Multidrug efflux pumps from enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio cholerae and Staphylococcus aureus bacterial food pathogens

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 1487-1547

  Andersen, Jody L ^a   He, Gui Xin ^b   Kakarla, Prathusha ^a   Ranjana, K C ^a   Kumar, Sanath ^c   Lakra, Wazir Singh ^c   Mukherjee, Mun Mun ^a   Ranaweera, Indrika ^a   Shrestha, Ugina ^a   Tran, Thuy ^b   Varela, Manuel F ^a  

^a EASTERN NEW MEXICO UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LOWELL   (United States)

^c CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES EDUCATION   (India)

Author keywords

Antimicrobial; Bacteria; Efflux pumps; Enterobacteriaceae; Food pathogens; Infection; Multidrug resistance; Resistance; Staphylococcus aureus; Vibrionaceae

Indexed keywords

1 (1 NAPHTHYLMETHYL)PIPERAZINE; AMPICILLIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; BENZETHONIUM CHLORIDE; CAPSAICIN; CARRIER PROTEIN; CEPHALOSPORIN; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CHLORHEXIDINE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; EFFLUX PUMP INHIBITOR; ERYTHROMYCIN; FURAZOLIDONE; ISOFLAVONE; MULTIDRUG EFFLUX PUMP; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE PROTEIN; NORFLOXACIN; PHENYLARGININE BETA NAPHTHYLAMIDE; PHEOPHORBIDE; PIPERINE; PORPHYRIN; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; SILIBININ; TETRACYCLINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; BACTERIAL PROTEIN;

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIUM; DRUG RESISTANCE; FOOD; PATHOGEN;

ACRA GENE; ACRB GENE; AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL MEMBRANE; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; BACTERIUM CONTAMINATION; BIOFILM; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG TARGETING; EMRE GENE; ENTEROBACTER AEROGENES; ENTEROBACTER CLOACAE; ENTEROBACTERIACEAE; ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION; ESCHERICHIA COLI; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD SPOILAGE; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENETIC CONSERVATION; HUMAN; KLEBSIELLA; LMRS GENE; MDFA GENE; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NONHUMAN; NORA GENE; NORB GENE; NORC GENE; NORD GENE; OMPD GENE; OMPF GENE; QACA GENE; QACB GENE; QACG GENE; QACH GENE; QACJ GENE; REVIEW; SALMONELLA ENTERICA; SDRM GENE; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; SUGE GENE; TET38 GENE; VIBRIO CHOLERAE; FOOD CONTROL; PHYSIOLOGY; TRANSPORT AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); ENTEROBACTER; ENTEROBACTERIACEAE; ESCHERICHIA COLI; NEGIBACTERIA; POSIBACTERIA; SALMONELLA ENTERICA; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; VIBRIO CHOLERAE; VIBRIONACEAE;

BACTERIAL PROTEINS; BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT; DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE, BACTERIAL; ENTEROBACTERIACEAE; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; VIBRIO CHOLERAE;

EID: 84922041581     PISSN: 16617827     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph120201487     Document Type: Review

References (379)

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Incidence and trends of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food-Foodborne diseases active surveillance network, 10 U.S. sites, 1996-2012. MMWR 2013, 62, 283-287.
2. Kuchenmuller, T.; Hird, S.; Stein, C.; Kramarz, P.; Nanda, A.; Havelaar, A.H. Estimating the global burden of foodborne diseases-A collaborative effort. Eur. Commun. Dis. Bull. 2009, 14, doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.05.029.
3. Nyenje, M.E.; Odjadjare, C.E.; Tanih, N.F.; Green, E.; Ndip, R.N. Foodborne pathogens recovered from ready-to-eat foods from roadside cafeterias and retail outlets in Alice, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa: Public health implications. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 2608-2619.
4. Ghosh, M.; Wahi, S.; Kumar, M.; Ganguli, A. Prevalence of enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella spp. in some raw street vended Indian foods. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2007, 17, 151-156.
5. Teplitski, M.; Wright, A.C.; Lorca, G. Biological approaches for controlling shellfish-associated pathogens. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2009, 20, 185-190.
6. Newell, D.G.; Koopmans, M.; Verhoef, L.; Duizer, E.; Aidara-Kane, A.; Sprong, H.; Opsteegh, M.; Langelaar, M.; Threfall, J.; Scheutz, F.; et al. Food-borne diseases-The challenges of 20 years ago still persist while new ones continue to emerge. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2010, 139, S3-S15.
7. Gram, L.; Dalgaard, P. Fish spoilage bacteria-Problems and solutions. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2002, 13, 262-266.
8. Gram, L.; Melchiorsen, J. Interaction between fish spoilage bacteria Pseudomonas sp. and Shewanella putrefaciens in fish extracts and on fish tissue. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1996, 80, 589-595.
9. Scallan, E.; Hoekstra, R.M.; Angulo, F.J.; Tauxe, R.V.; Widdowson, M.A.; Roy, S.L.; Jones, J.L.; Griffin, P.M. Foodborne illness acquired in the United States-Major pathogens. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2011, 17, 7-15.
10. Ibarra, J.A.; Steele-Mortimer, O. Salmonella-The ultimate insider. Salmonella virulence factors that modulate intracellular survival. Cell. Microbiol. 2009, 11, 1579-1586.
11. Rensch, U.; Klein, G.; Kehrenberg, C. Analysis of triclosan-selected Salmonella enterica mutants of eight serovars revealed increased aminoglycoside susceptibility and reduced growth rates. PLoS One 2013, 8, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078310.
12. Quinn, T.; O'Mahony, R.; Baird, A.W.; Drudy, D.; Whyte, P.; Fanning, S. Multi-drug resistance in Salmonella enterica: Efflux mechanisms and their relationships with the development of chromosomal resistance gene clusters. Curr. Drug Targets 2006, 7, 849-860.
13. Nishino, K.; Nikaido, E.; Yamaguchi, A. Regulation and physiological function of multidrug efflux pumps in Escherichia coli and Salmonella. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 2009, 1794, 834-843.
14. Fookes, M.; Schroeder, G.N.; Langridge, G.C.; Blondel, C.J.; Mammina, C.; Seth-Smith, H.; Connor, T.R.;Vernikos, G.S.; Robinson, K.S.; Sanders, M.; et al. Salmonella bongori provides insights into the evolution of the Salmonellae. PLoS Pathog. 2011, 7, doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002191.
15. Wistrom, J.; Norrby, S.R. Fluoroquinolones and bacterial enteritis, when and for whom? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1995, 36, 23-39.
16. Waddington, C.S.; Darton, T.C.; Pollard, A.J. The challenge of enteric fever. J. Infect. 2014, 68, S38-S50.
17. Fabrega, A.; Vila, J. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium skills to succeed in the host: Virulence and regulation. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2013, 26, 308-341.
18. Otto, M. Basis of virulence in community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 2010, 64, 143-162.
19. Murray, P.R.; Rosenthal, K.S.; Pfaller, P.F. Medical Microbiology; Mosby Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2013.
20. Foster, T.J. Colonization and infection of the human host by staphylococci: Adhesion, survival and immune evasion. Vet. Dermatol. 2009, 20, 456-470.
21. Manges, A.R.; Johnson, J.R. Food-borne origins of Escherichia coli causing extraintestinal infections. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2012, 55, 712-719.
22. Arthur, J.C.; Perez-Chanona, E.; Muhlbauer, M.; Tomkovich, S.; Uronis, J.M.; Fan, T.J.; Campbell, B.J.; Abujamel, T.; Dogan, B.; Rogers, A.B.; et al. Intestinal inflammation targets cancer-inducing activity of the microbiota. Science 2012, 338, 120-123.
23. Kaper, J.B.; Nataro, J.P.; Mobley, H.L. Pathogenic Escherichia coli. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2004, 2, 123-140.
24. Porter, C.K.; Riddle, M.S.; Tribble, D.R.; Louis Bougeois, A.; McKenzie, R.; Isidean, S.D.; Sebeny, P.; Savarino, S.J. A systematic review of experimental infections with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). Vaccine 2011, 29, 5869-5885.
25. Chen, H.D.; Frankel, G. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli: Unravelling pathogenesis. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2005, 29, 83-98.
26. Clarke, S.C.; Haigh, R.D.; Freestone, P.P.; Williams, P.H. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli infection: history and clinical aspects. Br. J. Biomed. Sci. 2002, 59, 123-127.
27. Ochoa, T.J.; Contreras, C.A. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli infection in children. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 24, 478-483.
28. Campos, L.C.; Franzolin, M.R.; Trabulsi, L.R. Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli categories among the traditional enteropathogenic E. coli O serogroups-A review. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 2004, 99, 545-552.
29. Pickering, L.K. Gastroenteritis due to enteropathogenic, enterotoxigenic, and invasive Escherichia coli: A review. Am. J. Med. Technol. 1979, 45, 787-792.
30. Welinder-Olsson, C.; Kaijser, B. Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 2005, 37, 405-416.
31. Smith, J.L.; Fratamico, P.M.; Gunther, N.W.T. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 2014, 86, 145-197.
32. Erickson, M.C.; Doyle, M.P. Food as a vehicle for transmission of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. J. Food Prot. 2007, 70, 2426-2449.
33. Bettelheim, K.A. The non-O157 shiga-toxigenic (verocytotoxigenic) Escherichia coli; under-rated pathogens. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2007, 33, 67-87.
34. Wang, F.; Yang, Q.; Kase, J.A.; Meng, J.; Clotilde, L.M.; Lin, A.; Ge, B. Current trends in detecting non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in food. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 2013, 10, 665-677.
35. Van den Beld, M.J.; Reubsaet, F.A. Differentiation between Shigella, enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) and noninvasive Escherichia coli. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2012, 31, 899-904.
36. Martinez-Medina, M.; Garcia-Gil, L.J. Escherichia coli in chronic inflammatory bowel diseases: An update on adherent invasive Escherichia coli pathogenicity. World J. Gastrointest. Pathophysiol. 2014, 5, 213-227.
37. Parsot, C. Shigella spp. and enteroinvasive Escherichia coli pathogenicity factors. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2005, 252, 11-18.
38. Faruque, S.M.; Albert, M.J.; Mekalanos, J.J. Epidemiology, genetics, and ecology of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 1998, 62, 1301-1314.
39. Charles, R.C.; Ryan, E.T. Cholera in the 21st century. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 24, 472-477.
40. Ghose, A.C. Lessons from cholera & Vibrio cholerae. Indian J. Med. Res. 2011, 133, 164-170.
41. Neilson, A.A.; Mayer, C.A. Cholera-Recommendations for prevention in travellers. Aust. Fam. Phys. 2010, 39, 220-226.
42. Ghosh, A.; Ramamurthy, T. Antimicrobials & cholera: Are we stranded? Indian J. Med. Res. 2011, 133, 225-231.
43. Sanders, W.E., Jr.; Sanders, C.C. Enterobacter spp.: Pathogens poised to flourish at the turn of the century. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1997, 10, 220-241.
44. Bouza, E.; Cercenado, E. Klebsiella and Enterobacter: Antibiotic resistance and treatment implications. Semin. Respir. Infect. 2002, 17, 215-230.
45. Diene, S.M.; Merhej, V.; Henry, M.; el Filali, A.; Roux, V.; Robert, C.; Azza, S.; Gavory, F.; Barbe, V.; la Scola, B.; et al. The rhizome of the multidrug-resistant Enterobacter aerogenes genome reveals how new "killer bugs" are created because of a sympatric lifestyle. Mol. Biol. Evolut. 2013, 30, 369-383.
46. Cabral, J.P. Water microbiology. Bacterial pathogens and water. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 3657-3703.
47. He, G.X.; Thorpe, C.; Walsh, D.; Crow, R.; Chen, H.; Kumar, S.;Varela, M.F. EmmdR, a new member of the MATE family of multidrug transporters, extrudes quinolones from Enterobacter cloacae. Arch. Microbiol. 2011, 193, 759-765.
48. He, G.X.; Zhang, C.; Crow, R.R.; Thorpe, C.; Chen, H.; Kumar, S.; Tsuchiya, T.; Varela, M.F. SugE, a new member of the SMR family of transporters, contributes to antimicrobial resistance in Enterobacter cloacae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2011, 55, 3954-3957.
49. Levy, S.B. The future of antibiotics: Facing antibiotic resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2000, 6, 101-106.
50. Higgins, C.F. Multiple molecular mechanisms for multidrug resistance transporters. Nature 2007, 446, 749-757.
51. Kumar, S.; Varela, M.F. Biochemistry of bacterial multidrug efflux pumps. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2012, 13, 4484-4495.
52. Kumar, S.; Varela, M.F. Molecular mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents. In Microbial Pathogens and Strategies for Combating Them: Science, Technology and Education; Méndez-Vilas, A., Ed.; Formatex Research Center: Badajoz, Spain, 2013; pp. 522-534.
53. Alekshun, M.N.; Levy, S.B. Molecular mechanisms of antibacterial multidrug resistance. Cell 2007, 128, 1037-1050.
54. Pechere, J.C.; Hughes, D.; Kardas, P.; Cornaglia, G. Non-compliance with antibiotic therapy for acute community infections: A global survey. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2007, 29, 245-253.
55. Walsh, C. Molecular mechanisms that confer antibacterial drug resistance. Nature 2000, 406, 775-781.
56. Hoiby, N.; Bjarnsholt, T.; Givskov, M.; Molin, S.; Ciofu, O. Antibiotic resistance of bacterial biofilms. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2010, 35, 322-332.
57. Anderl, J.N.; Franklin, M.J.; Stewart, P.S. Role of antibiotic penetration limitation in Klebsiella pneumoniae biofilm resistance to ampicillin and ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2000, 44, 1818-1824.
58. Brown, M.R.; Allison, D.G.; Gilbert, P. Resistance of bacterial biofilms to antibiotics: A growth-rate related effect? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1988, 22, 777-780.
59. Costerton, J.W.; Stewart, P.S.; Greenberg, E.P. Bacterial biofilms: A common cause of persistent infections. Science 1999, 284, 1318-1322.
60. Soto, S.M. Role of efflux pumps in the antibiotic resistance of bacteria embedded in a biofilm. Virulence 2013, 4, 223-229.
61. Lewis, K. Persister cells and the riddle of biofilm survival. Biochem. Biokhimiia 2005, 70, 267-274.
62. Ammons, M.C. Anti-biofilm strategies and the need for innovations in wound care. Recent Pat. Anti-Infect. Drug Discov. 2010, 5, 10-17.
63. Fabrega, A.; Madurga, S.; Giralt, E.; Vila, J. Mechanism of action of and resistance to quinolones. Microb. Biotechnol. 2009, 2, 40-61.
64. Lambert, P.A. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics: modified target sites. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2005, 57, 1471-1485.
65. Poehlsgaard, J.; Douthwaite, S. The bacterial ribosome as a target for antibiotics. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2005, 3, 870-881.
66. Schnappinger, D.; Hillen, W. Tetracyclines: Antibiotic action, uptake, and resistance mechanisms. Arch. Microbiol. 1996, 165, 359-369.
67. Jacoby, G.A. Mechanisms of resistance to quinolones. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005, 41, S120-S126.
68. Gutkind, G.O.; di Conza, J.; Power, P.; Radice, M. β-lactamase-mediated resistance: A biochemical, epidemiological and genetic overview. Curr. Pharm. Design 2013, 19, 164-208.
69. De Pascale, G.; Wright, G.D. Antibiotic resistance by enzyme inactivation: From mechanisms to solutions. Chembiochem 2010, 11, 1325-1334.
70. Llano-Sotelo, B.; Azucena, E.F., Jr.; Kotra, L.P.; Mobashery, S.; Chow, C.S. Aminoglycosides modified by resistance enzymes display diminished binding to the bacterial ribosomal aminoacyl-tRNA site. Chem. Biol. 2002, 9, 455-463.
71. Kirst, H.A. New macrolide, lincosaminide and streptogramin B antibiotics. Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 2010, 20, 1343-1357.
72. Baysarowich, J.; Koteva, K.; Hughes, D.W.; Ejim, L.; Griffiths, E.; Zhang, K.; Wright, G.D.; Junop, M. Rifamycin antibiotic resistance by ADP-ribosylation: Structure and diversity of Arr. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 4886-4891.
73. Kren, V.; Martinkova, L. Glycosides in medicine: The role of glycosidic residue in biological activity. Curr. Med. Chem. 2001, 8, 1303-1328.
74. Kumar, A.; Schweizer, H.P. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics: Active efflux and reduced uptake. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2005, 57, 1486-1513.
75. Gunn, J.S.; Ernst, R.K. The structure and function of Francisella lipopolysaccharide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2007, 1105, 202-218.
76. Nikaido, H. Molecular basis of bacterial outer membrane permeability revisited. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2003, 67, 593-656.
77. Pages, J.M.; James, C.E.; Winterhalter, M. The porin and the permeating antibiotic: A selective diffusion barrier in Gram-negative bacteria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2008, 6, 893-903.
78. Achouak, W.; Heulin, T.; Pages, J.M. Multiple facets of bacterial porins. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2001, 199, 1-7.
79. Page, M.G. The role of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria in antibiotic resistance: Ajax' shield or Achilles' heel? Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 2012, 211, 67-86.
80. Kumar, S.; Floyd, J.T.; He, G.; Varela, M.F. Bacterial antimicrobial efflux pumps of the MFS and MATE transporter families: A review. In Recent Research Developments in Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy; Research Signpost, Inc.: Kerala, India, 2013; pp. 1-21.
81. Yaffe, D.; Radestock, S.; Shuster, Y.; Forrest, L.R.; Schuldiner, S. Identification of molecular hinge points mediating alternating access in the vesicular monoamine transporter VMAT2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, E1332-E1341.
82. Cain, S.M.; Matzke, E.A.; Brooker, R.J. The conserved motif in hydrophilic loop 2/3 and loop 8/9 of the lactose permease of Escherichia coli. Analysis of suppressor mutations. J. Membr. Biol. 2000, 176, 159-168.
83. Krämer, R. Functional principles of solute transport systems: concepts and perspectives. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1994, 1185, 1-34.
84. Poolman, B.; Konings, W.N. Secondary solute transport in bacteria. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1993, 1183, 5-39.
85. Floyd, J.T.; Kumar, S.; Mukherjee, M.M.; He, G.; Varela, M.F. A review of the molecular mechanisms of drug efflux in pathogenic bacteria: A structure-function perspective. In Recent Research Developments in Membrane Biology; Shankar, P.; Ed.; Research Signpost, Inc.: Kerala, India, 2013; Volume 3, pp. 15-66.
86. Levy, S.B.; McMurry, L. Detection of an inducible membrane protein associated with R-factor-mediated tetracycline resistance. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1974, 56, 1060-1068.
87. Levy, S.B.; McMurry, L. Plasmid-determined tetracycline resistance involves new transport systems for tetracycline. Nature 1978, 276, 90-92.
88. McMurry, L.; Levy, S.B. Two transport systems for tetracycline in sensitive Escherichia coli: Critical role for an initial rapid uptake system insensitive to energy inhibitors. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1978, 14, 201-209.
89. Levy, S.B. Active efflux mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1992, 36, 695-703.
90. West, I.; Mitchell, P. Proton-coupled β-galactoside translocation in non-metabolizing Escherichia coli. J. bioenerg. 1972, 3, 445-462.
91. Mitchell, P. Vectorial chemiosmotic processes. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 1977, 46, 996-1005.
92. Neyfakh, A.A.; Bidnenko, V.E.; Chen, L.B. Efflux-mediated multidrug resistance in Bacillus subtilis: Similarities and dissimilarities with the mammalian system. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1991, 88, 4781-4785.
93. Neyfakh, A.A. The multidrug efflux transporter of Bacillus subtilis is a structural and functional homolog of the Staphylococcus NorA protein. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1992, 36, 484-485.
94. Neyfakh, A.A.; Borsch, C.M.; Kaatz, G.W. Fluoroquinolone resistance protein NorA of Staphylococcus aureus is a multidrug efflux transporter. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1993, 37, 128-129.
95. Saier, M.H., Jr.; Beatty, J.T.; Goffeau, A.; Harley, K.T.; Heijne, W.H.; Huang, S.C.; Jack, D.L.; Jahn, P.S.; Lew, K.; Liu, J.; et al. The major facilitator superfamily. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1999, 1, 257-279.
96. Littlejohn, T.G.; Paulsen, I.T.; Gillespie, M.T.; Tennent, J.M.; Midgley, M.; Jones, I.G.; Purewal, A.S.; Skurray, R.A. Substrate specificity and energetics of antiseptic and disinfectant resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1992, 74, 259-265.
97. Rouch, D.A.; Cram, D.S.; DiBerardino, D.; Littlejohn, T.G.; Skurray, R.A. Efflux-mediated antiseptic resistance gene qacA from Staphylococcus aureus: Common ancestry with tetracycline- and sugar-transport proteins. Mol. Microbiol. 1990, 4, 2051-2062.
98. Brown, M.H.; Skurray, R.A. Staphylococcal multidrug efflux protein QacA. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2001, 3, 163-170.
99. Tennent, J.M.; Lyon, B.R.; Midgley, M.; Jones, I.G.; Purewal, A.S.; Skurray, R.A. Physical and biochemical characterization of the qacA gene encoding antiseptic and disinfectant resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1989, 135, 1-10.
100. Paulsen, I.T.; Brown, M.H.; Littlejohn, T.G.; Mitchell, B.A.; Skurray, R.A. Multidrug resistance proteins QacA and QacB from Staphylococcus aureus: Membrane topology and identification of residues involved in substrate specificity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1996, 93, 3630-3635.
101. Paulsen, I.T.; Brown, M.H.; Skurray, R.A. Proton-dependent multidrug efflux systems. Microbiol. Rev. 1996, 60, 575-608
102. Ho, C.M.; Li, C.Y.; Ho, M.W.; Lin, C.Y.; Liu, S.H.; Lu, J.J. High rate of qacA- and qacB-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from chlorhexidine-impregnated catheter-related bloodstream infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2012, 56, 5693-5697.
103. Otter, J.A.; Patel, A.; Cliff, P.R.; Halligan, E.P.; Tosas, O.; Edgeworth, J.D. Selection for qacA carriage in CC22, but not CC30, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection isolates during a successful institutional infection control programme. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013, 68, 992-999.
104. Shamsudin, M.N.; Alreshidi, M.A.; Hamat, R.A.; Alshrari, A.S.; Atshan, S.S.; Neela, V. High prevalence of qacA/B carriage among clinical isolates of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Malaysia. J. Hosp. Infect. 2012, 81, 206-208.
105. Ho, J.; Branley, J. Prevalence of antiseptic resistance genes qacA/B and specific sequence types of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the era of hand hygiene. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2012, 67, 1549-1550.
106. Grkovic, S.; Brown, M.H.; Roberts, N.J.; Paulsen, I.T.; Skurray, R.A. QacR is a repressor protein that regulates expression of the Staphylococcus aureus multidrug efflux pump QacA. J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273, 18665-18673.
107. Grkovic, S.; Brown, M.H.; Schumacher, M.A.; Brennan, R.G.; Skurray, R.A. The staphylococcal QacR multidrug regulator binds a correctly spaced operator as a pair of dimers. J. Bacteriol. 2001, 183, 7102-7109.
108. Schumacher, M.A.; Miller, M.C.; Grkovic, S.; Brown, M.H.; Skurray, R.A.; Brennan, R.G. Structural basis for cooperative DNA binding by two dimers of the multidrug-binding protein QacR. EMBO J. 2002, 21, 1210-1218.
109. Schumacher, M.A.; Miller, M.C.; Grkovic, S.; Brown, M.H.; Skurray, R.A.; Brennan, R.G. Structural mechanisms of QacR induction and multidrug recognition. Science 2001, 294, 2158-2163.
110. Costa, S.S.; Viveiros, M.; Amaral, L.; Couto, I. Multidrug efflux pumps in Staphylococcus aureus: An update. Open Microbiol. J. 2013, 7, 59-71.
111. Floyd, J.L.; Smith, K.P.; Kumar, S.H.; Floyd, J.T.; Varela, M.F. LmrS is a multidrug efflux pump of the major facilitator superfamily from Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2010, 54, 5406-5412.
112. Huang, J.; O'Toole, P.W.; Shen, W.; Amrine-Madsen, H.; Jiang, X.; Lobo, N.; Palmer, L.M.; Voelker, L.; Fan, F.; Gwynn, M.N.; et al. Novel chromosomally encoded multidrug efflux transporter MdeA in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 909-917.
113. Yamada, Y.; Shiota, S.; Mizushima, T.; Kuroda, T.; Tsuchiya, T. Functional gene cloning and characterization of MdeA, a multidrug efflux pump from Staphylococcus aureus. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 29, 801-804.
114. Mirza, Z.M.; Kumar, A.; Kalia, N.P.; Zargar, A.; Khan, I.A. Piperine as an inhibitor of the MdeA efflux pump of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Med. Microbiol. 2011, 60, 1472-1478.
115. DeMarco, C.E.; Cushing, L.A.; Frempong-Manso, E.; Seo, S.M.; Jaravaza, T.A.; Kaatz, G.W. Efflux-related resistance to norfloxacin, dyes, and biocides in bloodstream isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51, 3235-3239.
116. Costa, S.S., Mourato, C.; Viveiros, M.; Melo-Cristino, J.; Amaral, L.; Couto, I. Description of plasmid pSM52, harbouring the gene for the Smr efflux pump, and its involvement in resistance to biocides in a meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2013, 41, 490-492.
117. Heir, E.; Sundheim, G.; Holck, A.L. The qacG gene on plasmid pST94 confers resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in staphylococci isolated from the food industry. J. Appl. Microbiol. 1999, 86, 378-388.
118. Heir, E.; Sundheim, G.; Holck, A.L. The Staphylococcus qacH gene product: A new member of the SMR family encoding multidrug resistance. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1998, 163, 49-56.
119. Bjorland, J.; Steinum, T.; Sunde, M.; Waage, S.; Heir, E. Novel plasmid-borne gene qacJ mediates resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in equine Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus simulans, and Staphylococcus intermedius. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003, 47, 3046-3052.
120. Correa, J.E.; de Paulis, A.; Predari, S.; Sordelli, D.O.; Jeric, P.E. First report of qacG, qacH and qacJ genes in Staphylococcus haemolyticus human clinical isolates. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2008, 62, 956-960.
121. Ubukata, K.; Itoh-Yamashita, N.; Konno, M. Cloning and expression of the norA gene for fluoroquinolone resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1989, 33, doi:10.1128/AAC.33.9.1535.
122. Yoshida, H.; Bogaki, M.; Nakamura, S.; Ubukata, K.; Konno, M. Nucleotide sequence and characterization of the Staphylococcus aureus norA gene, which confers resistance to quinolones. J. Bacteriol. 1990, 172, 6942-6949.
123. Kaatz, G.W.; Seo, S.M.; Ruble, C.A. Efflux-mediated fluoroquinolone resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1993, 37, 1086-1094.
124. Ng, E.; Trucksis, M.; Hooper, D.C. Quinolone resistance mediated by norA: Physiologic characterization and relationship to flqB, a quinolone resistance locus on the Staphylococcus aureus chromosome. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1994, 38, 1345-1355.
125. Muñoz-Bellido, J.L.; Manzanares, M.A.; Andrés, J.M.; Zufiaurre, M.G.; Ortiz, G.; Hernández, M.S.; García-Rodríguez, J. Efflux Pump-Mediated Quinolone Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus Strains Wild Type for gyrA, gyrB, grlA, and norA. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1999, 43, 354-356.
126. Kaatz, G.W.; Thyagarajan, R.V.; Seo, S.M. Effect of promoter region mutations and mgrA overexpression on transcription of norA, which encodes a Staphylococcus aureus multidrug efflux transporter. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 161-169.
127. Holler, J.G.; Slotved, H.-C.; Mølgaard, P.; Olsen, C.E.; Christensen, S.B. Chalcone inhibitors of the NorA efflux pump in Staphylococcus aureus whole cells and enriched everted membrane vesicles. Bioorganic Med. Chem. 2012, 20, 4514-4521.
128. Kalia, N.P.; Mahajan, P.; Mehra, R.; Nargotra, A.; Sharma, J.P.; Koul, S.; Khan, I.A. Capsaicin, a novel inhibitor of the NorA efflux pump, reduces the intracellular invasion of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2012, 67, 2401-2408.
129. Holler, J.G.; Christensen, S.B.; Slotved, H.-C.; Rasmussen, H.B.; Gúzman, A.; Olsen, C.-E.; Petersen, B.; Mølgaard, P. Novel inhibitory activity of the Staphylococcus aureus NorA efflux pump by a kaempferol rhamnoside isolated from Persea lingue Nees. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2012, 67, 1138-1144.
130. German, N.; Wei, P.; Kaatz, G.W.; Kerns, R.J. Synthesis and evaluation of fluoroquinolone derivatives as substrate-based inhibitors of bacterial efflux pumps. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2008, 43, 2453-2463.
131. Pieroni, M.; Dimovska, M.; Brincat, J.P.; Sabatini, S.; Carosati, E.; Massari, S.; Kaatz, G.W.; Fravolini, A. From 6-aminoquinolone antibacterials to 6-amino-7-thiopyranopyridinylquinolone ethyl esters as inhibitors of Staphylococcus aureus multidrug efflux pumps. J. Med. Chem. 2010, 53, 4466-4480.
132. Vidaillac, C.; Guillon, J.; Arpin, C.; Forfar-Bares, I.; Ba, B.B., Grellet, J.; Moreau, S.; Caignard, D.-H.; Jarry, C.; and Quentin, C. Synthesis of omeprazole analogues and evaluation of these as potential inhibitors of the multidrug efflux pump NorA of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51, 831-838.
133. Stavri, M.; Piddock, L.J.; Gibbons, S. Bacterial efflux pump inhibitors from natural sources. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2007, 59, 1247-1260.
134. Deng, X.; Sun, F.; Ji, Q.; Liang, H.; Missiakas, D.; Lan, L.; He, C. Expression of multidrug resistance efflux pump gene norA is iron responsive in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2012, 194, 1753-1762.
135. Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Hooper, D.C. Phosphorylation of MgrA and its effect on expression of the NorA and NorB efflux pumps of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2010, 192, 2525-2534.
136. Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Ding, Y.; Hooper, D.C. Posttranslational modification influences the effects of MgrA on norA expression in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2008, 190, 7375-7381.
137. Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Hooper, D.C. The transcriptional regulators NorG and MgrA modulate resistance to both quinolones and β-lactams in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2007, 189, 2996-3005.
138. Luong, T.T.; Newell, S.W.; Lee, C.Y. Mgr, a novel global regulator in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2003, 185, 3703-3710.
139. Liang, X.; Zheng, L.; Landwehr, C.; Lunsford, D.; Holmes, D.; Ji, Y. Global regulation of gene expression by ArlRS, a two-component signal transduction regulatory system of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2005, 187, 5486-5492.
140. Truong-Bolduc, Q.; Dunman, P.; Strahilevitz, J.; Projan, S.; Hooper, D. MgrA is a multiple regulator of two new efflux pumps in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 2005, 187, 2395-2405.
141. Ding, Y.; Onodera, Y.; Lee, J.C.; Hooper, D.C. NorB, an efflux pump in Staphylococcus aureus strain MW2, contributes to bacterial fitness in abscesses. J. Bacteriol. 2008, 190, 7123-7129.
142. Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Bolduc, G.R.; Okumura, R.; Celino, B.; Bevis, J.; Liao, C.-H.; Hooper, D.C. Implication of the NorB efflux pump in the adaptation of Staphylococcus aureus to growth at acid pH and in resistance to moxifloxacin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2011, 55, 3214-3219.
143. Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Hsing, L.C.; Villet, R.; Bolduc, G.R.; Estabrooks, Z.; Taguezem, G.F.; Hooper, D.C. Reduced aeration affects the expression of the NorB efflux pump of Staphylococcus aureus by posttranslational modification of MgrA. J. Bacteriol. 2012, 194, 1823-1834.
144. Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Strahilevitz, J.; Hooper, D.C. NorC, a new efflux pump regulated by MgrA of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2006, 50, 1104-1107.
145. Ding, Y.; Fu, Y.; Lee, J.C.; Hooper, D.C. Staphylococcus aureus NorD, a putative efflux pump coregulated with the Opp1 oligopeptide permease, contributes selectively to fitness in vivo. J. Bacteriol. 2012, 194, 6586-6593.
146. Schwarz, S.; Feßler, A.T.; Hauschild, T.; Kehrenberg, C.; Kadlec, K. Plasmid-mediated resistance to protein biosynthesis inhibitors in staphylococci. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2011, 1241, 82-103.
147. Krulwich, T.A.; Jin, J.; Guffanti, A.A.; Bechhofer, D.H. Functions of tetracycline efflux proteins that do not involve tetracycline. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2001, 3, 237-246.
148. + antiporter from Staphylococcus aureus: Mutagenesis and functional analysis of motif C. J. Bacteriol. 2000, 182, 1492-1498.
149. Guay, G.G.; Rothstein, D.M. Expression of the tetK gene from Staphylococcus aureus in Escherichia coli: Comparison of substrate specificities of TetA (B), TetA (C), and TetK efflux proteins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1993, 37, 191-198.
150. + antiporter of Staphylococcus aureus. FEBS Lett. 1996, 391, 243-246.
151. Sudano Roccaro, A.; Blanco, A.R.; Giuliano, F.; Rusciano, D.; Enea, V. Epigallocatechin-gallate enhances the activity of tetracycline in staphylococci by inhibiting its efflux from bacterial cells. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 1968-1973.
152. Oluwatuyi, M.; Kaatz, G.W.; Gibbons, S. Antibacterial and resistance modifying activity of Rosmarinus officinalis. Phytochemistry 2004, 65, 3249-3254.
153. Gibbons, S.; Oluwatuyi, M.; Veitch, N.C.; Gray, A.I. Bacterial resistance modifying agents from Lycopus europaeus. Phytochemistry 2003, 62, 83-87.
154. Handzlik, J.; Matys, A.; Kieć-Kononowicz, K. Recent advances in multi-drug resistance (MDR) efflux pump inhibitors of Gram-positive bacteria S. aureus. Antibiotics 2013, 2, 28-45.
155. Yamada, Y.; Hideka, K.; Shiota, S.; Kuroda, T.; Tsuchiya, T. Gene cloning and characterization of SdrM, a chromosomally-encoded multidrug efflux pump, from Staphylococcus aureus. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 29, 554-556.
156. Sutcliffe, J.; Tait-Kamradt, A.; Wondrack, L. Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes resistant to macrolides but sensitive to clindamycin: A common resistance pattern mediated by an efflux system. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1996, 40, 1817-1824.
157. Poole, K. Efflux-mediated antimicrobial resistance. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2005, 56, 20-51.
158. Clancy, J.; Petitpas, J.; Dib-Hajj, F.; Yuan, W.; Cronan, M.; Kamath, A.V.; Bergeron, J.; Retsema, J.A. Molecular cloning and functional analysis of a novel macrolide-resistance determinant, mefA, from Streptococcus pyogenes. Mol. Microbiol. 1996, 22, 867-879.
159. Luna, V.A.; Heiken, M.; Judge, K.; Ulep, C.; van Kirk, N.; Luis, H.; Bernardo, M.; Leitao, J.; Roberts, M.C. Distribution of mef (A) in gram-positive bacteria from healthy Portuguese children. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2002, 46, 2513-2517.
160. Luna, V.A.; Coates, P.; Eady, E.A.; Cove, J.H.; Nguyen, T.T.; Roberts, M.C. A variety of gram-positive bacteria carry mobile mef genes. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1999, 44, 19-25.
161. Ojo, K.; Ulep, C.; van Kirk, N.; Luis, H.; Bernardo, M.; Leitao, J.; Roberts, M. The mef (A) gene predominates among seven macrolide resistance genes identified in Gram-negative strains representing 13 genera, isolated from healthy Portuguese children. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 3451-3456.
162. Tait-Kamradt, A.; Clancy, J.; Cronan, M.; Dib-Hajj, F.; Wondrack, L.; Yuan, W.; Sutcliffe, J. mefE is necessary for the erythromycin-resistant M phenotype in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1997, 41, 2251-2255.
163. Du, D.; Wang, Z.; James, N.R.; Voss, J.E.; Klimont, E.; Ohene-Agyei, T.; Venter, H.; Chiu, W.; Luisi, B.F. Structure of the AcrAB-TolC multidrug efflux pump. Nature 2014, 509, 512-515.
164. Weeks, J.W.; Bavro, V.N.; Misra, R. Genetic assessment of the role of AcrB β-hairpins in the assembly of the TolC-AcrAB multidrug efflux pump of Escherichia coli. Mol. Microbiol. 2014, 91, 965-975.
165. Sato, T.; Yokota, S.; Okubo, T.; Ishihara, K.; Ueno, H.; Muramatsu, Y.; Fujii, N.; Tamura, Y. Contribution of the AcrAB-TolC efflux pump to high-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Escherichia coli isolated from dogs and humans. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 2013, 75, 407-414.
166. Sikora, C.W.; Turner, R.J. SMR proteins SugE and EmrE bind ligand with similar affinity and stoichiometry. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2005, 335, 105-111.
167. Son, M.S.; Del Castilho, C.; Duncalf, K.A., Carney, D.; Weiner, J.H.; Turner, R.J. Mutagenesis of SugE, a small multidrug resistance protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2003, 312, 914-921.
168. Cortez-Cordova, J.; Kumar, A. Activity of the efflux pump inhibitor phenylalanine-arginine β-naphthylamide against the AdeFGH pump of Acinetobacter baumannii. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2011, 37, 420-424.
169. Reddy, V.S.; Shlykov, M.A.; Castillo, R.; Sun, E.I.; Saier, M.H., Jr. The major facilitator superfamily (MFS) revisited. FEBS J. 2012, 279, 2022-2035.
170. Li, X.Z.; Nikaido, H. Efflux-mediated drug resistance in bacteria: An update. Drugs 2009, 69, 1555-1623.
171. Sigal, N.; Cohen-Karni, D.; Siemion, S.; Bibi, E. MdfA from Escherichia coli, a model protein for studying secondary multidrug transport. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2006, 11, 308-317.
172. White, D.G.; Hudson, C.; Maurer, J.J.; Ayers, S.; Zhao, S.; Lee, M.D.; Bolton, L.; Foley, T.; Sherwood, J. Characterization of chloramphenicol and florfenicol resistance in Escherichia coli associated with bovine diarrhea. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000, 38, 4593-4598.
173. Xu, Y.; Sim, S.H.; Nam, K.H.; Jin, X.L.; Kim, H.M.; Hwang, K.Y.; Lee, K.; Ha, N.C. Crystal structure of the periplasmic region of MacB, a noncanonic ABC transporter. Biochemistry 2009, 48, 5218-5225.
174. Xu, Y.; Sim, S.H.; Song, S.; Piao, S.; Kim, H.M.; Jin, X.L.; Lee, K.; Ha, N.C. The tip region of the MacA α-hairpin is important for the binding to TolC to the Escherichia coli MacAB-TolC pump. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2010, 394, 962-965.
175. Guyer, D.M.; Kao, J.S.; Mobley, H.L. Genomic analysis of a pathogenicity island in uropathogenic Escherichia coli CFT073: Distribution of homologous sequences among isolates from patients with pyelonephritis, cystitis, and Catheter-associated bacteriuria and from fecal samples. Infect. Immun.1998, 66, 4411-4417.
176. Hayashi, T.; Makino, K.; Ohnishi, M.; Kurokawa, K.; Ishii, K.; Yokoyama, K.; Han, C.G.; Ohtsubo, E.; Nakayama, K.; Murata, T.; et al. Complete genome sequence of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 and genomic comparison with a laboratory strain K-12. DNA Res. 2001, 8, 11-22.
177. Smith, K.P.; Kumar, S.; Varela, M.F. Identification, cloning, and functional characterization of EmrD-3, a putative multidrug efflux pump of the major facilitator superfamily from Vibrio cholerae O395. Arch. Microbiol. 2009, 191, 903-911.
178. Mukherjee, M.; Kakarla, P.; Kumar, S.; Gonzalez, E.; Floyd, J.T.; Inupakutika, M.; Devireddy, A.R.; Tirrell, S.R.; Bruns, M.; He, G.; et al. Comparative genome analysis of non-toxigenic non-O1 versus toxigenic O1 Vibrio cholerae. Genomics Discov. 2014, 2, doi:10.7243/2052-7993-2-1.
179. Woolley, R.C.; Vediyappan, G.; Anderson, M.; Lackey, M.; Ramasubramanian, B.; Jiangping, B.; Borisova, T.; Colmer, J.A.; Hamood, A.N.; McVay, C.S.; et al. Characterization of the Vibrio cholerae vceCAB multiple-drug resistance efflux operon in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 2005, 187, 5500-5503.
180. Colmer, J.A.; Fralick, J.A.; Hamood, A.N. Isolation and characterization of a putative multidrug resistance pump from Vibrio cholerae. Mol. Microbiol. 1998, 27, 63-72.
181. +-coupled multidrug efflux pump, from Vibrio cholerae non-O1. Microbiol. Immunol. 2003, 47, 419-427.
182. Kumar, S.; Mukherjee, M.M.; Varela, M.F. Modulation of bacterial multidrug resistance efflux pumps of the major facilitator superfamily. Int. J. Bacteriol. 2013, 10, doi:10.1155/2013/204141.
183. Sun, J.; Deng, Z.; Yan, A. Bacterial multidrug efflux pumps: Mechanisms, physiology and pharmacological exploitations. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2014, 453, 254-267.
184. Horiyama, T.; Yamaguchi, A.; Nishino, K. TolC dependency of multidrug efflux systems in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2010, 65, 1372-1376.
185. Nishino, K.; Latifi, T.; Groisman, E.A. Virulence and drug resistance roles of multidrug efflux systems of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Mol. Microbiol. 2006, 59, 126-141.
186. Fluman, N.; Bibi, E. Bacterial multidrug transport through the lens of the major facilitator superfamily. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 2009, 1794, 738-747.
187. Rensch, U.; Nishino, K.; Klein, G.; Kehrenberg, C. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium multidrug efflux pumps EmrAB and AcrEF support the major efflux system AcrAB in decreased susceptibility to triclosan. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2014, 44, 179-180.
188. Lomovskaya, O.; Lewis, K.; Matin, A. EmrR is a negative regulator of the Escherichia coli multidrug resistance pump EmrAB. J. Bacteriol. 1995, 177, 2328-2334.
189. Lewinson, O.; Padan, E.; Bibi, E. Alkali tolerance: A biological function for a multidrug transporter in pH homeostasis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 14073-14078.
190. Braibant, M.; Chevalier, J.; Chaslus-Dancla, E.; Pages, J.M.; Cloeckaert, A. Structural and functional study of the phenicol-specific efflux pump FloR belonging to the major facilitator superfamily. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 2965-2971.
191. Cheung, T.K.; Chu, Y.W.; Chu, M.Y.; Ma, C.H.; Yung, R.W.; Kam, K.M. Plasmid-mediated resistance to ciprofloxacin and cefotaxime in clinical isolates of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis in Hong Kong. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2005, 56, 586-589.
192. Randall, L.P.; Cooles, S.W.; Osborn, M.K.; Piddock, L.J.; Woodward, M.J. Antibiotic resistance genes, integrons and multiple antibiotic resistance in thirty-five serotypes of Salmonella enterica isolated from humans and animals in the UK. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2004, 53, 208-216.
193. Hur, J.; Jawale, C.; Lee, J.H. Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolated from food animals: A review. Food Res. Int. 2012, 45, 819-830.
194. Randall, L.P.; Woodward, M.J. The multiple antibiotic resistance (mar) locus and its significance. Res. Vet. Sci. 2002, 72, 87-93.
195. Arcangioli, M.A.; Leroy-Setrin, S.; Martel, J.L.; Chaslus-Dancla, E. A new chloramphenicol and florfenicol resistance gene flanked by two integron structures in Salmonella typhimurium DT104. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1999, 174, 327-332.
196. Akiyama, T.; Presedo, J.; Khan, A.A. The tetA gene decreases tigecycline sensitivity of Salmonella enterica isolates. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2013, 42, 133-140.
197. Shahada, F.; Amamoto, A.; Chuma, T.; Shirai, A.; Okamoto, K. Antimicrobial susceptibility phenotypes, resistance determinants and DNA fingerprints of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium isolated from bovine in Southern Japan. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2007, 30, 150-156.
198. Shahada, F.; Chuma, T.; Tobata, T.; Okamoto, K.; Sueyoshi, M.; Takase, K. Molecular epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance among Salmonella enterica serovar infantis from poultry in Kagoshima, Japan. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2006, 28, 302-307.
199. Cuthbertson, L.; Nodwell, J.R. The TetR family of regulators. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2013, 77, 440-475.
200. +-coupled multidrug efflux pump, PmpM, a member of the MATE family of transporters, from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Bacteriol. 2004, 186, 262-265.
201. Brown, M.H.; Paulsen, I.T.; Skurray, R.A. The multidrug efflux protein NorM is a prototype of a new family of transporters. Mol. Microbiol. 1999, 31, 394-395.
202. Dridi, L.; Tankovic, J.; Petit, J.C. CdeA of Clostridium difficile, a new multidrug efflux transporter of the MATE family. Microb. Drug Resist. 2004, 10, 191-196.
203. Perez, A.; Poza, M.; Fernandez, A.; Fernandez Mdel, C.; Mallo, S.; Merino, M.; Rumbo-Feal, S.; Cabral, M.P.; Bou, G. Involvement of the AcrAB-TolC efflux pump in the resistance, fitness, and virulence of Enterobacter cloacae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2012, 56, 2084-2090.
204. Perez, A.; Poza, M.; Aranda, J.; Latasa, C.; Medrano, F.J., Tomas, M.; Romero, A.; Lasa, I.; Bou, G. Effect of transcriptional activators SoxS, RobA, and RamA on expression of multidrug efflux pump AcrAB-TolC in Enterobacter cloacae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2012, 56, 6256-6266.
205. Szabo, D.; Silveira, F.; Hujer, A.M.; Bonomo, R.A.; Hujer, K.M.; Marsh, J.W.; Bethel, C.R.; Doi, Y.; Deeley, K.; Paterson, D.L. Outer membrane protein changes and efflux pump expression together may confer resistance to ertapenem in Enterobacter cloacae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2006, 50, 2833-2835.
206. Sacha, P.; Wieczorek, P.; Ojdana, D.; Hauschild, T.; Milewski, R.; Czaban, S.; Poniatowski, B.; Tryniszewska, E. Expression of MexAB-OprM efflux pump system and susceptibility to antibiotics of different Pseudomonas aeruginosa clones isolated from patients hospitalized in two intensive care units at University Hospital in Bialystok (northeastern Poland) between January 2002 and December 2009. APMIS 2014, 122, 931-940.
207. Bay, D.C.; Rommens, K.L.; Turner, R.J. Small multidrug resistance proteins: A multidrug transporter family that continues to grow. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 2008, 1778, 1814-1838.
208. Griffith, J.K.; Baker, M.E.; Rouch, D.A.; Page, M.G.; Skurray, R.A.; Paulsen, I.T.; Chater, K.F.; Baldwin, S.A.; Henderson, P.J. Membrane transport proteins: Implications of sequence comparisons. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1992, 4, 684-695.
209. Baldwin, S.A.; Henderson, P.J. Homologies between sugar transporters from eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 1989, 51, 459-471.
210. Henderson, P.J.; Roberts, P.E.; Martin, G.E.; Seamon, K.B.; Walmsley, A.R.; Rutherford, N.G.; Varela, M.F.; Griffith, J.K. Homologous sugar-transport proteins in microbes and man. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 1993, 21, 1002-1006.
211. Henderson, P.J.; Maiden, M.C. Homologous sugar transport proteins in Escherichia coli and their relatives in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B. 1990, 326, 391-410.
212. Pao, S.S.; Paulsen, I.T.; Saier, M.H., Jr. Major facilitator superfamily. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 1998, 62, 1-34.
213. Saier, M.H., Jr.; Reddy, V.S.; Tamang, D.G.; Vastermark, A. The transporter classification database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014, 42, D251-D258.
214. Hirai, T.; Heymann, J.A.; Maloney, P.C.; Subramaniam, S. Structural model for 12-helix transporters belonging to the major facilitator superfamily. J. Bacteriol. 2003, 185, 1712-1718.
215. Saier, M.H., Jr. A functional-phylogenetic classification system for transmembrane solute transporters. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000, 64, 354-411.
216. Bolhuis, H.; Poelarends, G.; van Veen, H.W.; Poolman, B.; Driessen, A.J.; Konings, W.N. The Lactococcal lmrP gene encodes a proton motive force-dependent drug transporter. J. Biol. Chem. 1995, 270, 26092-26098.
217. Yin, Y.; He, X.; Szewczyk, P.; Nguyen, T.; Chang, G. Structure of the multidrug transporter EmrD from Escherichia coli. Science 2006, 312, 741-744.
218. Edgar, R.; Bibi, E. MdfA, an Escherichia coli multidrug resistance protein with an extraordinarily broad spectrum of drug recognition. J. Bacteriol. 1997, 179, 2274-2280.
219. Yelin, R.; Schuldiner, S. The pharmacological profile of the vesicular monoamine transporter resembles that of multidrug transporters. FEBS Lett. 1995, 377, 201-207.
220. Sutcliffe, J.G. Complete nucleotide sequence of the Escherichia coli plasmid pBR322. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 1979, 43, 77-90.
221. Hillen, W.; Schollmeier, K. Nucleotide sequence of the Tn10 encoded tetracycline resistance gene. Nucleic acids research 1983, 11, 525-539.
222. Goffeau, A.; Park, J.; Paulsen, I.T.; Jonniaux, J.L.; Dinh, T.; Mordant, P.; Saier, M.H., Jr. Multidrug-resistant transport proteins in yeast: Complete inventory and phylogenetic characterization of yeast open reading frames with the major facilitator superfamily. Yeast 1997, 13, 43-54.
223. Lomovskaya, O.; Lewis, K. Emr, an Escherichia coli locus for multidrug resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89, 8938-8942.
224. Hongo, E.; Morimyo, M.; Mita, K.; Machida, I.; Hama-Inaba, H.; Tsuji, H.; Ichimura, S.; Noda, Y. The methyl viologen-resistance-encoding gene smvA of Salmonella typhimurium. Gene 1994, 148, 173-174.
225. + antiport catalyzed by the Bacillus subtilis TetA(L) transporter expressed in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 1995, 177, 4557-4561.
226. Khan, S.A.; Novick, R.P. Complete nucleotide sequence of pT181, a tetracycline-resistance plasmid from Staphylococcus aureus. Plasmid 1983, 10, 251-259.
227. Marger, M.D.; Saier, M.H., Jr. A major superfamily of transmembrane facilitators that catalyse uniport, symport and antiport. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1993, 18, 13-20.
228. + antiporter. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275, 18692-18697.
229. Varela, M.F.; Wilson, T.H.; Rodon-Rivera, V.; Shepherd, S.; Dehne, T.A.; Rector, A.C. Mutants of the lactose carrier of Escherichia coli which show altered sugar recognition plus a severe defect in sugar accumulation. J. Membr. Biol. 2000, 174, 199-205.
230. Varela, M.F.; Wilson, T.H. Molecular biology of the lactose carrier of Escherichia coli. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1996, 1276, 21-34.
231. Van Camp, B.M.; Crow, R.R.; Peng, Y.; Varela, M.F. Amino acids that confer transport of raffinose and maltose sugars in the raffinose permease (RafB) of Escherichia coli as implicated by spontaneous mutations at Val-35, Ser-138, Ser-139, Gly-389 and Ile. J. Membr. Biol. 2007, 220, 87-95.
232. + antiporter encoded by transposon Tn10 of Escherichia coli. Biochemistry 1992, 31, 8344-8348.
233. + antiporter of Escherichia coli encoded by transposon Tn10: The role of the conserved dipeptide, Ser65-Asp66, in tetracycline transport. J. Biol. Chem. 1990, 265, 15525-15530.
234. + antiport: Complete cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and the protein engineering approach. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2003, 7, 570-579.
235. + antiporter of Escherichia coli. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275, 210-214.
236. + antiporter of Escherichia coli. Biochemistry 1996, 35, 9385-9391.
237. + antiporter of Escherichia coli. Biochemistry 1998, 37, 5475-5480.
238. Pazdernik, N.J.; Matzke, E.A.; Jessen-Marshall, A.E.; Brooker, R.J. Roles of charged residues in the conserved motif, G-X-X-X-D/E-R/K-X-G-[X]-R/K-R/K, of the lactose permease of Escherichia coli. J. Membr. Biol. 2000, 174, 31-40.
239. Jessen-Marshall, A.E.; Parker, N.J.; Brooker, R.J. Suppressor analysis of mutations in the loop 2-3 motif of lactose permease: Evidence that glycine-64 is an important residue for conformational changes. J. Bacteriol. 1997, 179, 2616-2622.
240. Jessen-Marshall, A.E.; Paul, N.J.; Brooker, R.J. The conserved motif, GXXX(D/E)(R/K)XG[X](R/K)(R/K), in hydrophilic loop 2/3 of the lactose permease. J. Biol. Chem. 1995, 270, 16251-16257.
241. Jiang, D.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, X.; Fan, J.; Heng, J.; Liu, X.; Feng, W.; Kang, X.; Huang, B.; Liu, J.; Zhang, X.C. Structure of the YajR transporter suggests a transport mechanism based on the conserved motif A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 14664-14669.
242. Varela, M.F.; Griffith, J.K. Nucleotide and deduced protein sequences of the class D tetracycline resistance determinant: relationship to other antimicrobial transport proteins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1993, 37, 1253-1258.
243. Varela, M.F.; Sansom, C.E.; Griffith, J.K. Mutational analysis and molecular modelling of an amino acid sequence motif conserved in antiporters but not symporters in a transporter superfamily. Mol. Membr. Biol. 1995, 12, 313-319.
244. Saraceni-Richards, C.A.; Levy, S.B. Second-site suppressor mutations of inactivating substitutions at Gly247 of the tetracycline efflux protein, Tet(B). J. Bacteriol. 2000, 182, 6514-6516.
245. De Jesus, M.; Jin, J.; Guffanti, A.A.; Krulwich, T.A. Importance of the GP dipeptide of the antiporter motif and other membrane-embedded proline and glycine residues in tetracycline efflux protein Tet(L). Biochemistry 2005, 44, 12896-12904.
246. Jin, J.; Krulwich, T.A. Site-directed mutagenesis studies of selected motif and charged residues and of cysteines of the multifunctional tetracycline efflux protein Tet(L). J. Bacteriol. 2002, 184, 1796-1800.
247. Perreten, V.; Schwarz, F.V.; Teuber, M.; Levy, S.B. Mdt(A), a new efflux protein conferring multiple antibiotic resistance in Lactococcus lactis and Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001, 45, 1109-1114.
248. Hassan, K.A.; Galea, M.; Wu, J.; Mitchell, B.A.; Skurray, R.A.; Brown, M.H. Functional effects of intramembranous proline substitutions in the staphylococcal multidrug transporter QacA. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2006, 263, 76-85.
249. + transport. Eukaryotic Cell 2007, 6, 443-453.
250. Walther, C.; Rossano, A.; Thomann, A.; Perreten, V. Antibiotic resistance in Lactococcus species from bovine milk: Presence of a mutated multidrug transporter mdt(A) gene in susceptible Lactococcus garvieae strains. Vet. Microbiol. 2008, 131, 348-357.
251. Chandrasekaran, A.; Ojeda, A.M.; Kolmakova, N.G.; Parsons, S.M. Mutational and bioinformatics analysis of proline- and glycine-rich motifs in vesicular acetylcholine transporter. J. Neurochem. 2006, 98, 1551-1559.
252. Ugolev, Y.; Segal, T.; Yaffe, D.; Gros, Y.; Schuldiner, S. Identification of conformationally sensitive residues essential for inhibition of vesicular monoamine transport by the noncompetitive inhibitor tetrabenazine. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, 288, 32160-32171.
253. + symporter and its mechanism of action. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 17862-17867.
254. Maiden, M.C.; Davis, E.O.; Baldwin, S.A.; Moore, D.C.; Henderson, P.J. Mammalian and bacterial sugar transport proteins are homologous. Nature 1987, 325, 641-643.
255. Newstead, S.; Drew, D.; Cameron, A.D.; Postis, V.L.; Xia, X.; Fowler, P.W.; Ingram, J.C.; Carpenter, E.P.; Sansom, M.S.; McPherson, M.J.; Baldwin, S.A.; Iwata, S. Crystal structure of a prokaryotic homologue of the mammalian oligopeptide-proton symporters, PepT1 and PepT2. EMBO J. 2011, 30, 417-426.
256. Lemieux, M.J.; Song, J.; Kim, M.J.; Huang, Y.; Villa, A.; Auer, M.; Li, X.D.; Wang, D.N. Three-dimensional crystallization of the Escherichia coli glycerol-3-phosphate transporter: A member of the major facilitator superfamily. Protein Sci. 2003, 12, 2748-2756.
257. Abramson, J.; Smirnova, I.; Kasho, V.; Verner, G.; Kaback, H.R.; Iwata, S. Structure and mechanism of the lactose permease of Escherichia coli. Science 2003, 301, 610-615.
258. Zheng, H.; Wisedchaisri, G.; Gonen, T. Crystal structure of a nitrate/nitrite exchanger. Nature 2013, 497, 647-651.
259. Yan, H.; Huang, W.; Yan, C.; Gong, X.; Jiang, S.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, J.; Shi, Y. Structure and mechanism of a nitrate transporter. Cell Rep. 2013, 3, 716-723.
260. Dang, S.; Sun, L.; Huang, Y.; Lu, F.; Liu, Y.; Gong, H.; Wang, J.; Yan, N. Structure of a fucose transporter in an outward-open conformation. Nature 2010, 467, 734-738.
261. Sun, L.; Zeng, X.; Yan, C.; Sun, X.; Gong, X.; Rao, Y.; Yan, N. Crystal structure of a bacterial homologue of glucose transporters GLUT1-4. Nature 2012, 490, 361-366.
262. Pedersen, B.P.; Kumar, H.; Waight, A.B.; Risenmay, A.J.; Roe-Zurz, Z.; Chau, B.H.; Schlessinger, A.; Bonomi, M.; Harries, W.; Sali, A.; et al. Crystal structure of a eukaryotic phosphate transporter. Nature 2013, 496, 533-536.
263. Deng, D.; Xu, C.; Sun, P.; Wu, J.; Yan, C.; Hu, M.; Yan, N. Crystal structure of the human glucose transporter GLUT1. Nature 2014, 510, 121-125.
264. Yan, N. Structural advances for the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transporters. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2013, 38, 151-159.
265. Nikaido, H.; Pages, J.M. Broad-specificity efflux pumps and their role in multidrug resistance of Gram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2012, 36, 340-363.
266. Swick, M.C.; Morgan-Linnell, S.K.; Carlson, K.M.; Zechiedrich, L. Expression of multidrug efflux pump genes acrAB-tolC, mdfA, and norE in Escherichia coli clinical isolates as a function of fluoroquinolone and multidrug resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2011, 55, 921-924.
267. Yasufuku, T.; Shigemura, K.; Shirakawa, T.; Matsumoto, M.; Nakano, Y.; Tanaka, K.; Arakawa, S.; Kinoshita, S.; Kawabata, M.; Fujisawa, M. Correlation of overexpression of efflux pump genes with antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli strains clinically isolated from urinary tract infection patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2011, 49, 189-194.
268. Davin-Regli, A.; Bolla, J.M.; James, C.E.; Lavigne, J.P.; Chevalier, J.; Garnotel, E.; Molitor, A.; Pages, J.M. Membrane permeability and regulation of drug "influx and efflux" in enterobacterial pathogens. Curr. Drug Targets 2008, 9, 750-759.
269. Piddock, L.J. Clinically relevant chromosomally encoded multidrug resistance efflux pumps in bacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2006, 19, 382-402.
270. Bornet, C.; Chollet, R.; Mallea, M.; Chevalier, J.; Davin-Regli, A.; Pages, J.M.; Bollet, C. Imipenem and expression of multidrug efflux pump in Enterobacter aerogenes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2003, 301, 985-990.
271. Fernandes, P.; Ferreira, B.S.; Cabral, J.M. Solvent tolerance in bacteria: Role of efflux pumps and cross-resistance with antibiotics. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2003, 22, 211-216.
272. Mazzariol, A.; Zuliani, J.; Cornaglia, G.; Rossolini, G.M.; Fontana, R. AcrAB Efflux System: Expression and Contribution to Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Klebsiella spp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2002, 46, 3984-3986.
273. Giamarellou, H.; Poulakou, G. Multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections: What are the treatment options? Drugs 2009, 69, 1879-1901.
274. Rice, L.B. The clinical consequences of antimicrobial resistance. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2009, 12, 476-481.
275. Gwynn, M.N.; Portnoy, A.; Rittenhouse, S.F.; Payne, D.J. Challenges of antibacterial discovery revisited. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2010, 1213, 5-19.
276. Li, X.Z.; Nikaido, H. Efflux-mediated drug resistance in bacteria. Drugs 2004, 64, 159-204.
277. Nikaido, H. Multidrug resistance in bacteria. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 2009, 78, 119-146.
278. Warner, D.M.; Shafer, W.M.; Jerse, A.E. Clinically relevant mutations that cause derepression of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae MtrC-MtrD-MtrE Efflux pump system confer different levels of antimicrobial resistance and in vivo fitness. Mol. Microbiol. 2008, 70, 462-478.
279. Olliver, A.; Valle, M.; Chaslus-Dancla, E.; Cloeckaert, A. Overexpression of the multidrug efflux operon acrEF by insertional activation with IS1 or IS10 elements in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium DT204 acrB mutants selected with fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 289-301.
280. Vettoretti, L.; Plesiat, P.; Muller, C.; el Garch, F.; Phan, G.; Attree, I.; Ducruix, A.; Llanes, C. Efflux unbalance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from cystic fibrosis patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53, 1987-1997.
281. Chuanchuen, R.; Beinlich, K.; Hoang, T.T.; Becher, A.; Karkhoff-Schweizer, R.R.; Schweizer, H.P. Cross-resistance between triclosan and antibiotics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is mediated by multidrug efflux pumps: exposure of a susceptible mutant strain to triclosan selects nfxB mutants overexpressing MexCD-OprJ. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001, 45, 428-432.
282. Saleh, S.; Haddadin, R.N.; Baillie, S.; Collier, P.J. Triclosan-An update. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2011, 52, 87-95.
283. Dann, A.B.; Hontela, A. Triclosan: Environmental exposure, toxicity and mechanisms of action. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2011, 31, 285-311.
284. Yazdankhah, S.P.; Scheie, A.A.; Hoiby, E.A.; Lunestad, B.T.; Heir, E.; Fotland, T.O.; Naterstad, K.; Kruse, H. Triclosan and antimicrobial resistance in bacteria: An overview. Microb. Drug Resist. 2006, 12, 83-90.
285. Fralick, J.A. Evidence that TolC is required for functioning of the Mar/AcrAB efflux pump of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 1996, 178, 5803-5805.
286. Yamane, K.; Wachino, J.; Suzuki, S.; Kimura, K.; Shibata, N.; Kato, H.; Shibayama, K.; Konda, T.; Arakawa, Y. New plasmid-mediated fluoroquinolone efflux pump, QepA, found in an Escherichia coli clinical isolate. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51, 3354-3360.
287. Blair, J.M.; Piddock, L.J. Structure, function and inhibition of RND efflux pumps in Gram-negative bacteria: An update. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2009, 12, 512-519.
288. Morita, Y.; Kodama, K.; Shiota, S.; Mine, T.; Kataoka, A.; Mizushima, T.; Tsuchiya, T. NorM, a putative multidrug efflux protein, of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and its homolog in Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1998, 42, 1778-1782.
289. O'Regan, E.; Quinn, T.; Pages, J.M.; McCusker, M.; Piddock, L.; Fanning, S. Multiple regulatory pathways associated with high-level ciprofloxacin and multidrug resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis: Involvement of RamA and other global regulators. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53, 1080-1087.
290. Lunn, A.D.; Fabrega, A.; Sanchez-Cespedes, J.; Vila, J. Prevalence of mechanisms decreasing quinolone-susceptibility among Salmonella spp. clinical isolates. Int. Microbiol. 2010, 13, 15-20.
291. Giraud, E.; Cloeckaert, A.; Kerboeuf, D.; Chaslus-Dancla, E. Evidence for active efflux as the primary mechanism of resistance to ciprofloxacin in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2000, 44, 1223-1228.
292. Fernandez, L.; Hancock, R.E. Adaptive and mutational resistance: Role of porins and efflux pumps in drug resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2012, 25, 661-681.
293. Martins, A.; Hunyadi, A.; Amaral, L. Mechanisms of resistance in bacteria: An evolutionary approach. Open Microbiol. J. 2013, 7, 53-58.
294. Poole, K. Efflux pumps as antimicrobial resistance mechanisms. Ann. Med. 2007, 39, 162-176.
295. Alekshun, M.N.; Levy, S.B. Regulation of chromosomally mediated multiple antibiotic resistance: The mar regulon. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1997, 41, 2067-2075.
296. Keeney, D.; Ruzin, A.; McAleese, F.; Murphy, E.; Bradford, P.A. MarA-mediated overexpression of the AcrAB efflux pump results in decreased susceptibility to tigecycline in Escherichia coli. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2008, 61, 46-53.
297. Baucheron, S.; Tyler, S.; Boyd, D.; Mulvey, M.R.; Chaslus-Dancla, E.; Cloeckaert, A. AcrAB-TolC directs efflux-mediated multidrug resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium DT. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 3729-3735.
298. Piddock, L.J.; White, D.G.; Gensberg, K.; Pumbwe, L.; Griggs, D.J. Evidence for an efflux pump mediating multiple antibiotic resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2000, 44, 3118-3121.
299. Hocquet, D.; Vogne, C.; el Garch, F.; Vejux, A.; Gotoh, N.; Lee, A.; Lomovskaya, O.; Plesiat, P. MexXY-OprM efflux pump is necessary for a adaptive resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to aminoglycosides. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003, 47, 1371-1375.
300. Masuda, N.; Sakagawa, E.; Ohya, S.; Gotoh, N.; Tsujimoto, H.; Nishino, T. Contribution of the MexX-MexY-oprM efflux system to intrinsic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2000, 44, 2242-2246.
301. Eaves, D.J.; Ricci, V.; Piddock, L.J. Expression of acrB, acrF, acrD, marA, and soxS in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium: Role in multiple antibiotic resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 1145-1150.
302. Rodrigues, L.; Machado, D.; Couto, I.; Amaral, L.; Viveiros, M. Contribution of efflux activity to isoniazid resistance in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2012, 12, 695-700
303. Kwak, Y.G.; Truong-Bolduc, Q.C.; Bin Kim, H.; Song, K.H.; Kim, E.S.; Hooper, D.C. Association of norB overexpression and fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from Korea. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013, 68, 2766-2772.
304. Llanes, C.; Hocquet, D.; Vogne, C.; Benali-Baitich, D.; Neuwirth, C.; Plesiat, P. Clinical strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa overproducing MexAB-OprM and MexXY efflux pumps simultaneously. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 1797-1802.
305. Ziha-Zarifi, I.; Llanes, C.; Kohler, T.; Pechere, J.C.; Plesiat, P. In vivo emergence of multidrug-resistant mutants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa overexpressing the active efflux system MexA-MexB-OprM. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1999, 43, 287-291.
306. Becnel Boyd, L.; Maynard, M.J.; Morgan-Linnell, S.K.; Horton, L.B.; Sucgang, R.; Hamill, R.J.; Jimenez, J.R.; Versalovic, J.; Steffen, D.; Zechiedrich, L. Relationships among ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, levofloxacin, and norfloxacin MICs for fluoroquinolone-resistant Escherichia coli clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53, 229-234.
307. Morgan-Linnell, S.K.; Becnel Boyd, L.; Steffen, D.; Zechiedrich, L. Mechanisms accounting for fluoroquinolone resistance in Escherichia coli clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53, 235-241.
308. Yoon, E.J.; Courvalin, P.; Grillot-Courvalin, C. RND-type efflux pumps in multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii: Major role for AdeABC overexpression and AdeRS mutations. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2013, 57, 2989-2995.
309. Coyne, S.; Courvalin, P.; Perichon, B. Efflux-mediated antibiotic resistance in Acinetobacter spp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2011, 55, 947-953.
310. Magnet, S.; Courvalin, P.; Lambert, T. Resistance-nodulation-cell division-type efflux pump involved in aminoglycoside resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii strain BM4. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001, 45, 3375-3380.
311. Pannek, S.; Higgins, P.G.; Steinke, P.; Jonas, D.; Akova, M.; Bohnert, J.A.; Seifert, H.; Kern, W.V. Multidrug efflux inhibition in Acinetobacter baumannii: comparison between 1-(1-naphthylmethyl)-piperazine and phenyl-arginine-β-naphthylamide. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2006, 57, 970-974.
312. Marchand, I.; Damier-Piolle, L.; Courvalin, P.; Lambert, T. Expression of the RND-type efflux pump AdeABC in Acinetobacter baumannii is regulated by the AdeRS two-component system. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 3298-3304.
313. Peleg, A.Y.; Potoski, B.A.; Rea, R.; Adams, J.; Sethi, J.; Capitano, B.; Husain, S.; Kwak, E.J.; Bhat, S.V.; Paterson, D.L. Acinetobacter baumannii bloodstream infection while receiving tigecycline: A cautionary report. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2007, 59, 128-131.
314. Ruzin, A.; Keeney, D.; Bradford, P.A. AdeABC multidrug efflux pump is associated with decreased susceptibility to tigecycline in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-Acinetobacter baumannii complex. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2007, 59, 1001-1004.
315. Linares, J.F.; Lopez, J.A.; Camafeita, E.; Albar, J.P.; Rojo, F.; Martinez, J.L. Overexpression of the multidrug efflux pumps MexCD-OprJ and MexEF-OprN is associated with a reduction of type III secretion in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Bacteriol. 2005, 187, 1384-1391.
316. Pumbwe, L.; Randall, L.P.; Woodward, M.J.; Piddock, L.J. Evidence for multiple-antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter jejuni not mediated by CmeB or CmeF. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 1289-1293.
317. Poelarends, G.J.; Mazurkiewicz, P.; Putman, M.; Cool, R.H.; Veen, H.W.; Konings, W.N. An ABC-type multidrug transporter of Lactococcus lactis possesses an exceptionally broad substrate specificity. Drug Resist. Updat. 2000, 3, 330-334.
318. Schwartz, K.T.; Carleton, J.D.; Quillin, S.J.; Rollins, S.D.; Portnoy, D.A.; Leber, J.H. Hyperinduction of host β-interferon by a Listeria monocytogenes strain naturally overexpressing the multidrug efflux pump MdrT. Infect. Immun. 2012, 80, 1537-1545.
319. Crimmins, G.T.; Herskovits, A.A.; Rehder, K.; Sivick, K.E.; Lauer, P.; Dubensky, T.W., Jr.; Portnoy, D.A. Listeria monocytogenes multidrug resistance transporters activate a cytosolic surveillance pathway of innate immunity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 10191-10196.
320. Woodward, J.J.; Iavarone, A.T.; Portnoy, D.A. c-di-AMP secreted by intracellular Listeria monocytogenes activates a host type I interferon response. Science 2010, 328, 1703-1705.
321. Bina, J.E.; Provenzano, D.; Wang, C.; Bina, X.R.; Mekalanos, J.J. Characterization of the Vibrio cholerae vexAB and vexCD efflux systems. Arch. Microbiol. 2006, 186, 171-181.
322. Blair, J.M.; la Ragione, R.M.; Woodward, M.J.; Piddock, L.J. Periplasmic adaptor protein AcrA has a distinct role in the antibiotic resistance and virulence of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2009, 64, 965-972.
323. Martins, A.; Iversen, C.; Rodrigues, L.; Spengler, G.; Ramos, J.; Kern, W.V.; Couto, I.; Viveiros, M.; Fanning, S.; Pages, J.M.; et al. An AcrAB-mediated multidrug-resistant phenotype is maintained following restoration of wild-type activities by efflux pump genes and their regulators. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2009, 34, 602-604.
324. Padilla, E.; Llobet, E.; Domenech-Sanchez, A.; Martinez-Martinez, L.; Bengoechea, J.A.; Alberti, S. Klebsiella pneumoniae AcrAB efflux pump contributes to antimicrobial resistance and virulence. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2010, 54, 177-183.
325. Webber, M.A.; Randall, L.P.; Cooles, S.; Woodward, M.J.; Piddock, L.J. Triclosan resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2008, 62, 83-91.
326. Alhede, M.; Bjarnsholt, T.; Givskov, M.; Alhede, M. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: Mechanisms of immune evasion. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 2014, 86, 1-40.
327. Gillis, R.J.; White, K.G.; Choi, K.H.; Wagner, V.E.; Schweizer, H.P.; Iglewski, B.H. Molecular basis of azithromycin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 3858-3867.
328. Zhang, L.; Mah, T.F. Involvement of a novel efflux system in biofilm-specific resistance to antibiotics. J. Bacteriol. 2008, 190, 4447-4452.
329. Kvist, M.; Hancock, V.; Klemm, P. Inactivation of efflux pumps abolishes bacterial biofilm formation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74, 7376-7382.
330. Baugh, S.; Ekanayaka, A.S.; Piddock, L.J.; Webber, M.A. Loss of or inhibition of all multidrug resistance efflux pumps of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium results in impaired ability to form a biofilm. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2012, 67, 2409-2417.
331. Bhardwaj, A.K.; Mohanty, P. Bacterial efflux pumps involved in multidrug resistance and their inhibitors: Rejuvinating the antimicrobial chemotherapy. Recent Pat. Anti-Infect. Drug Discov. 2012, 7, 73-89.
332. Zechini, B.; Versace, I. Inhibitors of multidrug resistant efflux systems in bacteria. Recent Pat. Anti-Infect. Drug Discov. 2009, 4, 37-50.
333. Lewis, K. In search of natural substrates and inhibitors of MDR pumps. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2001, 3, 247-254.
334. Markham, P.N.; Westhaus, E.; Klyachko, K.; Johnson, M.E.; Neyfakh, A.A. Multiple novel inhibitors of the NorA multidrug transporter of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1999, 43, 2404-2408.
335. Lomovskaya, O.; Warren, M.S.; Lee, A.; Galazzo, J.; Fronko, R.; Lee, M.; Blais, J.; Cho, D.; Chamberland, S.; Renau, T.; et al. Identification and characterization of inhibitors of multidrug resistance efflux pumps in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: novel agents for combination therapy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001, 45, 105-116.
336. Trott, O.; Olson, A.J. AutoDock Vina: Improving the speed and accuracy of docking with a new scoring function, efficient optimization, and multithreading. J. Comput. Chem. 2010, 31, 455-461.
337. Takatsuka, Y.; Chen, C.; Nikaido, H. Mechanism of recognition of compounds of diverse structures by the multidrug efflux pump AcrB of Escherichia coli. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 6559-6565.
338. Murakami, S.; Nakashima, R.; Yamashita, E.; Yamaguchi, A. Crystal structure of bacterial multidrug efflux transporter AcrB. Nature 2002, 419, 587-593.
339. Sennhauser, G.; Amstutz, P.; Briand, C.; Storchenegger, O.; Grutter, M.G. Drug export pathway of multidrug exporter AcrB revealed by DARPin inhibitors. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050007.
340. Sennhauser, G.; Bukowska, M.A.; Briand, C.; Grutter, M.G. Crystal structure of the multidrug exporter MexB from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Mol. Biol. 2009, 389, 134-145.
341. Nakashima, R.; Sakurai, K.; Yamasaki, S.; Hayashi, K.; Nagata, C.; Hoshino, K.; Onodera, Y.; Nishino, K.; Yamaguchi, A. Structural basis for the inhibition of bacterial multidrug exporters. Nature 2013, 500, 102-106.
342. Kourtesi, C.; Ball, A.R.; Huang, Y.Y.; Jachak, S.M.; Vera, D.M.; Khondkar, P.; Gibbons, S.; Hamblin, M.R.; Tegos, G.P. Microbial efflux systems and inhibitors: approaches to drug discovery and the challenge of clinical implementation. Open Microbiol. J. 2013, 7, 34-52.
343. Sun, J.R.; Perng, C.L.; Lin, J.C.; Yang, Y.S.; Chan, M.C.; Chang, T.Y.; Lin, F.M.; Chiueh, T.S. AdeRS combination codes differentiate the response to efflux pump inhibitors in tigecycline-resistant isolates of extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2014, 12, doi:10.1007/s10096-014-2179-7.
344. Baugh, S.; Phillips, C.R.; Ekanayaka, A.S.; Piddock, L.J.; Webber, M.A. Inhibition of multidrug efflux as a strategy to prevent biofilm formation. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2014, 69, 673-681.
345. Hannula, M.; Hanninen, M.L. Effect of putative efflux pump inhibitors and inducers on the antimicrobial susceptibility of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. J. Med. Microbiol. 2008, 57, 851-855.
346. Bohnert, J.A.; Kern, W.V. Selected arylpiperazines are capable of reversing multidrug resistance in Escherichia coli overexpressing RND efflux pumps. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 849-852.
347. Schumacher, A.; Steinke, P.; Bohnert, J.A.; Akova, M.; Jonas, D.; Kern, W.V. Effect of 1-(1-naphthylmethyl)-piperazine, a novel putative efflux pump inhibitor, on antimicrobial drug susceptibility in clinical isolates of Enterobacteriaceae other than Escherichia coli. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2006, 57, 344-348.
348. Mallea, M.; Mahamoud, A.; Chevalier, J.; Alibert-Franco, S.; Brouant, P.; Barbe, J.; Pages, J.M. Alkylaminoquinolines inhibit the bacterial antibiotic efflux pump in multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. Biochem. J. 2003, 376, 801-805.
349. Chevalier, J.; Bredin, J.; Mahamoud, A.; Mallea, M.; Barbe, J.; Pages, J.M. Inhibitors of antibiotic efflux in resistant Enterobacter aerogenes and Klebsiella pneumoniae strains. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 1043-1046.
350. Nagata, S. Lethal effect of carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone on Escherichia coli and a halotolerant Brevibacterium species. Microbios 1995, 81, 73-83.
351. Zhang, Z.; Liu, Z.Q.; Zheng, P.Y.; Tang, F.A.; Yang, P.C. Influence of efflux pump inhibitors on the multidrug resistance of Helicobacter pylori. World J. Gastroenterol. 2010, 16, 1279-1284.
352. Sharma, S.; Kumar, M.; Sharma, S.; Nargotra, A.; Koul, S.; Khan, I.A. Piperine as an inhibitor of Rv1258c, a putative multidrug efflux pump of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2010, 65, 1694-1701.
353. Sangwan, P.L.; Koul, J.L.; Koul, S.; Reddy, M.V.; Thota, N.; Khan, I.A.; Kumar, A.; Kalia, N.P.; Qazi, G.N. Piperine analogs as potent Staphylococcus aureus NorA efflux pump inhibitors. Bioorganic Med. Chem. 2008, 16, 9847-9857.
354. Khan, I.A.; Mirza, Z.M.; Kumar, A.; Verma, V.; Qazi, G.N. Piperine, a phytochemical potentiator of ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2006, 50, 810-812.
355. Handzlik, J.; Szymanska, E.; Alibert, S.; Chevalier, J.; Otrebska, E.; Pekala, E.; Kiec-Kononowicz, K.; Pages, J.M. Search for new tools to combat Gram-negative resistant bacteria among amine derivatives of 5-arylidenehydantoin. Bioorganic Med. Chem. 2013, 21, 135-145.
356. Aparna, V.; Dineshkumar, K.; Mohanalakshmi, N.; Velmurugan, D.; Hopper, W. Identification of natural compound inhibitors for multidrug efflux pumps of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa using in silico high-throughput virtual screening and in vitro validation. PLoS One 2014, 9, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101840.
357. Kuete, V.; Alibert-Franco, S.; Eyong, K.O.; Ngameni, B.; Folefoc, G.N.; Nguemeving, J.R.; Tangmouo, J.G.; Fotso, G.W.; Komguem, J.; Ouahouo, B.M.; et al. Antibacterial activity of some natural products against bacteria expressing a multidrug-resistant phenotype. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2011, 37, 156-161.
358. Barnes, C.A.; Rasmussen, S.L.; Petrich, J.W.; Rasmussen, M.A. Determination of the concentration of potential efflux pump inhibitors, pheophorbide a and pyropheophorbide a, in the feces of animals by fluorescence spectroscopy. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 10456-10460.
359. Agerso, Y.; Aarestrup, F.M. Voluntary ban on cephalosporin use in Danish pig production has effectively reduced extended-spectrum cephalosporinase-producing Escherichia coli in slaughter pigs. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013, 68, 569-572.
360. Aarestrup, F.M.; Jensen, V.F.; Emborg, H.D.; Jacobsen, E.; Wegener, H.C. Changes in the use of antimicrobials and the effects on productivity of swine farms in Denmark. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2010, 71, 726-733.
361. Lee, C.R.; Cho, I.H.; Jeong, B.C.; Lee, S.H. Strategies to minimize antibiotic resistance. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 4274-4305.
362. Lloyd, D.H. Alternatives to conventional antimicrobial drugs: A review of future prospects. Vet. Dermatol. 2012, 23, 299-304.
363. Hsu, L.Y.; Kwa, A.L.; Lye, D.C.; Chlebicki, M.P.; Tan, T.Y.; Ling, M.L.; Wong, S.Y.; Goh, L.G. Reducing antimicrobial resistance through appropriate antibiotic usage in Singapore. Singap. Med. J. 2008, 49, 749-755.
364. Garcia-Migura, L.; Hendriksen, R.S.; Fraile, L.; Aarestrup, F.M. Antimicrobial resistance of zoonotic and commensal bacteria in Europe: The missing link between consumption and resistance in veterinary medicine. Vet. Microbiol. 2014, 170, 1-9.
365. Aarestrup, F.M.; Wegener, H.C.; Collignon, P. Resistance in bacteria of the food chain: Epidemiology and control strategies. Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther. 2008, 6, 733-750.
366. Aarestrup, F.M.; Wegener, H.C. The effects of antibiotic usage in food animals on the development of antimicrobial resistance of importance for humans in Campylobacter and Escherichia coli. Microbes Infect. 1999, 1, 639-644.
367. MacDougall, C.; Polk, R.E. Antimicrobial stewardship programs in health care systems. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2005, 18, 638-656.
368. Paskovaty, A.; Pflomm, J.M.; Myke, N.; Seo, S.K. A multidisciplinary approach to antimicrobial stewardship: Evolution into the 21st century. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2005, 25, 1-10.
369. Croucher, N.J.; Hanage, W.P.; Harris, S.R.; McGee, L.; van der Linden, M.; de Lencastre, H.; Sa-Leao, R.; Song, J.H.; Ko, K.S.; Beall, B.; et al. Variable recombination dynamics during the emergence, transmission and "disarming" of a multidrug-resistant pneumococcal clone. BMC Biol. 2014, 12, doi:10.1186/1741-7007-12-49.
370. Kumar, S.; Lindquist, I.E.; Sundararajan, A.; Rajanna, C.; Floyd, J.T.; Smith, K.P.; Andersen, J.L.; He, G.; Ayers, R.M.; Johnson, J.A.; et al. Genome Sequence of Non-O1 Vibrio cholerae PS. Genome Announce. 2013, 1, e00227:1-e00227:12.
371. Tiwari, R.; Dhama, K.; Kumar, A.; Rahal, A.; Kapoor, S. Bacteriophage therapy for safeguarding animal and human health: A review. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2014, 17, 301-315.
372. Endersen, L.; O'Mahony, J.; Hill, C.; Ross, R.P.; McAuliffe, O.; Coffey, A. Phage therapy in the food industry. Ann. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 5, 327-349.
373. Drawz, S.M.; Papp-Wallace, K.M.; Bonomo, R.A. New β-lactamase inhibitors: A therapeutic renaissance in an MDR world. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2014, 58, 1835-1846.
374. King, D.T.; Strynadka, N.C. Targeting metallo-β-lactamase enzymes in antibiotic resistance. Future Med. Chem. 2013, 5, 1243-1263.
375. Wong, K.; Ma, J.; Rothnie, A.; Biggin, P.C.; Kerr, I.D. Towards understanding promiscuity in multidrug efflux pumps. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2014, 39, 8-16.
376. Schweizer, H.P. Understanding efflux in Gram-negative bacteria: opportunities for drug discovery. Expert Opin. Drug discov. 2012, 7, 633-642.
377. Schindler, B.D.; Jacinto, P.; Kaatz, G.W. Inhibition of drug efflux pumps in Staphylococcus aureus: Current status of potentiating existing antibiotics. Future Microbiol. 2013, 8, 491-507.
378. Varela, M.F.; Kumar, S.; He, G. Potential for inhibition of bacterial efflux pumps in multidrug-resistant Vibrio cholerae. Indian J. Med. Res. 2013, 138, doi:10.7243/2052-7993-2-1.
379. Henderson, P.J. Studies of translocation catalysis. Biosci. Rep. 1991, 11, 477-453.