Shelltunneling Spectroscopy of the single-particle energy levels of insulating quantum dots. Nano Lett. 2001, 1, 551-556.
70. Banin, U.; Cao, Y.; Katz, D.; Millo, O. Identification of atomiclike electronic states in indium arsenide nanocrystal quantum dots. Nature 1999, 400, 542-544.
71. Banin, U.; Millo, O. Tunneling and optical spectroscopy of semiconductor nanocrystals. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2003, 54, 465-492.
72. Cherniavskaya, O.; Chen, L. W.; Islam, M. A.; Brus, L. Photoionization of individual CdSe/CdS core/shell nanocrystals on silicon with 2-nm oxide depends on surface band bending. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 497-501.
73. Diaconescu, B.; Padilha, L. A.; Nagpal, P.; Swartzentruber, B. S.; Klimov, V. I. Measurement of Electronic States of PbS Nanocrystal Quantum Dots Using Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy: The Role of Parity Selection Rules in Optical Absorption. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2013, 110, 127406.
74. Liljeroth, P.; Jdira, L.; Overgaag, K.; Grandidier, B.; Speller, S.; Vanmaekelbergh, D. Can scanning tunnelling spectroscopy measure the density of states of semiconductor quantum dots? Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2006, 8, 3845-3850.
75. Liljeroth, P.; van Emmichoven, P. A. Z.; Hickey, S. G.; Weller, H.; Grandidier, B.; Allan, G.; Vanmaekelbergh, D. Density of states measured by scanning-tunneling spectroscopy sheds new light on the optical transitions in PbSe nanocrystals. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 95, 086801.
76. Claridge, S. A.; Thomas, J. C.; Silverman, M. A.; Schwartz, J. J.; Yang, Y.; Wang, C. J.; Weiss, P. S. Differentiating Amino Acid Residues and Side Chain Orientations in Peptides Using Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 18528.
77. Engel, A.; Muller, D. J. Observing single biomolecules at work with the atomic force microscope. Nat. Struct. Biol. 2000, 7, 715-718.
78. Hansma, H. G.; Hoh, J. H. Biomolecular Imaging with the Atomic-Force Microscope. Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 1994, 23, 115-139.
79. Kathan-Galipeau, K.; Nanayakkara, S.; O'Brian, P. A.; Nikiforov, M.; Discher, B. M.; Bonnell, D. A. Direct Probe of Molecular Polarization in De Novo Protein-Electrode Interfaces. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 4835-4842.
80. Crisp, R. W.; Schrauben, J. N.; Beard, M. C.; Luther, J. M.; Johnson, J. C. Coherent Exciton Delocalization in Strongly Coupled Quantum Dot Arrays. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 4862-4869.
81. Erslev, P. T.; Chen, H.-Y.; Gao, J. B.; Beard, M. C.; Frank, A. J.; van de Lagemaat, J.; Johnson, J. C.; Luther, J. M. Sharp exponential band tails in highly disordered lead sulfide quantum dot arrays. Phys. Rev. B 2012, 86, 155313.
82. Liljeroth, P.; Overgaag, K.; Urbieta, A.; Grandidier, B.; Hickey, S. G.; Vanmaekelbergh, D. Variable orbital coupling in a twodimensional quantum-dot solid probed on a local scale. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 97, 096803.
83. Steiner, D.; Aharoni, A.; Banin, U.; Millo, O. Level structure of InAs quantum dots in two-dimensional assemblies. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 2201-2205.
84. Chen, C. J. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1990, 65, 448.
85. Chen, C. J. Microscopic view of scanning tunneling microscopy. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 1991, 9, 44-50.
86. Ohnishi, S.; Tsukada, M. Molecular Orbital Theory for scanning tunneling microscopy. Solid State Commun. 1989, 71, 391-394.
87. Weng, S. L.; Plummer, E. W.; Gustafsson, T. Experimental and Theoretical study of the surface resonances on the (100) faces of W and Mo. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1978, 18, 1718-1740.
88. Hallmark, V. M.; Chiang, S.; Rabolt, J. F.; Swalen, J. D.; Wilson, R. J. Observation of atomic corrugation on Au(111) by scanning tunneling microscopy. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 59, 2879-2882.
89. Wintterlin, J.; Trost, J.; Renisch, S.; Schuster, R.; Zambelli, T.; Ertl, G. Real-time STM observations of atomic equilibrium fluctuations in an adsorbate system: O/Ru(0001). Surf. Sci. 1997, 394, 159-169.
90. Moresco, F.; Meyer, G.; Rieder, K. H.; Tang, H.; Gourdon, A.; Joachim, C. Low temperature manipulation of big molecules in constant height mode. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2001, 78, 306-308.
91. Chen, C. J. Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, 2nd ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, 2008; pp 3-5.
92. Coombs, J. H.; Welland, M. E.; Pethica, J. B. Experimental Barrier Heights and the Image Potential in Scanning Tunneling Microscopy. Surf. Sci. 1988, 198, L353-L358.
93. Griffiths, D. J. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 3rd ed.; Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999.
94. Tersoff, J.; Hamann, D. R. Theory and Application for the Scanning Tunneling Microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1983, 50, 1998-2001.
95. Knight, R. D. Physics for Scientists & Engineers: A Strategic Approach; Benjamin Cummings: San Francisco, CA, 2004
96. Tersoff, J.; Hamann, D. R. Theory of the Scanning Tunneling Microscope. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1985, 31, 805-813.
97. Koslowski, B.; Dietrich, C.; Tschetschetkin, A.; Ziemann, P. Evaluation of scanning tunneling spectroscopy data: Approaching a quantitative determination of the electronic density of states. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2007, 75, 035421.
98. Wagner, C.; Franke, R.; Fritz, T. Evaluation of I(V) curves in scanning tunneling spectroscopy of organic nanolayers. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2007, 75, 235432.
99. Bonnell, D. A. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy: Theory, Techniques and Applications; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 1993.
100. Chen, C. J. Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy; Oxford University Press: New York, 1993.
101. Eigler, D. M.; Weiss, P. S.; Schweizer, E. K.; Lang, N. D. Imaging Xe with a Low-Temperature Scanning Tunneling Microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1991, 66, 1189-1192.
102. Feenstra, R. M.; Martensson, P. Fermi-Level Pinning at the Sb/ Gaas(110) Surface Studied by Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1988, 61, 447-450.
103. Feenstra, R. M.; Thompson, W. A.; Fein, A. P. Real-Space Observation of Pi-Bonded Chains and Surface Disorder on Si(111)2 × 1. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1986, 56, 608-611.
104. Salvan, F.; Fuchs, H.; Baratoff, A.; Binnig, G. Au/Si(111) Overlayer - Characterization by Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy. Surf. Sci. 1985, 162, 634-639.
105. Stroscio, J. A.; Feenstra, R. M.; Fein, A. P. Electronic-Structure of the Si(111)2 × 1 Surface by Scanning-Tunneling Microscopy. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1986, 57, 2579-2582.
106. Lee, H. J.; Ho, W. Structural determination by single-molecule vibrational spectroscopy and microscopy: Contrast between copper and iron carbonyls. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2000, 61, R16347-R16350.
107. Pascual, J. I.; Jackiw, J. J.; Song, Z.; Weiss, P. S.; Conrad, H.; Rust, H. P. Adsorbate-substrate vibrational modes of benzene on Ag(110) resolved with scanning tunneling spectroscopy. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2001, 86, 1050-1053.
108. Stipe, B. C.; Rezaei, M. A.; Ho, W. Single-molecule vibrational spectroscopy and microscopy. Science 1998, 280, 1732-1735.
109. Chen, C. J. Theory of Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 1988, 6, 319-322.
110. Zandvliet, H. J. W.; van Houselt, A. Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2009, 2, 37-55.
111. Feenstra, R. M.; Stroscio, J. A.; Fein, A. P. Tunneling spectroscopy of the Si(111) surface. Surf. Sci. 1987, 181, 295-306.
112. Martensson, P.; Feenstra, R. M. Geometric and electronic structure of antimony on the GaAs(110) surface studied by scanning tunneling microscopy. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1989, 39, 7744-7753.
113. Feenstra, R. M.; Meyer, G.; Moresco, F.; Rieder, K. H. Lowtemperature scanning tunneling spectroscopy of semiconductor surfaces. Acta Phys. Pol., A 2003, 104, 205.
114. Talapin, D. V.; Lee, J. S.; Kovalenko, M. V.; Shevchenko, E. V. Prospects of Colloidal Nanocrystals for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 389-458.
115. Crommie, M. F.; Lutz, C. P.; Eigler, D. M. Spectroscopy of a Single Adsorbed Atom. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1993, 48, 2851-2854.
116. Lang, N. D. Spectroscopy of Single Atoms in the Scanning Tunneling Microscope. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1986, 34, 5947-5950.
117. Andres, R. P.; Bein, T.; Dorogi, M.; Feng, S.; Henderson, J. I.; Kubiak, C. P.; Mahoney, W.; Osifchin, R. G.; Reifenberger, R. "Coulomb staircase" at room temperature in a self-assembled molecular nanostructure. Science 1996, 272, 1323-1325.
118. Jdira, L.; Liljeroth, P.; Stoffels, E.; Vanmaekelbergh, D.; Speller, S. Size-dependent single-particle energy levels and interparticle Coulomb interactions in CdSe quantum dots measured by scanning tunneling spectroscopy. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2006, 73, 115305.
119. Jdira, L.; Overgaag, K.; Gerritsen, J.; Vanmaekelbergh, D.; Liljeroth, P.; Speller, S. Scanning Tunnelling Spectroscopy on Arrays of CdSe Quantum Dots: Response of Wave Functions to Local Electric Fields. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 4014-4019.
120. Hahn, J. R.; Lee, H. J.; Ho, W. Electronic resonance and symmetry in single-molecule inelastic electron tunneling. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2000, 85, 1914-1917.
121. Sun, Z. X.; Swart, I.; Delerue, C.; Vanmaekelbergh, D.; Liljeroth, P. Orbital and Charge-Resolved Polaron States in CdSe Dots and Rods Probed by Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2009, 102, 196401.
122. Mocatta, D.; Cohen, G.; Schattner, J.; Millo, O.; Rabani, E.; Banin, U. Heavily Doped Semiconductor Nanocrystal Quantum Dots. Science 2011, 332, 77-81.
123. Bera, A.; Dey, S.; Pal, A. J. Band Mapping Across a pn-junction in a nanorod by scanning tunneling microscopy. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 2000-2005.
124. Steiner, D.; Dorfs, D.; Banin, U.; Della Sala, F.; Manna, L.; Millo, O. Determination of band offsets in heterostructured colloidal nanorods using scanning tunneling spectroscopy. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2954-2958.
125. Steiner, D.; Mokari, T.; Banin, U.; Millo, O. Electronic structure of metal-semiconductor nanojunctions in gold CdSe nanodumbbells. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 95, 056805.
126. Katz, D.; Millo, O.; Kan, S. H.; Banin, U. Control of charging in resonant tunneling through InAs nanocrystal quantum dots. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2001, 79, 117-119.
127. Bakkers, E. P. A. M.; Vanmaekelbergh, D. Resonant electron tunneling through semiconducting nanocrystals in a symmetrical and an asymmetrical junction. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2000, 62, R7743-R7746.
128. Garcia, R.; Herruzo, E. T. The emergence of multifrequency force microscopy. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2012, 7, 217-226.
129. Carpick, R. W.; Salmeron, M. Scratching the surface: Fundamental investigations of tribology with atomic force microscopy. Chem. Rev. 1997, 97, 1163-1194.
130. Frommer, J. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy in Organic Chemistry. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1992, 31, 1298.
131. Noy, A.; Friddle, R. W. Practical single molecule force spectroscopy: How to determine fundamental thermodynamic parameters of intermolecular bonds with an atomic force microscope. Methods 2013, 60, 142-150.
132. Whited, A. M.; Park, P. S.-H. Atomic force microscopy: A multifaceted tool to study membrane proteins and their interactions with ligands. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Biomembr. 2014, 1838, 56.
133. Xu, L.-C.; Siedlecki, C. A. Atomic Force Microscopy. In Comprehensive Biomaterials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 2011; Vol. 3, pp 23- 25.
134. Costi, R.; Cohen, G.; Salant, A.; Rabani, E.; Banin, U. Electrostatic Force Microscopy Study of Single Au-CdSe Hybrid Nanodumbbells: Evidence for Light-Induced Charge Separation. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 2031-2039.
135. gross, L.; Mohn, F.; Liljeroth, P.; Repp, J.; Giessibl, F. J.; Meyer, G. Measuring the Charge State of an Adatom with Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy. Science 2009, 324, 1428-1431.
136. Pingree, L. S. C.; Reid, O. G.; Ginger, D. S. Electrical Scanning Probe Microscopy on Active Organic Electronic Devices. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 19-28.
137. Zaniewski, A. M.; Loster, M.; Sadtler, B.; Alivisatos, A. P.; Zettl, A. Direct measurement of the built-in potential in a nanoscale heterostructure. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2010, 82, 155311.
138. Lei, C. H.; Das, A.; Elliott, M.; Macdonald, J. E. Quantitative electrostatic force microscopy-phase measurements. Nanotechnology 2004, 15, 627-634.
139. Ding, X. D.; An, J.; Xu, J. B.; Li, C.; Zeng, R. Y. Improving lateral resolution of electrostatic force microscopy by multifrequency method under ambient conditions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2009, 94, 223109.
140. Kikukawa, A.; Hosaka, S.; Imura, R. Silicon Pn Junction Imaging and Characterizations Using Sensitivity Enhanced Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1995, 66, 3510-3512.
141. Brukman, M. J.; Bonnell, D. A. Probing physical properties at the nanoscale. Phys. Today 2008, 61, 36-42.
142. Jiang, C. S.; Moutinho, H. R.; Friedman, D. J.; Geisz, J. F.; Al- Jassim, M. M. Measurement of built-in electrical potential in III-V solar cells by scanning Kelvin probe microscopy. J. Appl. Phys. 2003, 93, 10035-10040.
143. Melitz, W.; Shen, J.; Kummel, A. C.; Lee, S. Kelvin probe force microscopy and its application. Surf. Sci. Rep. 2011, 66, 1-27.
144. Heyde, M.; Kulawik, M.; Rust, H. P.; Freund, H. J. Double quartz tuning fork sensor for low temperature atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopy. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2004, 75, 2446-2450.
145. Maturova, K.; Nanayakkara, S. U.; Luther, J. M.; van de Lagemaat, J. Fast Current Blinking in Individual PbS and CdSe Quantum dots. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 2338-2345.
146. Alivisatos, A. P. Semiconductor clusters, nanocrystals, and quantum dots. Science 1996, 271, 933-937.
147. Murray, C. B.; Kagan, C. R.; Bawendi, M. G. Synthesis and characterization of monodisperse nanocrystals and close-packed nanocrystal assemblies. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 2000, 30, 545-610.
148. Dalven, R. Electronic Structure of PbS, PbSe, and PbTe. In Solid State Physics; Ehrenreich, H., Seitz, F., Turnbull, D. E., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, 1973; Vol. 28, pp 179-224.
149. Niquet, Y. M.; Delerue, C.; Allan, G.; Lannoo, M. Interpretation and theory of tunneling experiments on single nanostructures. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2002, 65, 165334.
150. Zaknoon, B.; Bahir, G.; Saguy, C.; Edrei, R.; Hoffman, A.; Rao, R. A.; Muralidhar, R.; Chang, K. M. Study of single silicon quantum dots' band gap and single-electron charging energies by room temperature scanning tunneling microscopy. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 1689-1694.
151. Gao, J. B.; Jeong, S.; Lin, F.; Erslev, P. T.; Semonin, O. E.; Luther, J. M.; Beard, M. C. Improvement in carrier transport properties by mild thermal annealing of PbS quantum dot solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2013, 102, 043506.
152. Law, M.; Luther, J. M.; Song, O.; Hughes, B. K.; Perkins, C. L.; Nozik, A. J. Structural, optical, and electrical properties of PbSe nanocrystal solids treated thermally or with simple amines. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 5974-5985.
153. Luther, J. M.; Law, M.; Beard, M. C.; Song, Q.; Reese, M. O.; Ellingson, R. J.; Nozik, A. J. Schottky Solar Cells Based on Colloidal Nanocrystal Films. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 3488-3492.
154. Luther, J. M.; Law, M.; Song, Q.; Perkins, C. L.; Beard, M. C.; Nozik, A. J. Structural, optical and electrical properties of selfassembled films of PbSe nanocrystals treated with 1,2-ethanedithiol. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 271-280.
155. Talapin, D. V.; Murray, C. B. PbSe nanocrystal solids for nand p-channel thin film field-effect transistors. Science 2005, 310, 86-89.
156. Tang, J. Y.; Huo, Z. Y.; Brittman, S.; Gao, H. W.; Yang, P. D. Solution-processed core-shell nanowires for efficient photovoltaic cells. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 568-572.
157. Urban, J. J.; Talapin, D. V.; Shevchenko, E. V.; Kagan, C. R.; Murray, C. B. Synergismin binary nanocrystal superlattices leads to enhanced p-type conductivity in self-assembled PbTe/Ag-2 Te thin films. Nat. Mater. 2007, 6, 115-121.
158. Jeong, K. S.; Tang, J.; Liu, H.; Kim, J.; Schaefer, A. W.; Kemp, K.; Levina, L.; Wang, X. H.; Hoogland, S.; Debnath, R.; et al. Enhanced Mobility-Lifetime Products in PbS Colloidal Quantum Dot Photovoltaics. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 89-99.
159. Nagpal, P.; Klimov, V. I. Role of mid-gap states in charge transport and photoconductivity in semiconductor nanocrystal films. Nat. Commun. 2011, 2, 486.
160. Tang, J.; Kemp, K. W.; Hoogland, S.; Jeong, K. S.; Liu, H.; Levina, L.; Furukawa, M.; Wang, X. H.; Debnath, R.; Cha, D. K.; et al. Colloidal-quantum-dot photovoltaics using atomic-ligand passivation. Nat. Mater. 2011, 10, 765-771.
161. Liu, Y.; Gibbs, M.; Puthussery, J.; Gaik, S.; Ihly, R.; Hillhouse, H. W.; Law, M. Dependence of Carrier Mobility on Nanocrystal Size and Ligand Length in PbSe Nanocrystal Solids. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 1960-1969.
162. Liu, Y.; Tolentino, J.; Gibbs, M.; Ihly, R.; Perkins, C. L.; Liu, Y.; Crawford, N.; Hemminger, J. C.; Law, M. PbSe Quantum Dot Field-Effect Transistors with Air-Stable Electron Mobilities above 7 cm(2) V-1 s(-1). Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 1578-1587.
163. Grinbom, G. A.; Saraf, M.; Saguy, C.; Bartnik, A. C.; Wise, F.; Lifshitz, E. Density of states in a single PbSe/PbS core-shell quantum dot measured by scanning tunneling spectroscopy. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2010, 81, 245301.
164. Kang, I.; Wise, F. W. Electronic structure and optical properties of PbS and PbSe quantum dots. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 1997, 14, 1632-1646.
165. Zhang, Y.; Zherebetskyy, D.; Bronstein, N. D.; Barja, S.; Lichtenstein, L.; Schuppisser, D.; Wang, L.-W.; Alivisatos, A. P.; Salmeron, M. Charge Percolation Pathways Guided by Defects in Quantum Dot Solids. Nano Lett. 2015, 15, 3249.
166. Frantsuzov, P.; Kuno, M.; Janko, B.; Marcus, R. A. Universal emission intermittency in quantum dots, nanorods and nanowires. Nat. Phys. 2008, 4, 519-522.
167. Kuno, M.; Fromm, D. P.; Hamann, H. F.; Gallagher, A.; Nesbitt, D. J. "On"/"off" fluorescence intermittency of single semiconductor quantum dots. J. Chem. Phys. 2001, 115, 1028-1040.
168. Nirmal, M.; Dabbousi, B. O.; Bawendi, M. G.; Macklin, J. J.; Trautman, J. K.; Harris, T. D.; Brus, L. E. Fluorescence intermittency in single cadmium selenide nanocrystals. Nature 1996, 383, 802-804.
169. Shimizu, K. T.; Neuhauser, R. G.; Leatherdale, C. A.; Empedocles, S. A.; Woo, W. K.; Bawendi, M. G. Blinking statistics in single semiconductor nanocrystal quantum dots. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2001, 63, 205316.
170. Chen, Y.; Vela, J.; Htoon, H.; Casson, J. L.; Werder, D. J.; Bussian, D. A.; Klimov, V. I.; Hollingsworth, J. A. "Giant" multishell CdSe nanocrystal quantum dots with suppressed blinking. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 5026.
171. Efros, A. L. Nanocrystals - Almost always bright. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 612-613.
172. Fomenko, V.; Nesbitt, D. J. Solution control of radiative and nonradiative lifetimes: A novel contribution to quantum dot blinking suppression. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 287-293.
173. Galland, C.; Ghosh, Y.; Steinbruck, A.; Hollingsworth, J. A.; Htoon, H.; Klimov, V. I. Lifetime blinking in nonblinking nanocrystal quantum dots. Nat. Commun. 2012, 3, 908.
174. Hohng, S.; Ha, T. Near-complete suppression of quantum dot blinking in ambient conditions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 1324-1325.
175. Malko, A. V.; Park, Y. S.; Sampat, S.; Galland, C.; Vela, J.; Chen, Y. F.; Hollingsworth, J. A.; Klimov, V. I.; Htoon, H. Pump- Intensity- and Shell-Thickness-Dependent Evolution of Photoluminescence Blinking in Individual Core/Shell CdSe/CdS Nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 5213-5218.
176. Zhao, J.; Nair, G.; Fisher, B. R.; Bawendi, M. G. Challenge to the Charging Model of Semiconductor-Nanocrystal Fluorescence Intermittency from Off-State Quantum Yields and Multiexciton Blinking. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2010, 104, 157403.
177. Efros, A. L.; Rosen, M. Random telegraph signal in the photoluminescence intensity of a single quantum dot. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1997, 78, 1110-1113.
178. Galland, C.; Ghosh, Y.; Steinbruck, A.; Sykora, M.; Hollingsworth, J. A.; Klimov, V. I.; Htoon, H. Two types of luminescence blinking revealed by spectroelectrochemistry of single quantum dots. Nature 2011, 479, 203-U275.
179. Jeong, S.; Achermann, M.; Nanda, J.; Ivanov, S.; Klimov, V. I.; Hollingsworth, J. A. Effect of the thiol-thiolate equilibrium on the photophysical properties of aqueous CdSe/ZnS nanocrystal quantum dots. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 10126-10127.
180. Jin, S. Y.; Song, N. H.; Lian, T. Q. Suppressed Blinking Dynamics of Single QDs on ITO. ACS Nano 2010, 4, 1545-1552.
181. Klokkenburg, M.; Houtepen, A. J.; Koole, R.; de Folter, J. W. J.; Erne, B. H.; van Faassen, E.; Vanmaekelbergh, D. Dipolar structures in colloidal dispersions of PbSe and CdSe quantum dots. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2931-2936.
182. Talapin, D. V.; Nelson, J. H.; Shevchenko, E. V.; Aloni, S.; Sadtler, B.; Alivisatos, A. P. Seeded growth of highly luminescent CdSe/CdS nanoheterostructures with rod and tetrapod morphologies. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2951-2959.
183. Talapin, D. V.; Shevchenko, E. V.; Murray, C. B.; Titov, A. V.; Kral, P. Dipole-dipole interactions in nanoparticle superlattices. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 1213-1219.
184. Blanton, S. A.; Leheny, R. L.; Hines, M. A.; GuyotSionnest, P. Dielectric dispersion measurements of CdSe nanocrystal colloids: Observation of a permanent dipole moment. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1997, 79, 865-868.
185. Li, L. S.; Alivisatos, A. P. Origin and scaling of the permanent dipole moment in CdSe nanorods. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2003, 90, 097402.
186. Shim, M.; Guyot-Sionnest, P. Permanent dipole moment and charges in colloidal semiconductor quantum dots. J. Chem. Phys. 1999, 111, 6955-6964.
187. Rabani, E. Structure and electrostatic properties of passivated CdSe nanocrystals. J. Chem. Phys. 2001, 115, 1493-1497.
188. Rabani, E.; Hetenyi, B.; Berne, B. J.; Brus, L. E. Electronic properties of CdSe nanocrystals in the absence and presence of a dielectric medium. J. Chem. Phys. 1999, 110, 5355-5369.
189. Krishnan, R.; Hahn, M. A.; Yu, Z. H.; Silcox, J.; Fauchet, P. M.; Krauss, T. D. Polarization surface-charge density of single semiconductor quantum rods. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2004, 92, 216803.
190. Ben-Porat, C. H.; Cherniavskaya, O.; Brus, L.; Cho, K. S.; Murray, C. B. Electric fields on oxidized silicon surfaces: Static polarization of PbSe nanocrystals. J. Phys. Chem. A 2004, 108, 7814-7819.
191. Chan, T. L.; Tiago, M. L.; Kaxiras, E.; Chelikowsky, J. R. Size limits on doping phosphorus into silicon nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 596-600.
192. Dalpian, G. M.; Chelikowsky, J. R. Self-purification in semiconductor nanocrystals. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 96, 226802.
193. Erwin, S. C.; Zu, L. J.; Haftel, M. I.; Efros, A. L.; Kennedy, T. A.; Norris, D. J. Doping semiconductor nanocrystals. Nature 2005, 436, 91-94.
194. Turnbull, D. J. J. Appl. Phys. 1950, 21, 1022.
195. Koh, W.; Koposov, A. Y.; Stewart, J. T.; Pal, B. N.; Robel, I.; Pietryga, J. M.; Klimov, V. I. Heavily doped n-type PbSe and PbS nanocrystals using ground-state charge transfer from cobaltocene. Sci. Rep. 2013, 3, 2004.
196. Lee, J. S.; Kovalenko, M. V.; Huang, J.; Chung, D. S.; Talapin, D. V. Band-like transport, high electron mobility and high photoconductivity in all-inorganic nanocrystal arrays. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 348-352.
197. Choi, J. H.; Fafarman, A. T.; Oh, S. J.; Ko, D. K.; Kim, D. K.; Diroll, B. T.; Muramoto, S.; Gillen, J. G.; Murray, C. B.; Kagan, C. R. Bandlike Transport in Strongly Coupled and Doped Quantum Dot Solids: A Route to High-Performance Thin-Film Electronics. Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 2631-2638.
198. Oh, S. J.; Berry, N. E.; Choi, J. H.; Gaulding, E. A.; Paik, T.; Hong, S. H.; Murray, C. B.; Kagan, C. R. Stoichiometric Control of Lead Chalcogenide Nanocrystal Solids to Enhance Their Electronic and Optoelectronic Device Performance. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 2413-2421.
199. Buonsanti, R.; Milliron, D. J. Chemistry of Doped Colloidal Nanocrystals. Chem. Mater. 2013, 25, 1305-1317.
200. Wolf, O.; Dasog, M.; Yang, Z.; Balberg, I.; Veinot, J. G. C.; Millo, O. Doping and Quantum Confinement Effects in Single Si Nanocrystals Observed by Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 2516-2521.
201. Dabbousi, B. O.; RodriguezViejo, J.; Mikulec, F. V.; Heine, J. R.; Mattoussi, H.; Ober, R.; Jensen, K. F.; Bawendi, M. G. (CdSe)ZnS core-shell quantum dots: Synthesis and characterization of a size series of highly luminescent nanocrystallites. J. Phys. Chem. B 1997, 101, 9463-9475.
202. Kim, S.; Fisher, B.; Eisler, H. J.; Bawendi, M. Type-II quantum dots: CdTe/CdSe(core/shell) and CdSe/ZinTe(core/shell) heterostructures. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 11466-11467.
203. Peng, X. G.; Schlamp, M. C.; Kadavanich, A. V.; Alivisatos, A. P. Epitaxial growth of highly luminescent CdSe/CdS core/shell nanocrystals with photostability and electronic accessibility. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7019-7029.
204. Kim, S. W.; Zimmer, J. P.; Ohnishi, S.; Tracy, J. B.; Frangioni, J. V.; Bawendi, M. G. Engineering InAsxP1-x/InP/ZnSe III-V alloyed core/shell quantum dots for the near-infrared. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 10526-10532.
205. Wang, D. S.; He, J. B.; Rosenzweig, N.; Rosenzweig, Z. Superparamagnetic Fe2O3 Beads-CdSe/ZnS quantum dots core-shell nanocomposite particles for cell separation. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 409-413.
206. Zimmer, J. P.; Kim, S. W.; Ohnishi, S.; Tanaka, E.; Frangioni, J. V.; Bawendi, M. G. Size series of small indium arsenide-zinc selenide core-shell nanocrystals and their application to in vivo imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 2526-2527.
207. Schlamp, M. C.; Peng, X. G.; Alivisatos, A. P. Improved efficiencies in light emitting diodes made with CdSe(CdS) core/shell type nanocrystals and a semiconducting polymer. J. Appl. Phys. 1997, 82, 5837-5842.
208. Yang, H. S.; Holloway, P. H. Electroluminescence from hybrid conjugated polymer - CdS: Mn/ZnS core/shell nanocrystals devices. J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 9705-9710.
209. Chaudhuri, R. G.; Paria, S. Core/Shell Nanoparticles: Classes, Properties, Synthesis Mechanisms, Characterization, and Applications. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 2373-2433.
210. Klimov, V. I.; Ivanov, S. A.; Nanda, J.; Achermann, M.; Bezel, I.; McGuire, J. A.; Piryatinski, A. Single-exciton optical gain in semiconductor nanocrystals. Nature 2007, 447, 441-446.
211. Muller, J.; Lupton, J. M.; Lagoudakis, P. G.; Schindler, F.; Koeppe, R.; Rogach, A. L.; Feldmann, J.; Talapin, D. V.; Weller, H. Wave function engineering in elongated semiconductor nanocrystals with heterogeneous carrier confinement. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 2044-2049.
212. Muller, J.; Lupton, J. M.; Rogach, A. L.; Feldmann, J.; Talapin, D. V.; Weller, H. Monitoring surface charge movement in single elongated semiconductor nanocrystals. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2004, 93, 167402.
213. Muller, J.; Lupton, J. M.; Rogach, A. L.; Feldmann, J.; Talapin, D. V.; Weller, H. Monitoring surface charge migration in the spectral dynamics of single CdSe/CdS nanodot/nanorod heterostructures. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 2005, 72, 205339.
214. Swart, I.; Sun, Z. X.; Vanmaekelbergh, D.; Liljeroth, P. Hole- Induced Electron Transport through Core-Shell Quantum Dots: A Direct Measurement of the Electron-Hole Interaction. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 1931-1935.
215. Averin, D. V.; Korotkov, A. N.; Likharev, K. K. Theory of Single-Electron Charging of Quantum-Wells and Dots. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1991, 44, 6199-6211.
216. Delerue, C.; Lannoo, M. Nanostructures: Theory and Modelling; Springer: Berlin, 2004.
217. Likharev, K. K. Single-electron devices and their applications. Proc. IEEE 1999, 87, 606-632.
218. Millo, O.; Katz, D.; Cao, Y. W.; Banin, U. Imaging and spectroscopy of artificial-atom states in core/shell nanocrystal quantum dots. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2001, 86, 5751-5754.
219. Bertram, D.; Micic, O. I.; Nozik, A. J. Excited-state spectroscopy of InP quantum dots. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1998, 57, R4265-R4268.
220. Norris, D. J.; Bawendi, M. G. Measurement and assignment of the size-dependent optical spectrum in CdSe quantum dots. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 1996, 53, 16338-16346.
221. Norris, D. J.; Sacra, A.; Murray, C. B.; Bawendi, M. G. Measurement of the Size-Dependent Hole Spectrum in Cdse Quantum Dots. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1994, 72, 2612-2615.
222. Smith, E. R.; Luther, J. M.; Johnson, J. C. Ultrafast Electronic Delocalization in CdSe/CdS Quantum Rod Heterostructures. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 4923-4931.
223. Nethercot, A. H. Prediction of Fermi Energies and Photoelectric Thresholds Based on Electronegativity Concepts. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1974, 33, 1088-1091.
224. Trager-Cowan, C.; Parbrook, P. J.; Henderson, B.; O'Donnell, K. P. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 1992, 7, 536.
225. Luther, J. M.; Zheng, H. M.; Sadtler, B.; Alivisatos, A. P. Synthesis of PbS Nanorods and Other Ionic Nanocrystals of Complex Morphology by Sequential Cation Exchange Reactions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 16851-16857.
226. Sadtler, B.; Demchenko, D. O.; Zheng, H.; Hughes, S. M.; Merkle, M. G.; Dahmen, U.; Wang, L. W.; Alivisatos, A. P. Selective Facet Reactivity during Cation Exchange in Cadmium Sulfide Nanorods. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 5285-5293.
227. Sitt, A.; Della Sala, F.; Menagen, G.; Banin, U. Multiexciton Engineering in Seeded Core/Shell Nanorods: Transfer from Type-I to Quasi-type-II Regimes. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 3470-3476.
228. Sitt, A.; Hadar, I.; Banin, U. Band-gap engineering, optoelectronic properties and applications of colloidal heterostructured semiconductor nanorods. Nano Today 2013, 8, 494-513.
229. Smith, A. M.; Nie, S. M. Semiconductor Nanocrystals: Structure, Properties, and Band Gap Engineering. Acc. Chem. Res. 2010, 43, 190-200.
230. Betzig, E.; Patterson, G. H.; Sougrat, R.; Lindwasser, O. W.; Olenych, S.; Bonifacino, J. S.; Davidson, M. W.; Lippincott-Schwartz, J.; Hess, H. F. Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution. Science 2006, 313, 1642-1645.
231. Eisele, D. M.; Knoester, J.; Kirstein, S.; Rabe, J. P.; Vanden Bout, D. A. Uniform exciton fluorescence from individual molecular nanotubes immobilized on solid substrates. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2009, 4, 658-663.
232. Gerton, J. M.; Wade, L. A.; Lessard, G. A.; Ma, Z.; Quake, S. R. Tip-enhanced fluorescence microscopy at 10 nm resolution. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2004, 93, 180801.
233. Hoppener, C.; Novotny, L. Imaging of membrane proteins using antenna-based optical microscopy. Nanotechnology 2008, 19, 384012.
234. Qian, H.; Araujo, P. T.; Georgi, C.; Gokus, T.; Hartmann, N.; Green, A. A.; Jorio, A.; Hersam, M. C.; Novotny, L.; Hartschuh, A. Visualizing the local optical response of semiconducting carbon nanotubes to DNA-wrapping. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2706-2711.
235. Yoskovitz, E.; Menagen, G.; Sitt, A.; Lachman, E.; Banin, U. Nanoscale Near-Field Imaging of Excitons in Single Heterostructured Nanorods. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 3068-3072.
236. Costi, R.; Saunders, A. E.; Elmalem, E.; Salant, A.; Banin, U. Visible Light-Induced Charge Retention and Photocatalysis with Hybrid CdSe-Au Nanodumbbells. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 637-641.
237. Cozzoli, P. D.; Fanizza, E.; Comparelli, R.; Curri, M. L.; Agostiano, A.; Laub, D. Role of Metal Nanoparticles in TiO2/Ag Nanocomposite-Based Microheterogeneous Photocatalysis. J. Phys. Chem. B 2004, 108, 9623-9630.
238. Dukovic, G.; Merkle, M. G.; Nelson, J. H.; Hughes, S. M.; Alivisatos, A. P. Photodeposition of Pt on Colloidal CdS and CdSe/ CdS Semiconductor Nanostructures. Adv. Mater. 2008, 20, 4306-4311.
239. Mills, A.; Davies, R. H.; Worsley, D. Water Purification by Semiconductor Photocatalysis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 1993, 22, 417-425.
240. Sheldon, M. T.; Trudeau, P. E.; Mokari, T.; Wang, L. W.; Alivisatos, A. P. Enhanced Semiconductor Nanocrystal Conductance via Solution Grown Contacts. Nano Lett. 2009, 9, 3676-3682.
241. Cohen, G.; Halpern, E.; Nanayakkara, S. U.; Luther, J. M.; Held, C.; Bennewitz, R.; Boag, A.; Rosenwaks, Y. Reconstruction of surface potential from Kelvin probe force microscopy images. Nanotechnology 2013, 24, 295702.
242. Elias, G.; Glatzel, T.; Meyer, E.; Schwarzman, A.; Boag, A.; Rosenwaks, Y. The role of the cantilever in Kelvin probe force microscopy measurements. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2011, 2, 252-260.
243. Strassburg, E.; Boag, A.; Rosenwaks, Y. Reconstruction of electrostatic force microscopy images. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2005, 76, 083705.
244. Brandhurst, H. W. Impurity profile and energy band diagram for the cuprous sulfide-cadmium sulfide heterojunction. NASA Technical Note D-5079, 1969.
245. Gao, J. B.; Perkins, C. L.; Luther, J. M.; Hanna, M. C.; Chen, H. Y.; Semonin, O. E.; Nozik, A. J.; Ellingson, R. J.; Beard, M. C. n- Type Transition Metal Oxide as a Hole Extraction Layer in PbS Quantum Dot Solar Cells. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 3263-3266.
246. Kamat, P. V. Quantum Dot Solar Cells. Semiconductor Nanocrystals as Light Harvesters. J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112, 18737-18753.
247. Luther, J. M.; Gao, J. B.; Lloyd, M. T.; Semonin, O. E.; Beard, M. C.; Nozik, A. J. Stability Assessment on a 3% Bilayer PbS/ZnO Quantum Dot Heterojunction Solar Cell. Adv. Mater. 2010, 22, 3704.
248. Nozik, A. J.; Beard, M. C.; Luther, J. M.; Law, M.; Ellingson, R. J.; Johnson, J. C. Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Quantum Dot Arrays and Applications of Multiple Exciton Generation to Third- Generation Photovoltaic Solar Cells. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 6873-6890.
249. Sargent, E. H. Colloidal quantum dot solar cells. Nat. Photonics 2012, 6, 133-135.
250. Kortshagen, U. Nonthermal plasma synthesis of semiconductor nanocrystals. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 2009, 42, 113001.
251. Research Cell Efficiency Records, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/images/efficiency-chart.jpg, 2015.
252. Beard, M. C.; Knutsen, K. P.; Yu, P. R.; Luther, J. M.; Song, Q.; Metzger, W. K.; Ellingson, R. J.; Nozik, A. J. Multiple exciton generation in colloidal silicon nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2506-2512.
253. Luther, J. M.; Beard, M. C.; Song, Q.; Law, M.; Ellingson, R. J.; Nozik, A. J. Multiple exciton generation in films of electronically coupled PbSe quantum dots. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 1779-1784.
254. Semonin, O. E.; Luther, J. M.; Choi, S.; Chen, H. Y.; Gao, J. B.; Nozik, A. J.; Beard, M. C. Peak External Photocurrent Quantum Efficiency Exceeding 100% via MEG in a Quantum Dot Solar Cell. Science 2011, 334, 1530-1533.
255. Yoshida, S.; Aizawa, Y.; Wang, Z. H.; Oshima, R.; Mera, Y.; Matsuyama, E.; Oigawa, H.; Takeuchi, O.; Shigekawa, H. Probing ultrafast spin dynamics with optical pump-probe scanning tunnelling microscopy. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2014, 9, 588-593.
256. Reddy, P.; Jang, S. Y.; Segalman, R. A.; Majumdar, A. Thermoelectricity in molecular junctions. Science 2007, 315, 1568-1571.
257. Nakayama, T.; Kubo, O.; Shingaya, Y.; Higuchi, S.; Hasegawa, T.; Jiang, C. S.; Okuda, T.; Kuwahara, Y.; Takami, K.; Aono, M. Development and Application of Multiple-Probe Scanning Probe Microscopes. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 1675-1692.
258. Xu, X. G.; Raschke, M. B. Near-Field Infrared Vibrational Dynamics and Tip-Enhanced Decoherence. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 1588-1595.