Red meat in the diet: An update

Nutrition Bulletin

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 34-77

  Wyness, L ^a   Weichselbaum, E ^a   O'Connor, A ^a   Williams, E B ^a   Benelam, B ^a   Riley, H ^a   Stanner, S ^a  

^a BRITISH NUTRITION FOUNDATION   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Chronic disease; Health; Nutrient composition; Processed meat; Red meat

Indexed keywords

EID: 79951763560     PISSN: 14719827     EISSN: 14673010     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-3010.2010.01871.x     Document Type: Review

References (213)

1. Albert CM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM etal. (2008) Effect of folic acid and B vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular disease: a randomized trial. JAMA 299: 2027-36.
2. Allman-Farinelli MA, Gomes K, Favaloro EJ etal. (2005) A diet rich in high-oleic-acid sunflower oil favorably alters low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and factor VII coagulant activity. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105: 1071-9.
3. Alexander DD & Cushing CA (2010) Red meat and colorectal cancer: a critical summary of prospective epidemiologic studies. Obesity Reviews: DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00785.x.
4. Alexander DD, Miller AJ, Cushing CA, Lowe KA (2010) Processed meat and colorectal cancer: a quantitative review of prospective epidemiological studies. European Journal Cancer Prevention 19: 328-41.
5. Alvarez Leon EE, Henriquez P & Serra-Majem L. (2006) Mediterranean diet and metabolic syndrome: a cross-sectional study in the Canary Islands. Public Health Nutrition 9: 1089-98.
6. Appel LJ, Sacks FM, Carey VJ etal. (2005) Effects of protein, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA 294: 2455-64.
7. Appleby PN, Davey GK & Key TJ (2002) Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans in EPIC-Oxford. Public Health Nutrition 5: 645-54.
8. Ashaye A, Gaziano J & Djousse L (2010) Red meat consumption and risk of heart failure in male physicians. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases, DOI: 10.1016/jnumecd.2010.03.009.
9. Aune D, Ursin G & Veierod MD (2009) Meat consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Diabetologia 52: 2277-87.
10. Azadbakht L & Esmaillzadeh A (2009) Red meat intake is associated with metabolic syndrome and the plasma C-reactive protein concentration in women. Journal of Nutrition 139: 335-9.
11. Babio N, Sorli M, Bullo M etal. (2010) Association between red meat consumption and metabolic syndrome in a Mediterranean population at high cardiovascular risk: cross-sectional and 1-year follow-up assessment. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases, DOI: 10.1016/jnumecd.2010.06.11.
12. Bandera EV, Kushi LH, Moore DF etal. (2007) Consumption of animal foods and endometrial cancer risk: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Cancer Causes and Control 18: 967-88.
13. Bates B, Lennox A & Swan G (2010) National Diet and Nutrition Survey. Headline Results from Year 1 of the Rolling Programme (2008/2009). Food Standards Agency/Department of Health: London.
14. Beauchemin KA, Kreuzer M, O'mara F etal. (2008) Nutritional management for enteric methane abatement: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48: 21-7.
15. Benelam B (2009) Satiation, satiety and their effects on eating behaviour. Nutrition Bulletin 34: 126-73.
16. Berkow SE & Barnard N (2006) Vegetarian diets and weight status. Nutrition Reviews 64: 175-88.
17. Bernstein AM, Sun Q, Hu FB etal. (2010) Major dietary protein sources and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation 122: 876-83.
18. Berti C, Riso P & Porrini M (2008) Satiating properties of meat preparations: role of protein content and energy density. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 27: 244-52.
19. Bleys J, Miller ER 3rd, Pastor-Barriuso R etal. (2006) Vitamin-mineral supplementation and the progression of atherosclerosis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84: 880-7. Quiz 954-885.
20. BNF (British Nutrition Foundation) (1995) Task Force Report, Iron: Nutritional and Physiological Significance. British Nutrition Foundation: London.
21. BNF (British Nutrition Foundation) (2001) Selenium and Health. British Nutrition Foundation: London.
22. Borzoei S, Neovius M & Brakeling B (2006) A comparison of effects of fish and beef protein on satiety in normal weight men. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60: 897-902.
23. Bosetti C, Levi F, Rosato V etal. (2010) Recent trends in colorectal cancer mortality in Europe. International Journal of Cancer, DOI: 10.1002/ijc.25653.
24. Bostick RM, Potter JD, Kushi LH etal. (1994) Sugar, meat, and fat intake, and non-dietary risk factors for colon cancer incidence in Iowa women (United States). Cancer Causes and Control 5: 38-52.
25. Boushey CJ, Beresford SA, Omenn GS etal. (1995) A quantitative assessment of plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. Probable benefits of increasing folic acid intakes. JAMA 274: 1049-57.
26. Breslow RA, Graubard BI, Rashmi S etal. (2000) Diet and lung cancer mortality: a 1987 National Health Interview Survey cohort study. Cancer Causes and Control 11: 419-31.
27. British Heart Foundation (BHF) (2010) UK coronary heart disease statistics 2009-10. Available at
28. Burke V, Zhao Y, Lee AH etal. (2007) Health-related behaviours as predictors of mortality and morbidity in Australian Aborigines. Preventive Medicine 44: 135-42.
29. Butland B, Jebb S, Kopelman P etal. (2007) Foresight Tackling Obesities: Future Choices - Project report. Government Office for Science, Department of Innovation. Universities and Skills: London.
30. Buttriss J (2005) Taking the science forward: public health implications. In: Healthy Ageing. The Role of Nutrition and Lifestyle, (S Stanner, R Thompson, J Buttriss eds), pp. 246-94. Wiley-Blackwell: London.
31. Cancer Research UK (2010) High risk groups of bowel cancer. Available at: (accessed 3 December 2010).
32. Cao JJ & Niesen FH (2010) Acid diet (high meat protein) effects on calcium metabolism and bone health. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 13: 698-702.
33. Centritto F, Iacoviello L, Di Giuseppe R etal. (2009) Dietary patterns, cardiovascular risk factors and C-reactive protein in a healthy Italian population. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases 19: 697-706.
34. Chan W, Brown J & Church S (1995) Meat, Poultry and Game. Supplement to McCance and Widdowson's the Composition of Foods. MAFF: London.
35. Chao A, Thun MJ, Connell CJ etal. (2005) Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. JAMA 293: 172-82.
36. Cho E, Chen WY, Hunter DJ etal. (2006) Red meat intake and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. Archives of Internal Medicine 166: 2253-9.
37. Clarke R, Daly L, Robinson K etal. (1991) Hyperhomocysteinemia: an independent risk factor for vascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine 324: 1149-55.
38. Clarke R, Halsey J, Lewington S etal. (2010) Effects of lowering homocysteine levels with B vitamins on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and cause-specific mortality: meta-analysis of 8 randomized trials involving 37485 individuals. Archives of Internal Medicine 170: 1622-31.
39. Clausen I & Ovesen L (2005) Changes in fat content of pork and beef after pan-frying under different conditions. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 18: 201-11.
40. Collaboration HS (2002) Homocysteine and risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke: a meta-analysis. JAMA 288: 2015-22.
41. Cosgrove M, Flynn A & Kiely M (2004) Impact of disaggregation of composite foods on estimate of intakes of meat and meat products in Irish adults. Public Health Nutrition 8: 327-37.
42. Cosgrove M, Flynn A & Kiely M (2005) Consumption of red meat, white meat and processed meat in Irish adults in relation to dietary quality. British Journal of Nutrition 93: 933-42.
43. Cross AJ & Sinha R (2004) Meat-related mutagens/carcinogens in the etiology of colorectal cancer. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 44: 44-55.
44. Cross AJ, Leitzmann MF, Gail MH etal. (2007) A prospective study of red and processed meat intake in relation to cancer risk. PLoS Medicine 12: 1973-84.
45. Cross AJ, Leitzmann MF, Subar AF etal. (2008) A prospective study of meat and fat intake in relation to small intestinal cancer. Cancer Research 68: 9274-9.
46. Cross AJ, Freeman ND, Ren J etal. (2010) Meat consumption and risk of esophageal and gastric cancer in a large prospective study. American Journal of Gastroenterology, DOI: 10.1038/ajg.2010.415.
47. Daley CA, Abbott A, Doyle PS etal. (2010) A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition Journal 9: 10.
48. van Dam RM, Willet WC, Rimm EB etal. (2002) Dietary fat and meat intake in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 25: 417-24.
49. van Dam RM, Grievink L, Ocke MA etal. (2003) Patterns of food consumption and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the general Dutch population. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77: 1156-63.
50. Damiao R, Castro TG & Cardoso MA etal. (2006) Dietary intakes associated with metabolic syndrome in a cohort of Japanese ancestry. British Journal of Nutrition 96: 532-8.
51. Danesh J & Lewington S (1998) Plasma homocysteine and coronary heart disease: systematic review of published epidemiological studies. Journal of Cardiovascular Risk 5: 229-32.
52. De Stefani E, Boffetta P, Deneo-Pellegrini H etal. (2009) Meat intake, meat mutagens and risk of lung cancer in Uruguayan men. Cancer Causes and Control 20: 1635-43.
53. Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2010) Family Food datasets. Available at: (accessed 11 January 2011).
54. Department of Health (1994) Report on Health and Social Subjects 48. Nutritional Aspects of the Development of Cardiovascular Disease: Report of the Working Group on Diet and Cardiovascular Disease of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy. The Stationary Office: London.
55. Department of Health (1998) Report on Health and Social Subjects 48. Nutritional Aspects of the Development of Cancer: Report of the Working Group on Diet and Cancer of the Committee on Medical Aspects on Food and Nutrition Policy. The Stationary Office: London.
56. Diabetes UK (2010) Diabetes in the UK 2010: Key Statistics on Diabetes. Diabetes UK: London.
57. Dunnigan M & Henderson J (1997) An epidemiological model of privational rickets and osteomalacia. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56: 939-56.
58. Eisentstein J, Roberts SB & Dallal G etal. (2002) High- protein weight-loss diets: are they safe and do they work? A review of the experimental and epidemiologic data. Nutrition Reviews 60: 189-200.
59. Ellul P, Fogden E, Simpson CL etal. (2010) Downstaging of colorectal cancer by the national bowel cancer screening programme in England: first round data from the first centre. Colorectal Disease 12: 420-2.
60. Elmadfa I, Meyer A, Nowak V etal. (2009) European Nutrition and Health Report 2009. Karger: Basel.
61. English Beef and Lamb Executive (EBLEX) (2009) Change in the air: the English beef and sheep production roadmap - phase 1. Available at: (accessed January 2011).
62. English Beef and Lamb Executive (EBLEX) (2010) Testing the water: the English beef and sheep production environmental roadmap - phase 2. Available at: (accessed 11 January 2011).
63. English DR, MacInnis RJ, Hodge AM etal. (2004) Red meat, chicken, and fish consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 13: 1509-14.
64. Ferlay J, Shin HR & Bray F etal. (2010) GLOBOCAN 2008: Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide: IARC Cancer Base No. 10 [Internet]. International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon.
65. Fernández-Ginés JM, Fernández-López J, Sayas-Barberá E etal. (2005) Meat products as functional foods: a review. Journal of Food Science 70: R37-43.
66. Ferrucci LM, Cross AJ, Graubard BI etal. (2009) Intake of meat, meat mutagens, and iron and the risk of breast cancer in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. British Journal of Cancer 101: 178-84.
67. Fitt E, Mak TN, Stephen AM etal. (2010) Disaggregating composite food codes in the UK national diet and nutrition survey food composition databank. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64: S32-6.
68. Flood A, Velie EM, Sinah R etal. (2003) Meat, fat, and their subtypes as risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective cohort of women. American Journal of Epidemiology 158: 59-68.
69. Flores-Mateo G, Navas-Acien A, Pastor-Barriuso R etal. (2006) Selenium and coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 84: 762-73.
70. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2009) The state of food and agriculture: livestock in the balance. Available at: (accessed 11 January 2011).
71. Food Standards Agency (FSA) (2002)McCance and Widdowson's the Composition of Foods Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge.
72. Food Standards Agency (FSA) (2005) Agency issues new advice on vitamin A to at risk groups. Available at: (accessed 29 October 2010).
73. Food Standards Agency (FSA) (2010) Food standards agency. Salt campaign site. Available at: (accessed 15 July 2010).
74. Forstermann U (2008) Oxidative stress in vascular disease: causes, defense mechanisms and potential therapies. Nature Clinical Practice. Cardiovascular Medicine 5: 338-49.
75. Fung TT, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ etal. (2001) Dietary patterns and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Archives of Internal Medicine 161: 1857-62.
76. Fung TT, Schulze MB, Manson JE etal. (2004) Dietary patterns, meat intake, and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Archives of Internal Medicine 164: 2235-40.
77. Fung T, van Dam R, Hankinson SE etal. (2010) Low-carbohydrate diets and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: two cohort studies. Annals of Internal Medicine 153: 289-98.
78. Gardner CD, Kim S, Bersamin A etal. (2010) Micronutrient quality of weight-loss diets that focus on macronutrients: results from the A to Z study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92: 304-12.
79. Gerber N, Scheeder MRL & Wenk C (2009) The influence of cooking and fat trimming on the actual nutrient intake from meat. Meat Science 81: 148-54.
80. Givens DI (2005) The role of animal nutrition in improving the nutritive value of animal-derived foods in relation to chronic disease. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 64: 395-402.
81. Givens DI & Shingfield KJ (2004) Foods derived from animals: the impact of animal nutrition on their nutritive value and ability to sustain long-term health. Nutrition Bulletin 29: 325-32.
82. Gonzalez CA, Jakszyn P, Pera G etal. (2006) Meat intake and risk of stomach and esophageal adenocarcinoma within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Journal of the National Cancer Institute 98: 345-54.
83. Greenfield H, Arcot J, Barnes JA etal. (2009) Nutrient composition of Australian retail pork cuts 2005/2006. Food Chemistry 117: 721-30.
84. Gregory J, Lowe S, Bates C etal. (2000) National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Young People Aged 4 to 18Y. The Stationery Office: London.
85. Groff J, Gropper S & Junt S (1995) Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. West Publishing Co.: Minneapolis/St Paul, MN.
86. Guallar-Castillon P, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Tormo MJ etal. (2010) Major dietary patterns and risk of coronary heart disease in middle-aged persons from a Mediterranean country: the EPIC-Spain cohort study. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases, DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2010.06.004.
87. Halton TL & Hu FB (2004) The effects of high protein diets on thermogenesis, satiety and weight loss: a critical review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 23: 373-85.
88. Hannan MT, Tucker KL, Dawson-Hughes B etal. (2000) Effect of dietary protein on bone loss in elderly men and women: the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 15: 2501-12.
89. Harland J (2010) Colorectal cancer and red meat: what does the evidence say? Complete Nutrition 10: 46-9.
90. Harriss LR, English DR, Powles J etal. (2007) Dietary patterns and cardiovascular mortality in the Melbourne collaborative cohort study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86: 221-9.
91. Heidemann C, Schulze MB, Franco OH etal. (2008) Dietary patterns and risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes in a prospective cohort of women. Circulation 118: 230-7.
92. Henderson L, Gregory J, Irving K etal. (2003a) The National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Adults Aged 19-64Y. Volume 2 Energy, Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat and Alcohol Intake. The Stationery Office: London.
93. Henderson L, Irving K, Gregory J etal. (2003b) The National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Adults Aged 19-64Y. Volume 3 Vitamin and Mineral Intake and Urinary Analytes. The Stationery Office: London.
94. Higgs JD (2000) The changing nature of red meat: 20y of improving nutritional quality. Trends in Food Science & Technology 11: 85-95.
95. HM Government (2009) The UK Low Carbon Transition Plan. Available at: (accessed 11 January 2011).
96. Hoare J, Henderson L, Bates CJ etal. (2004) The National Diet and Nutrition Survey: Adults Aged 19 to 64Y. Summary Report. TSO: London.
97. Hodge AM, English DR, O'Dea K etal. (2007) Dietary patterns and diabetes incidence in the Melbourne collaborative cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology 165: 603-10.
98. Hodgson JM, Ward NC, Burke V etal. (2007) Increased lean red meat intake does not elevate markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in humans. Journal of Nutrition 137: 363-7.
99. Holben DH & Smith AM (1999) The diverse role of selenium within selenoproteins: a review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 99: 836-43.
100. Homocysteine Lowering Trialists' Collaboration (2005) Dose-dependent effects of folic acid on blood concentrations of homocysteine: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82: 806-12.
101. Hsia J, Heiss G, Ren H etal. (2007) Calcium/vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular events. Circulation 115: 846-54.
102. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Chow WH etal. (1998) Risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective study among U.S. white men. International Journal of Cancer 77: 549-53.
103. Hu FB, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ etal. (2000) Prospective study of major dietary patterns and risk of coronary heart disease in men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72: 912-21.
104. Hughes H, Arrowsmith H & Mulvey L (2010) Reducing the Fat Content of Meat Products: A Review of Fat Replacement Ingredients. Review No.65. Campden BRI: Gloucestershire.
105. Hunter JE, Zhang J & Kris-Etherton PMK (2010) Cardiovascular disease risk of dietary stearic acid compared with trans, other saturated, and unsaturated fatty acids: a systematic review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91: 46-63.
106. Iso H, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE etal. (2001) Prospective study of fat and protein intake and risk of intraparenchymal hemorrhage in women. Circulation 103: 856-63.
107. Järvinen R, Knekt P, Hakulinen T etal. (2001) Dietary fat, cholesterol and colorectal cancer in a prospective study. British Journal of Cancer 85: 357-61.
108. Johnson JM & Walker PM (1992) Zinc and iron utilization in young women consuming a beef-based diet. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 92: 1474-8.
109. Johnstone AM, Horgan GW, Murison SD etal. (2008) Effects of a high-protein ketogenic diet on hunger, appetite and weight loss in obese men feeding ad libitum. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87: 44-55.
110. Kabat GC, Miller AB, Jain M etal. (2007) A cohort study of dietary iron and heme iron intake and risk of colorectal cancer in women. British Journal of Cancer 97: 118-22.
111. Kabat GC, Miller AB, Jain M etal. (2008) Dietary iron and haem iron intake and risk of endometrial cancer: a prospective cohort study. British Journal of Cancer 98: 194-8.
112. Kato I, Akhmedkhanov A, Koenig K etal. (1997) Prospective study of diet and female colorectal cancer: the New York University Women's Health Study. Nutrition and Cancer 28: 276-81.
113. Kelemen LE, Kushi LH, Jacobs DR etal. (2005) Associations of dietary protein with disease and mortality in a prospective study of postmenopausal women. American Journal of Epidemiology 161: 239-49.
114. Kelly CN & Stanner SA (2003) Diet and cardiovascular disease in the UK: are the messages getting across? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62: 583-9.
115. Kestin M, Rouse IL, Correll RA etal. (1989) Cardiovascular disease risk factors in free-living men: comparison of two prudent diets, one based on lactoovovegetarianism and the other allowing lean meat. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 280-7.
116. Key TJ, Allen NE, Spencer EA etal. (2002) The effect of diet on risk of cancer. The Lancet 360: 861-8.
117. Key TJ, Fraser GE, Thorogood M etal. (1998) Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: a collaborative analysis of 8300 deaths among 76000 men and women in five prospective studies. Public Health Nutrition 1: 33-41.
118. Key TJ, Fraser GE, Thorogood M etal. (1999) Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (Suppl. 3): 516S-24S.
119. Kirk JK, Graves DE, Graven TE etal. (2008) Restricted-carbohydrate diets in patients with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108: 91-100.
120. Kontogianni MD, Panagiotakos DB, Pitsavos C etal. (2008) Relationship between meat intake and the development of acute coronary syndromes: the CARDIO2000 case-control study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62: 171-7.
121. Lam TK, Cross AJ, Consonni D etal. (2009) Intakes of red meat, processed meat, and meat mutagens increase lung cancer risk. Cancer Research 69: 932-9.
122. Larsson SC, Rafter J, Holmberg L etal. (2005) Red meat consumption and risk of cancers of the proximal colon, distal colon and rectum: the Swedish mammography cohort. International Journal of Cancer 113: 829-34.
123. Larsson SC, Orsini N & Wolk A (2006) Processed meat consumption and stomach cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 98: 1078-87.
124. Larsson SC & Wolk A (2006) Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. International Journal of Cancer 119: 2657-64.
125. Larsson SC, Bergkvist L & Wolk A (2009) Long-term meat intake and risk of breast cancer by oestrogen and progesterone receptor status in a cohort of Swedish women. European Journal of Cancer 45: 3042-6.
126. Lee DH, Folson AR & Jacobs DR (2004) Dietary iron intake and type 2 diabetes incidence in postmenopausal women: the Iowa Women's Health study. Diabetologia 47: 185-94.
127. Lee DH, Folsom AR & Jacobs DR (2005) Iron, zinc, and alcohol consumption and mortality from cardiovascular diseases: the Iowa Women's Health Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81: 787-91.
128. Li D, Siriamornpun S, Wahlqvist ML etal. (2005) Lean meat and heart health. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 14: 113-9.
129. Linseisen J, Kesse E, Slimani N etal. (2002) Meat consumption in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC) cohorts: results from 24-hour dietary recalls. Public Health Nutrition 5: 1243-58.
130. Lunn J & Theobald HE (2006) The health effects of dietary unsaturated fatty acids. Nutrition Bulletin 31: 178-224.
131. Malaviarachchi D, Veugelers PJ, Yip AM etal. (2002) Dietary iron as a risk factor for myocardial infarction. Public health considerations for Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Public Health 93: 267-70.
132. Manger MS, Strand E, Ebbing M etal. (2010) Dietary intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and coronary events in Norwegian patients with coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92: 244-51.
133. Mannisto S, Kontto J, Kataja-Tuomola M etal. (2010) High processed meat consumption is a risk factor of type 2 diabetes in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study. British Journal of Nutrition 103: 1817-22.
134. Matthews K & Strong M (2005) Salt - its role in meat products and the industry's action plan to reduce it. Nutrition Bulletin 30: 55-61.
135. Micha R, Wallace SK, Mozaffarian D etal. (2010) Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation 121: 2271-83.
136. Miles L & Caswell H (2008) Advancing beef safety and quality: ProSafeBeef. Nutrition Bulletin 33: 140-4.
137. Millward DJ & Garnett T (2010) Food and the planet: nutritional dilemmas of greenhouse gas emission reductions through reduced intakes of meat and dairy foods. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 69: 103-18.
138. Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF) (1995) Manual of Dietetic Nutrition. HMSO: London.
139. Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF) (1997) 1997 total diet study - aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin and zinc. Food Surveillance Information Sheet no. 191.
140. Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF) (1998) Fatty acids. Supplement to McCance and Wiidowson's the comparison of foods. The Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge and the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: London.
141. Moloney AP, Scollan ND & Miles L (2008) Enrichment of n-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid in beef: ProSafeBeef. Nutrition Bulletin 33: 374-81.
142. Montonen J, Jarvinen R, Heliovaara M etal. (2005) Food consumption and the incidence of type II diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59: 441-8.
143. Mozaffarian D & Rimm EB (2006) Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. JAMA 296: 1885-99.
144. Müller WJ, Bruce HL, Tume RK etal. (2009) National sampling and gross composition of Australian retail pork cuts 2005/2006. Meat Science 81: 626-31.
145. Mulvihill B (2001) Ruminant meat as a source of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Nutrition Bulletin 26: 295-9.
146. Muñoz MVI, Vilar I & García-Erce JA (2009)An update on iron physiology. World Journal of Gastroenterology 15:4617-26.
147. National Health Service (2010) NHS bowel cancer screening programme. Available at: (accessed 2 December 2010).
148. Navas-Acien A, Bleys J & Guallar E (2008) Selenium intake and cardiovascular risk: what is new? Current Opinion in Lipidology 19: 43-9.
149. Nelson M, Beresford SAA & Kearney JM (2004) Nutritional epidemiology. In: Public Health Nutrition, (MJ Gibney, BM Margetts, JM Kearney eds), pp. 26-65. Blackwell Science: Oxford.
150. Norat T, Bingham S, Ferrari P etal. (2005) Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 97: 906-16.
151. Nordmann AJ, Nordmann A, Briel M etal. (2006) Effects of low-carbohydrate vs low-fat diets on weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Internal Medicine 166: 285-93.
152. Nowson CA, Wattanapenpaiboon N & Pachett A (2009) Low-sodium dietary approaches to stop hypertension-type diet including lean red meat lowers blood pressure in postmenopausal women. Nutrition Research 29: 8-18.
153. O'Dea K, Traianedes K, Chisholm K etal. (1990) Cholesterol-lowering effect of a low-fat diet containing lean beef is reversed by the addition of beef fat. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52: 491-4.
154. Olmedilla-Alonso B, Granado-Lorencio F, Herrero-Barbudo C etal. (2008) Consumption of restructured meat products with added walnuts has a cholesterol-lowering effect in subjects at high cardiovascular risk: a randomised, crossover, placebo-controlled study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 27: 342-8.
155. Paddon-Jones D, Westman E, Mattes RD etal. (2008) Protein, weight management, and satiety. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87: 1558S-61S.
156. Pala V, Krogh V, Berrino F etal. (2009) Meat, eggs, dairy products, and risk of breast cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC) cohort. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90: 602-12.
157. Panagiotakos D, Pitsavos C, Chrysohoou C etal. (2009) Dietary patterns and 5-year incidence of cardiovascular disease: a multivariate analysis of the ATTICA study. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases 19: 253-63.
158. Parkin DM (2002) The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002. International Journal of Cancer 118: 3030-44.
159. Phillips F (2005) Vegetarian nutrition. Nutrition Bulletin 30: 132-67.
160. Pietinen P, Malila N, Virtanen M etal. (1999) Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Cancer Causes and Control 10: 387-96.
161. Preis SR, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D etal. (2010) Dietary protein and risk of ischemic heart disease in middle-aged men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92: 1265-72.
162. Promislow JH, Goodman-Gruen D, Slymen DJ etal. (2002) Protein consumption and bone mineral density in the elderly: the Rancho Bernardo Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 155: 636-44.
163. Prynne C, Wagemakers J, Stephen A etal. (2009) Meat consumption after disaggregation of meat dishes in a cohort of British adults in 1989 and 1999 in relation to dietary quality. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63: 660-6.
164. Raben A, Agerholm-Larsen L, Flint A etal. (2003) Meals with similar energy densities but rich in protein, fat, carbohydrate, or alcohol have different effects on energy expenditure and substrate metabolism, but not on appetite and energy intake. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77: 91-100.
165. Red Meat and Health Expenditure Advisory Committee (2001) The role of red meat in healthy Australian diets. Report prepared by Red Meat and Health Expenditure Advisory Committee.
166. Riley H (2010) NDNS rolling programme - what do the year 1 results show? Nutrition Bulletin 35: 235-9.
167. Roughead ZK, Johnson LK & Lykken GI (2003) Controlled high meat diets do not affect calcium retention or indices of bone status in healthy postmenopausal women. Journal of Nutrition 133: 1020-6.
168. Sauvaget C, Nagano J, Hayashi M etal. (2004) Animal protein, animal fat, and cholesterol intakes and risk of cerebral infarction mortality in the adult health study. Stroke 35: 1531-7.
169. Schulze MB, Mason JE, Wilet WC etal. (2003) Processed meat intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in younger and middle-aged women. Diabetologia 46: 1465-73.
170. Schulze MB, Hoffman K & Boeing H (2007) An accurate risk score based on anthropometric, dietary, and lifestyle factors to predict the development of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 30: 510-5.
171. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2003) Salt and Health. The Stationary Office: London.
172. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2004) Advice on fish consumption: benefits and risks. Available at: (accessed 2 November 2010).
173. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2007a) Update on trans fatty acids and health. Position statement by the scientific advisory committee on nutrition. Available at: (accessed 2 November 2010).
174. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2007b) Update on vitamin D: position statement by the scientific advisory committee on nutrition. Available at: (accessed 15 July 2010).
175. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2008) The Nutritional wellbeing of the British population. The Stationary Office: London.
176. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2009) Draft SACN report on iron and health. Available at: (accessed 1 November 2010).
177. Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2010) Iron report, draft February 2010. Available at: (accessed 11 January 2011).
178. Sellmeyer DE, Stone KL, Sebastain A etal. (2001) A high ratio of dietary animal to vegetable protein increases the rate of bone loss and the risk of fracture in postmenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72: 118-22.
179. Sinclair AJ, Barone S, Stoaus T etal. (2010) Lipid composition of Australian pork cuts 2005/2006. Food Chemistry 121: 672-81.
180. Singh PN & Fraser GE (1998) Dietary risk factors for colon cancer in a low-risk population. American Journal of Epidemiology 148: 761-74.
181. Sinha R, Cross AJ, Graubard BI etal. (2009) Meat intake and mortality: a prospective study of over half a million people. Archives of Internal Medicine 169: 562-71.
182. Sjogren P, Becker W, Waresjo E etal. (2010) Mediterranean and carbohydrate-restricted diets and mortality among elderly men: a cohort study in Sweden. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92: 967-74.
183. Song Y, Manson JE, Burint JE etal. (2004) A prospective study of red meat consumption and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and elderly women: the women's health study. Diabetes Care 27: 2108-15.
184. Souberbielle J-C, Body J-J, Lappe JM etal. (2010) Vitamin D and musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer: recommendations for clinical practice. Autoimmunity Reviews 9: 709-15.
185. Spencer EA, Key TJ, Appleby PN etal. (2010) Meat, poultry and fish and risk of colorectal cancer: pooled analysis of data from the UK dietary cohort consortium. Cancer Causes and Control 21: 1417-25.
186. Stanner S, ed. (2005) British Nutrition Task Force Report on Cardiovascular Disease: Diet, Nutrition and Emerging Risk Factors. Blackwell Science: Oxford.
187. Stanner S, Thompson R & Buttriss JL (2009) Healthy Ageing: The Role of Nutrition and Lifestyle. British Nutrition Foundation: London.
188. Steffen LM, Kroenke CH, Yu X etal. (2005) Associations of plant food, dairy product, and meat intakes with 15-y incidence of elevated blood pressure in young black and white adults: the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82: 1169-77. Quiz 1363-1164.
189. Steinbrecher A, Erber E, Grandinetti A etal. (2010) Meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: the multiethnic cohort. Public Health Nutrition 13: 1-7.
190. Szeto YT, Kwok TC & Benzie IF (2004) Effects of a long-term vegetarian diet on biomarkers of antioxidant status and cardiovascular disease risk. Nutrition 20: 863-6.
191. Tabatabaei SM, Heyworth JS, Knuiman MW etal. (2010) Dietary benzo[a]pyrene intake from meat and the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 14: 2030-4.
192. Talbot G (2006) Independent Advice on Possible Reductions of Saturated Fat in Products That Contribute to Consumer Intakes. Summary Report. UK Food Standards Agency: London.
193. Taylor EF, Burley VJ, Greenwood DC etal. (2007) Meat consumption and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women's Cohort study. British Journal of Cancer 96: 1139-46.
194. Teixeira Rde C, Molina Mdel C, Zandonade E etal. (2007) Cardiovascular risk in vegetarians and omnivores: a comparative study. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia 89: 237-44.
195. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (2007) Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 of the European parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims made on food. Official Journal of the European Union L12: 3-18.
196. Truswell AS (2009) Problems with red meat in the WCRF2. American Journal Clinical Nutrition 89: 1274-9.
197. Uhe AM, Collier GR & O'Dea K (1992) A comparison of the effects of beef, chicken and fish protein on satiety and amino acid profiles in lean male subjects. Journal of Nutrition 122: 467-72.
198. Vang A, Singh PN, Lee JW etal. (2008) Meats, processed meats, obesity, weight gain and occurrence of diabetes among adults: findings from Adventist health studies. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 52: 96-104.
199. Villegas R, Shu XO, Gao Y-T etal. (2006) The association of meat intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes may be modified by body weight. International Journal of Medical Sciences 3: 152-9.
200. Wagemakers JJ, Prynne CJ, Stephen AM etal. (2009) Consumption of red or processed meat does not predict risk factors for coronary heart disease; results from a cohort of British adults in 1989 and 1999. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63: 303-11.
201. Wang Y, Beydoun M, Caballero B etal. (2010) Trends and correlates in meat consumption patterns in the US adult population. Public Health Nutrition 13: 1333-45.
202. Wei EK, Giovannucci E, Wu K etal. (2004) Comparison of risk factors for colon and rectal cancer. International Journal of Cancer 108: 433-42.
203. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Smeets A & Nieuwenhuizen A (2007) Sustained protein intake for bodyweight management. Nutrition Bulletin 32 (Suppl. 1): 22-31.
204. Whiteman D, Muir J, Jones Letal. (1999) Dietary questions as determinants of mortality: the OXCHECK experience. Public Health Nutrition 2: 477-87.
205. Williamson CS, Foster RK, Stanner SA etal. (2005) Red meat in the diet. Nutrition Bulletin 30: 323-55.
206. Wood JD, Enser M, Fisher A etal. (1999) Manipulating meat quality and composition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 58: 363-70.
207. Wood JD, Richardson RI, Nute GR etal. (2003) Effects of fatty acids on meat quality: a review. Meat Science 66: 21-32.
208. World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research (2007) Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. American Institute for Cancer Research: Washington, DC.
209. World Health Organization (2000) Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organization: Geneva.
210. Wyness L, Buttriss J & Stanner S (2011) Reducing the population's sodium intake: the food standard agency's salt reduction programme. Public Health Nutrition (in press).
211. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M etal. (2007) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 369: 1090-8.
212. Zemel MB (1988) Calcium utilization: effect of varying level and source of dietary protein. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48: 880-3.
213. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS & Koerfer R (2005) Putting cardiovascular disease and vitamin D insufficiency into perspective. British Journal of Nutrition 94: 483-92.