III-Nitride wide bandgap semiconductors: A survey of the current status and future trends of the material and device technology

Opto-Electronics Review

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 201-239

  Kung, P ^a   Razeghi, M ^a  

^a Northwestern University   (United States)

Author keywords

AlN; Blue; Doping; Electronic devices; Etching; GaN; Green; Heterostructures; III Nitrides; Light emitting diodes; Metal contacts; N type doping; p type; Photodetectors; Ultraviolet; Violet; Visible

Indexed keywords

EID: 0009204465     PISSN: 12303402     EISSN: 18963757     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. F. Fichter and Z. Anorg, Chem. 54, 332 (1971).
2. F. Fischer and F. Schröter, Ber. Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 43, 1465 (1910).
3. W.C. Johnson, J.B. Parsons, and M.C. Crew, "Nitrogen compounds of gallium III. Gallic nitride," J. Phys. Chem. 36, 2561 (1932).
4. B. Daudin, J.L. Rouviere, and M. Arlery, "Polarity determination of GaN films by ion channeling and convergent beam electron diffraction," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2480 (1996).
5. A.D. Bykhovski, V.V. Kaminski, M.S. Shur, Q.C. Chen, and M.A. Khan, "Pyroelectricity in gallium nitride thin films," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 3254 (1996).
6. J. Miragliotta, D.K. Wickenden, T.J. Kistenmacher, and W.A. Bryden, "Linear and nonlinear optical properties of GaN thin films," J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 10, 1447 (1993).
7. H.Y. Zhang, X.H. He, Y.H. Shih, M. Schurman, Z.C. Feng, and R.A. Stall, "Study of nonlinear optical effects in GaN:Mg epitaxial film," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2953 (1996).
8. Semiconductors: group IV elements and III-V compounds, edited by O. Madelung, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991.
9. nd edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996.
10. M. Leszczynski, T. Suski, P. Perlin, H. Teisseyre, I. Grzegory, M. Bockowski, J. Jun, S. Porowski, and J. Major, "Lattice constants, thermal expansion and compressibility of gallium nitride," J. Phys. D 28, A149 (1995).
11. M. Razeghi and A. Rogalski, "Semiconductor ultraviolet detectors," J. Appl. Phys. 79, 7433 (1996).
12. P. Kung, A. Saxler, X. Zhang, D. Walker, and M. Razeghi, "GaN, GaAlN, and AlN for use in UV detectors for astrophysics: an update," Proc. SPIE 2685, 126 (1996).
13. 2 substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2116 (1996).
14. H. Ohsato and M. Razeghi, "Growth models of GaN thin films based on crystal chemistry: Hexagonal and cubic GaN on Si substrates," Proc. SPIE 2999, 288 (1997).
15. S. Porowski, "High, pressure growth of GaN - new prospects for blue lasers," J. Cryst. Growth 166, 583 (1996).
16. C.J. Sun, P. Kung, A. Saxler, H. Ohsato, K. Haritos, and M. Razeghi, "A crystallographic model of (00·1) aluminium nitride epitaxial film grown on (00·1) sapphire substrate," J. Appl. Phys. 75, 3964 (1994).
17. P. Kung, C.J. Sun, A. Saxler, H. Ohsato, and M. Razeghi, "Crystallography of epitaxial growth of wurtzite-type thin films on sapphire substrates," J. Appl. Phys. 75, 4515 (1994).
18. T. Kato, P. Kung, A. Saxler, C.J. Sun, H. Ohsato, M. Razeghi, and T. Okuda, "Morphology of twinned GaN grown on (11.0) sapphire substrates," Solid-State Electronics 41, 227 (1997).
19. T. Kato, H. Ohsato, T. Okuda, P. Kung, A. Saxler, C.J. Sun, and M. Razeghi, "Simultaneous growth of two different oriented GaN epilayers on (11.0) sapphire, I. Morphology and orientation," J. Cryst. Growth 173, 244 (1997).
20. T. Kato, P. Kung, A. Saxler, C.J. Sun, H. Ohsato, M. Razeghi, and T. Okuda, "Simultaneous growth of two differently oriented GaN epilayers on (11.0) sapphire, II. A growth model of (00.1) and (10.0) GaN," J. Cryst. Growth 183, 131 (1998).
21. C.J. Sun and M. Razeghi, "Comparison of the physical properties of GaN thin films deposited on (00·1) and (01·2) sapphire substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 63, 973 (1993).
22. H. Amano, N. Sawaki, I. Akasaki, and Y. Toyoda, "Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxial growth of a high quality GaN film using an AlN buffer layer," Appl. Phys. Lett. 48, 353 (1986).
23. L.T. Romano, B.S. Krusor, and R.J. Molnar, "Structure of GaN films grown by hydride vapour phase epitaxy," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2283 (1997).
24. A. Saxler, D. Walker, P. Kung, X. Zhang, M. Razeghi, J. Solomon, W.C. Mitchel, and H.R. Vydyanath, "Comparison of trimethylgallium and triethylgallium for the growth of GaN," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 3272 (1997).
25. A. Beaumont, P. Gibart, and J.P. Faurie, "Nitrogen precursors in metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy of (Al,Ga)N," J. Cryst. Growth 156, 140 (1995).
26. A. Saxler, P. Kung, C.J. Sun, E. Bigan, and M. Razeghi, "High quality aluminum nitride epitaxial layers grown on sapphire substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 339 (1994).
27. P. Kung, A. Saxler, X. Zhang, D. Walker, T.C. Wang, I. Ferguson, and M. Razeghi, "High quality AlN and GaN epilayers grown on (00·1) sapphire, (100) and (111) silicon substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 66, 2958 (1995).
28. M.C. Benjamin, C. Wang, R.F. Davis, and R.J. Nemanich, "Observation of a negative electron affinity for heteroepitaxial AlN on (6H)-SiC (0001)," Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 3288 (1994).
29. A.T. Sowers, J.A. Christman, M.D. Bremser, B.L. Ward, R.F. Davis, and R.J. Nemanich, "Thin films of aluminium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride for cold cathode applications," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2289 (1997).
30. K. Kaya, H. Takahashi, Y. Shibata, Y. Kanno, and T. Hirai, "Experimental surface acoustic wave properties of AlN thin films on sapphire substrates," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 36, 307 (1997).
31. 3 and (00·1)Si 6H-SiC substrates", J. Appl. Phys. 76, 236 (1994).
32. 1-xN based materials and heterostructures," in III-V Nitrides, Vol. 449, p. 79, edited by F.A. Ponce, T.D. Moustakas, I. Akasaki, and B.A. Monemar, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, Pittsburgh: Materials Research Society, 1997.
33. M. Razeghi, unpublished.
34. J.M. Redwing, M.A. Tischler, J.S. Flynn, S. Elhamri, M. Ahoujja, R.S. Newrock, and W.C. Mitchel, "Two-dimensional electron gas properties of AlGaN/GaN heterostructures grown on 6H-SiC and sapphire substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 963 (1996).
35. M. Shur, B. Gelmont, and M.A. Khan, "Electron mobility in two-dimensional electron gas in AlGaN/GaN heterostructures and in bulk GaN," J. Electron. Mater. 25, 777 (1996).
36. E.T. Yu, G.J. Sullivan, P.M. Asbeck, C.D. Wang, D. Qiao, and S.S. Lau, "Measurement of piezoelectrically induced charge in GaN/AlGaN heterostructure field-effect transistors," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2794 (1997).
37. G. Martin, A. Botchkarev, A. Rockett, and H. Morkoç, "Valence-band discontinuities of wurtzite GaN, AlN, and InN heterojunctions measured by X-ray photoemission spectroscopy," Appl Phys. Lett. 68, 2541 (1996).
38. l-xN," J. Cryst. Growth 170, 306 (1997).
39. I.H. Ho and G.B. Stringfellow, "Solid phase immiscibility in GaInN," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2701 (1996).
40. S. Nakamura and T. Mukai, "High-quality InGaN films grown on GaN films," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, L1457 (1992).
41. A. Sohmer, J. Off, H. Bolay, V. Härle, V. Syganow, J.S. Im, V. Wagner, F. Adler, A. Hangleiter, A. Dörnen, F. Scholz, D. Brunner, O. Ambacher, and H. Lakner, "GaInN/GaN-heterostructures and quantum wells grown by metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy," MRS Internet Journal Nitride Semiconductor Research 2, 14 (1997).
42. P. Kung, A. Saxler, D. Walker, A. Rybaltowski, X. Zhang, J. Diaz, and M. Razeghi, "GaInN/GaN multi-quantum well laser diodes grown by low-pressure metalorganic chemical vapour deposition," MRS Internet Journal Nitride Semiconductor Research 3, 1 (1998).
43. M. Koike, S. Yamasaki, S. Nagai, N. Koide, S. Asami, H. Amano, and I. Akasaki, "High-quality GaInN/GaN multiple quantum wells." Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1403 (1996).
44. K. Hiramatsu, Y. Kawaguchi, M. Shimizu, N. Sawaki, T. Zheleva, R.F. Davis, H. Tsuda, W. Taki, N. Kuwano, and K. Oki, "The composition pulling effect in MOVPE grown InGaN on GaN and AlGaN and its TEM characterisation," MRS Internet Journal Nitride Semiconductor Research 2, 6 (1997).
45. T. Deguchi, A. Shikanai, K. Torii, T. Sota, S. Chichibu, and S. Nakamura, "Luminescence spectra from InGaN multiquantum wells heavily doped with Si," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3329 (1998).
46. X. Zhang, P. Kung, A. Saxler, D. Walker, and M. Razeghi, "Observation of room temperature surface-emitting stimulated emission from GaN:Ge by optical pumping," J. Appl. Phys. 80, 6544 (1996).
47. A. Saxler, P. Kung, X. Zhang, D. Walker, J. Solomon, M. Ahoujja, W.C. Mitchel, H.R. Vydyanath, and M. Razeghi, "GaN doped with sulfur," in Defects in Semiconductors ICDS-19, Vols. 258-263, p. 1161, edited by G. Davies and M.H. Nazaré, Materials Science Forum, Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland, 1998.
48. W. Gotz, N.M. Johnson, C. Chen, H. Liu, C. Kuo, and W. Imler, "Activation energies of Si donors in GaN," Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 3144 (1996).
49. l-xN:Ge on sapphire and silicon substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 1745 (1995).
50. S. Nakamura, T. Mukai, and M. Senoh, "Si-doped InGaN films grown on GaN films," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 32, L16 (1993).
51. K. Wongchotique, N. Chen, D.P. Zhang, X. Tang, and M.G. Spencer, "Low resistivity aluminium nitride: carbon (AlN:C) films grown by metal organic chemical vapour deposition," in Gallium Nitride and Related Materials, Vol. 395, p. 279, edited by F.A. Ponce, R.D. Dupuis, S. Nakamura, and J.A. Edmond, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1996.
52. S. Nakamura, T. Mukai, M. Senoh, and N. Iwasa, "Thermal annealing effects on p-type Mg-doped GaN Films," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, L139 (1992).
53. H. Amano, M. Kito, K. Hiramatsu, and I. Akasaki, "P-type conduction in Mg-doped GaN treated with low-energy electron beam irradiation (LEEBI)," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 28, L2112 (1989).
54. S. Nakamura, N. Iwasa, M. Senoh, and T. Mukai, "Hole compensation mechanism of p-type GaN films," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 31, 1258 (1992).
55. 0.09N grown by metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy," Appl Phys. Lett. 66, (1995) 1112.
56. O. Brandt, H. Yang, H. Kostial, and K.H. Ploog, "High p-type conductivity in cubic GaN/GaAs (113)A by using Be as the acceptor and O as the codopant," Appl. Phys. Lett. 69 (1996) 2707.
57. A. Saxler, M.A. Capano, W.C.. Mitchel, P. Kung, X. Zhang, D. Walker, and M. Razeghi, "High resolution x-ray diffraction of GaN grown on sapphire substrates," in III-V Nitrides, Vol. 449, p. 477, edited by F.A. Ponce, T.D. Moustakas, I. Akasaki, and B.A. Monemar, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1997.
58. K. Dovidenko, S. Oktyabrsky, J. Narayan, and M. Razeghi, "Aluminium nitride films on different orientations of sapphire and silicon," J. Appl. Phys. 79, 2439 (1996).
59. 3'" J. Appl. Phys. 80, 3228 (1996).
60. Y. Chen, T. Takeuchi, H. Amano, I. Akasaki, N. Yamada, Y. Kaneko, and S.Y. Wang, "Pit formation in GaInN quantum wells," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 710 (1998).
61. X. Zhang, P. Kung, A. Saxler, D. Walker, and M. Razeghi, "Growth of GaN without yellow photoluminescence," in Gallium Nitride and Related Materials, Vol. 395, p. 625, edited by F.A. Ponce, R.D. Dupuis, S. Nakamura and J.A. Edmond, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1996.
62. F.A. Ponce, D.P. Bour, W. Gotz, and P.J. Wright, "Spatial distribution of the luminescence in GaN thin films," Appl Phys. Lett. 68, 57 (1996).
63. F.E. Ejeckam, M. Seaford, Y.H. Lo, H.Q. Hou, and B.E. Hammons, "Dislocation-free InSb grown on GaAs compliant universal substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 776 (1997).
64. O.H. Nam, M.D. Bremser, T.S. Zheleva, and R.F. Davis, "Lateral epitaxy of low defect density GaN layers via organometallic vapor phase epitaxy," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2638 (1997).
65. -2," J. European Ceramic Society 17, 1781 (1997).
66. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, S. Nagahama, N. Iwasa, T. Yamada, T. Matsushita, H. Kiyoku, Y. Sugimoto, T. Kozaki, H. Umemoto, M. Sano, and K. Chocho, "InGaN/GaN/AlGaN-based laser diodes with modulation-doped strained-layer superlattices grown on an epitaxially laterally overgrown GaN substrate," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 211 (1998).
67. P. Kung, D. Walker, M. Hamilton, J. Diaz, and M. Razeghi, "Lateral epitaxial overgrowth of GaN films on sapphire and silicon substrates," Apll. Phys. Lett., 74, 570 (1999).
68. A. Saxler, Exploration of LP-MOCVD Grown III-Nitrides on Various Substrates, Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1998.
69. D. Kapolnek, S. Keller, R. Vetury, R.D. Underwood, P. Kozodoy, S.P. DenBaars, and U.K. Mishra, "Anisotropic epitaxial lateral growth in GaN selective area epitaxy," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 1204 (1997).
70. M.E. Lin, B. Sverdlov, G.L. Zhou, and H. Morkoç, "A comparative study of GaN epilayers grown on sapphire and SiC substrates by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy," Appl. Phys. Lett. 62, 3479 (1993).
71. C. Youtsey, I. Adesida, L.T. Romano, and G. Bulman, "Smooth n-type GaN surfaces by photoenhanced wet etching," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 560 (1998).
72. 2Ar dry etching of III-V nitrides," J. Appl. Phys. 80, 3705 (1996).
73. 2 plasmas," in Wide-Bandgap Semiconductors for High Power, High Frequency and High Temperature, edited by S. DenBaars, M.S. Shur, J. Palmour, and M. Spencer, Vol. 512, p. 449, Materials Research Society Proceedings, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1998.
74. M. Razeghi, unpublished.
75. F. Binet, J.Y. Duboz, N. Laurent, C. Bonnat, P. Collot, F. Hanauer, O. Briot, and R.L. Aulomnard, "Realisation and optical characterisation of etched mirror facets in GaN cavities," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 960 (1998).
76. B.P. Luther, S.E. Mohney, T.N. Jackson, M.A. Khan, Q. Chen, and J.W. Yang, "Investigation of the mechanism for ohmic contact formation in Al and Ti/Al contacts to n-type GaN," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 57 (1997).
77. Z. Fan, S.N. Mohammad, W. Kim, O. Aktas, A.E. Botchkarev, and H. Morkoç, "Very low resistance multilayer ohmic contact to n-GaN," Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 1672 (1996).
78. C.T. Lee, M.Y. Yeh, C.D. Tsai, and Y.T. Lyu, "Low resistance bilayer Nd/Al ohmic contacts on n-type GaN," J. Electron. Mater. 26, 262 (1997).
79. Y.F. Wu, W.N. Jiang, B.P. Keller, S. Keller, D. Kapolnek, S.P. DenBaars, U.K. Mishra, and B. Wilson, "Low resistance ohmic contact to n-GaN with a separate layer method," Solid State Electron. 41, 165 (1997).
80. T. Ping, M.A. Khan, and I. Adesida, "Ohmic contacts to n-type GaN using Pd/Al metallisation," J. Electron. Mater. 25, 819 (1996).
81. H. Ishikawa, S. Kobayashi, Y. Koide, S. Yamasaki, S. Nagai, J. Umezaki, M. Koike, and M. Murakami, "Effects of surface treatments and metal work functions on electrical properties at p-GaN/metal interfaces," J. Appl. Phys. 81, 1315 (1997).
82. E.V. Kalinina, N.I. Kuznetsov, V.A. Dmitriev, K.G. Irvine, and C.H. Carter, "Schottky barriers on n-GaN grown on SiC," J. Electron. Mater. 25, 831 (1996).
83. T.U. Kampen and W. Mönch, "Metal contacts on α-GaN", MRS Internet J. 1, 41 (1997).
84. X. Zhang, D. Walker, A. Saxler, P. Kung, J. Xu, and M. Razeghi, "Observation of inversion layers at AlN-Si interfaces fabricated by metal organic chemical vapour deposition," Electron. Lett. 32, 1622 (1996).
85. D. Walker, X. Zhang, P. Kung, A. Saxler, S. Javadpour, J. Xu, and M. Razeghi, "AlGaN ultraviolet photoconductors grown on sapphire," Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2100 (1996).
86. l-xN (0
87. J.C. Carrano, P.A. Grudowski, C.J. Eiting, R.D. Dupuis, and J.C. Campbell, "Very low dark current metal-semiconductor-metal ultraviolet photodetectors fabricated on single-crystal GaN epitaxial layers," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 1992 (1997).
88. Z.C. Huang, D.B. Mott, P.K. Shu, J.C. Chen, and D.K. Wickenden, "Improvements of metal-semiconductor-metal GaN photoconductors," J. Electron. Mater. 26, 30 (1997).
89. Q. Chen, J.W. Yang, A. Osinsky, S. Gangopadhyay, B. Lim, M. Lim, A. Anwar, M. Asif Khan, D. Kuksenkov, and H. Temkin, "Schottky barrier detectors on GaN for visible-blind ultraviolet detection," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 2277 (1997).
90. A. Osinsky, S. Gangopadhyay, J.W. Yang, R. Gaska, D. Kuksenkov, H. Temkin, I.K. Shmagin, Y.C. Chang, J.F. Muth, and R.M. Kolbas, "Visible-blind GaN Schottky barrier detectors grown on Si(111)," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 551 (1998).
91. J.M. Van Hove, R. Hickman, J.J. Klaassen, P.P. Chow, and P.P. Ruden, "Ultraviolet-sensitive, visible-blind GaN photodiodes fabricated by molecular beam epitaxy," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 2282 (1997).
92. A. Osinsky, S. Gangopadhyay, R. Gaska, B. Williams, M.A. Khan, D. Kuksenkov, and H. Temkin, "Low noise p-i-n GaN ultraviolet photodetectors," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2334 (1997).
93. G.Y. Xu, A. Salvador, W. Kim, Z. Fan, C. Lu, H. Tang, H. Morkoç, G. Smith, M. Estes, B. Goldenberg, W. Yang, and S. Krishnankutty, "High speed, low noise ultraviolet photodetectors based on GaN p-i-n and AlGaN(p)-GaN(i)-GaN(n) structures," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2154 (1997).
94. D. Walker, A. Saxler, P. Kung, X. Zhang, M. Hamilton, J. Diaz, and M. Razeghi, "Visible blind GaN p-i-n photodiodes," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3303 (1998).
95. P. Kung, X. Zhang, D. Walker, A. Saxler, J. Piotrowski, A. Rogalski, and M. Razeghi, "Kinetics of photoconductivity in n-type GaN photodetector," Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 3792 (1995).
96. D. Walker, E. Monroy, P. Kung, J. Wu, M. Hamilton, F.J. Sanchez, J. Diaz, and M. Razeghi, "High speed, low-noise metal-semiconductor-metal ultraviolet photodetectors based on GaN," Appl. Phys. Lett., 74, 762 (1999).
97. X. Zhang, P. Kung, D. Walker, J. Piotrowski, A. Rogalski, A. Saxler, and M. Razeghi, "Photovoltaic effects in GaN structures with p-n junction," Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 2028 (1995).
98. E. Monroy, M. Hamilton, D. Walker, P. Kung, F.J. Sanchez, and M. Razeghi, "High-quality visible-blind AlGaN p-i-n photodiodes," Appl. Phys. Lett., 74, 1171 (1999).
99. l-xN," J. Appl. Phys. 72, 4130 (1992).
100. A. Rogalski, Infrared Photon Detector, SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham, 1995.
101. A. Saxler, K.S. Kim, D. Walker, P. Kung, X. Zhang, G. Brown, W.C. Mitchel, and M. Razeghi, "Electroluminescence of III-Nitride double heterostructure light emitting diodes with silicon and magnesium doped InGaN," in Defects in Semiconductors ICDS-19, Vols. 258-263, p. 1229, edited by G. Davies and M.H. Nazaré, Materials Science Forum, Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland, 1998.
102. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, N. Iwasa, and S. Nagahama, "High-power InGaN single-quantum-well-structure blue and violet light-emitting diodes," Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 1868 (1995).
103. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, N. Iwasa, and S. Nagahama, "High-brightness InGaN blue, green and yellow light-emitting diodes with quantum well structures," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 34, L797 (1995).
104. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, N. Iwasa, S. Nagahama, T. Yamada, and T. Mukai, "Superbright green InGaN single-quantum-well-structure light-emitting diodes," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 34 L1332 (1995).
105. G. Fasol, oral presentation in ATIP (Asian Technology Information Programme)-seminar, Tokyo, Japan, 1995.
106. Q. Guo, O. Kato, and A. Yoshida, "Thermal stability of indium nitride single crystal films," J. Appl. Phys. 73, 7969 (1993).
107. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, S. Nagahama, N. Iwasa, T. Yamada, T. Matsushita, Y. Sugimoto, and H. Kiyoku, "Longitudinal mode spectra and ultrashort pulse generation of InGaN multiquantum well structure laser diodes," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 616 (1996).
108. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, S. Nagahama, N. Iwasa, T. Yamada, T. Matsushita, H. Kiyoku, and Y. Sugimoto, "Room-temperature continuous-wave operation of InGaN multi-quantum-well structure laser diodes with a lifetime of 27 hours," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 1417 (1996).
109. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, S. Nagahama, N. Iwasa, T. Yamada, T. Matsushita, Y. Sugimoto, and H. Kiyoku, "Subband emissions of InGaN multi-quantum-well laser diodes under room-temperature continuous wave operation," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 2753 (1997).
110. S. Chichibu, K. Wada, and S. Nakamura, "Spatially resolved cathodoluminescence spectra of InGaN quantum wells," Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2346 (1997).
111. Y. Narukawa, Y. Kawakami, M. Funato, S. Fujita, S. Fujita, and S. Nakamura, "Role of self-formed InGaN quantum dots for exciton localisation in the purple laser diode emitting at 420 nm," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 981 (1997).
112. Y.K. Song, M. Kuball, A.V. Nurmikko, G.E. Bulman, K. Doverspike, S.T. Sheppard, T.W. Weeks, M. Leonard, H.S. Kong, H. Dieringer, and J. Edmond, "Gain characteristics of InGaN/GaN quantum well diode lasers," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 1418 (1998).
113. T. Deguchi, A. Shikanai, K. Torii, T. Sota, S. Chichibu, and S. Nakamura, "Luminescence spectra from InGaN multiquantum wells heavily doped with Si," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3329 (1998).
114. D.A. Cohen, T. Margalith, A.C. Abare, M.P. Mack, L.A. Coldren, S.P. DenBaars, and D.R. Clarke, "Catastrophic optical damage in GaInN multiple quantum wells," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 3267 (1998).
115. S. Nakamura, M. Senoh, S. Nagahama, N. Iwasa, T. Yamada, T. Matsushita, H. Kiyoku, Y. Sugimoto, T. Kozaki, H. Umemoto, M. Sano, and K. Chocho, "Continuous-wave operation of InGaN/GaN/AlGaN-based laser diodes grown on GaN substrates," Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 2014 (1998).
116. H. Nakayama, P. Hacke, M.R.H. Khan, T. Detchprohm, K. Hiramatsu, and N. Sawaki, "Electrical transport properties of p-GaN," Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 35, L282 (1996).
117. H. Yi, A. Rybaltowski, J. Diaz, D. Wu, B. Lane, Y. Xiao, and M. Razeghi, "Stability of far fields in double heterostructure and multiple quantum well InAsSb/InPAsSb/InAs midinfrared lasers," Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 3236 (1997).
118. S. Nakamura and G. Fasol, The Blue Laser Diode, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1997.
119. D. Ahn, S.L. Chuang, and Y.C. Chang, "Valence-band mixing effects on the gain and refractive index change of quantum-well lasers," J. Appl. Phys. 64, 4056 (1988).
120. Polarisation anisotropy would be observed even for spontaneous emission because of higher transition matrix in QW structure. However, the difference should be less than a factor of 3 (Ref. 119).
121. H. Casey and M.B. Panish, Heterostructure Laser, Academic Press, New York, 1978.
122. M. Razeghi, H. Yi, and V. Litvinov (unpublished).
123. M. Suzuki and T. Uenoyama, "Biaxial strain effect on wurtzite GaN/AlGaN quantum well lasers," Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 35, 1420 (1996).
124. P. Rees, C. Cooper, P. Smowton, P. Blood, and J. Hegarty, "Calculated threshold currents of nitride- and phosphide-based quantum-well lasers," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 8, 197 (1996).
125. K.D. Choquette, H. Hou, K. Lear, H. Chui, K. Geib, A. Mar, and B. Hammons, "Self-pulsing oxide-confined vertical cavity lasers with ultralow operating current," Electron. Lett. 32, 459 (1996).