Isolation and affinity maturation of hapten-specific antibodies

Biotechnology Advances

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 333-352

  Sheedy, Claudia ^a   Roger MacKenzie, C ^b   Hall, J Christopher ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH   (Canada)

^b NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL CANADA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Affinity maturation; Antibody libraries; Biopanning; Hapten; Mutagenesis; Phage display; Recombinant antibody; Ribosome display

Indexed keywords

DRUG PRODUCTS; GENES; MUTAGENESIS; OPTIMIZATION;

AFFINITY MATURATION; ANTIBODY LIBRARIES; BIOPANNING; HAPTEN; PHAGE DISPLAY; RECOMBINANT ANTIBODY; RIBOSOME DISPLAY;

ANTIBODIES;

ANTIBODY; HAPTEN; PEPTIDE LIBRARY;

ANTIBODY; ANTIGEN; BACTERIOPHAGE; BIOTECHNOLOGY; DRUG; DYE; IMMUNE RESPONSE; MATURATION; MUTATION; OPTIMIZATION; PESTICIDE; PROTEIN; RECOMBINATION; RNA;

ANIMAL; ANTIBODY AFFINITY; ANTIBODY SPECIFICITY; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; PROTEIN ENGINEERING; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ANTIBODIES; ANTIBODY AFFINITY; ANTIBODY SPECIFICITY; HAPTENS; HUMANS; PEPTIDE LIBRARY; PROTEIN ENGINEERING;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 34249073474     PISSN: 07349750     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.003     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Adams G.P., and Schier R. Generating improved single-chain Fv molecules for tumor targeting. J Immunol Methods 231 (1999) 249-260
2. Allen D., Simon T., Sablitzky F., Rajewsky K., and Cumano A. Antibody engineering for the analysis of affinity maturation of an anti-hapten response. Embo J 7 (1988) 1995-2001
3. Alzari P.M., Lascombe M.B., and Poljak R.J. Three-dimensional structure of antibodies. Annu Rev Immunol 6 (1988) 555-580
4. Amstutz P., Forrer P., Zahnd C., and Pluckthun A. In vitro display technologies: novel developments and applications. Curr Opin Biotechnol 12 (2001) 400-405
5. Arevalo J.H., Taussig M.J., and Wilson I.A. Molecular basis of crossreactivity and the limits of antibody-antigen complementarity. Nature 365 (1993) 859-863
6. Arkin M.R., and Wells J.A. Probing the importance of second sphere residues in an esterolytic antibody by phage-display. J Mol Biol 284 (1998) 1083-1094
7. Balint R.F., and Larrick J.W. Antibody engineering by parsimonious mutagenesis. Gene 137 (1993) 57-62
8. Barbas III C.F., Amberg W., Simoncsits A., Jones T.M., and Lerner R.A. Selection of human anti-hapten antibodies from semi-synthetic libraries. Gene 137 (1993) 57-62
9. Beier R.C., Ripley L.H., Young C.R., and Kaiser C.M. Production, characterization and cross-reactivity studies of monoclonal antibodies against the coccidiostat nicarbazin. J Agric Food Chem 49 (2001) 4542-4552
10. Boder E.T., and Wittrup K.D. Yeast surface display for screening combinatorial polypeptide libraries. Nat Biotechnol 15 (1997) 553-560
11. Boder E.T., and Wittrup K.D. Yeast surface display for directed evolution of protein expression, affinity and stability. Methods Enzymol 328 (2000) 430
12. Boder E.T., Midelfort K.S., and Wittrup K.D. Directed evolution of antibody fragments with monovalent femtomolar antigen-binding affinity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 (2000) 10701-10705
13. Bruhlmann F., and Chen W. Tuning biphenyl dioxygenase for extended substrate specificity. Biotechnol Bioeng 63 (1999) 544-551
14. Burks E.A., Chen G., Georgiou G., and Iverson B.L. In vitro scanning saturation mutagenesis of an antibody binding pocket. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 (1997) 412-417
15. Casson L.P., and Manser T. Evaluation of loss and change of specificity resulting from random mutagenesis of an antibody VH region. J Immunol 155 (1995) 5647-5654
16. Chames P., Coulon S., and Baty D. Improving the affinity and the fine specificity of an anti-cortisol antibody by parsimonious mutagenesis and phage-display. J Immunol 161 (1998) 5421-5429
17. Charlton K., Moyle S., Porter A.J., and Harris W.J. Analysis of the diversity of a sheep antibody repertoire as revealed from a bacteriophage display library. J Immunol 164 (2000) 6221-6229
18. Charlton K., Harris W.J., and Porter A.J. The isolation of super-sensitive anti-hapten antibodies from combinatorial antibody libraries derived from sheep. Biosens Bioelectron 16 (2001) 639-646
19. Chester K.A., and Hawkins R.E. Clinical issues in antibody design. Trends Biotech 13 (1995) 294-300
20. Chowdhury P.S., and Pastan I. Improving antibody affinity by mimicking somatic hypermutation in vitro. Nat Biotechnol 17 (1999) 568-572
21. Clackson T., Hoogenboom H.R., Griffiths A., and Winter G. Making antibody fragments using phage display libraries. Nature 352 (1991) 624-628
22. Coia G., Hudson P.J., and Irving R.A. Protein affinity maturation in vivo using E. coli mutator cells. J Immunol Methods 251 (2001) 187-193
23. Coia G., Pontes-Braz L., Nuttal S.D., Hudson P.J., and Irving R.A. Panning and selection of proteins using ribosome display. J Immunol Methods 254 (2001) 191-197
24. Daugherty P.S., Chen G., Olsen M.J., Iverson B.L., and Georgiou G. Antibody affinity maturation using bacterial surface display. Protein Eng 11 (1998) 825-832
25. Daugherty P.S., Chen G., Iverson B.L., and Georgiou G. Quantitative analysis of the effect of the mutation frequency on the affinity maturation of single chain Fv antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97 (2000) 2029-2034
26. Davies J., and Riechmann L. Affinity improvement of single antibody VH domains: residues in all three hypervariable regions affect antigen binding. Immunotechnology 2 (1996) 169-179
27. Davies E.L., Smith J.S., Birkett C.R., Manser J.M., Anderson-Dear D.V., and Young J.R. Selection of specific phage-display antibodies using libraries derived from chicken immunoglobulin genes. J Immunol Methods 186 (1995) 125-135
28. de Haard H.J., van Neer N., Reurs A., Hufton S.E., Roovers R.C., Henderikx P., et al. A large non-immunized human Fab fragment phage library that permits rapid isolation and kinetic analysis of high affinity antibodies. J Biol Chem 274 (1999) 18218-18230
29. de Kruif J., Boel E., and Logtenberg T. Selection and application of human single chain Fv antibody fragments from a semi-synthetic phage antibody display library with designed CDR3 regions. J Biol Chem 248 (1995) 97-105
30. del Carmen Ramirez-Benitez M., and Almagro J.C. Analysis of antibodies of known structure suggests a lack of correspondence between the residues in contact with the antigen and those modified by somatic hypermutation. Proteins 45 (2001) 199-206
31. Denzin L.K., Gulliver G.A., and Voss Jr. E.W. Mutational analysis of active site contact residues in anti-fluorescein monoclonal antibody 4-4-20. Mol Immunol 30 (1993) 1331-1345
32. Desiderio A., Franconi R., Lopez M., Villani M.E., Viti F., Chiaraluce R., et al. A semi-synthetic repertoire of intrinsically stable antibody fragments derived from a single-framework scaffold. J Mol Biol 310 (2001) 603-615
33. Dion M., Nisole A., Spangenberg P., Andre C., Glottin-Fleury A., Mattes R., et al. Modulation of the regioselectivity of a Bacillus alpha-galactosidase by directed evolution. Glycoconj J 18 (2001) 215-223
34. Dorsam H., Rohrbach P., Kurschner T., Kipriyanov S., Renner S., Braunagel M., et al. Antibodies to steroids from a small human naive IgM library. FEBS Lett 414 (1997) 7-13
35. Feldhaus M.J., and Siegel R.W. Yeast display of antibody fragments: a discovery and characterization platform. J Immunol Methods 290 (2004) 69-80
36. Feldhaus M.J., Siegel R.W., Opresko L.K., Coleman J.R., Feldhaus J.M., Yeung Y.A., et al. Flow-cytometric isolation of human antibodies from a nonimmune Saccharomyces cerevisiae surface display library. Nat Biotechnol 21 (2003) 163-170
37. Foote J., and Eisen H.N. Kinetic and affinity limits on antibodies produced during immune responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92 (1995) 1254-1256
38. Francisco J.A., Campbell R., Iverson B.L., and Georgiou G. The production and fluorescence-activated cell sorting of Escherichia coli expressing a functional antibody fragment on the external surface. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90 (1993) 10444-10448
39. Frenken L.G.J., van der Linden R.H.J., Hermans P.W.J.J., Bos J.W., Ruuls R.C., de Geus B., et al. Isolation of antigen specific llama VHH antibody fragments and their high level secretion by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biotechnol 78 (2000) 11-21
40. Furukawa K., Shirai H., Azuma T., and Nakamura H. A role of the third complementary-determining region in the affinity maturation of an antibody. J Biol Chem 276 (2001) 27622-27628
41. Gani M., Coley J., Piron J., Humphreys A.S., Arevalo J.H., Wilson I.A., et al. Monoclonal antibodies against progesterone: effect of steroid-carrier coupling position on antibody specificity. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 48 (1994) 277-282
42. Glockshuber R., Stadlmuller J., and Pluckthun A. Mapping and modification of an antibody hapten binding site: a site-directed mutagenesis study. Biochemistry 30 (1991) 3049-3054
43. Gram H., Marconi L.-A., Barbas III C.F., Collet T.A., Lerner R.A., and Kang A. In vitro selection and affinity maturation of antibodies from a naive combinatorial immunoglobulin library. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 (1992) 3576-3580
44. Griffiths A.D., and Duncan A.R. Strategies for selection of antibodies by phage-display. Curr Opin Biotechnol 9 (1998) 102-108
45. Griffiths A.D., Williams S.C., Hartley O., Tomlinson I.M., Waterhouse P., Crosby W.L., et al. Isolation of high affinity human antibodies directly from large synthetic repertoires. EMBO J 13 (1994) 3245-3260
46. Hanes J., and Pluckthun A. In vitro selection and evolution of functional proteins by using ribosome display. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 (1997) 4937-4942
47. Hanes J., Jermutus L., Weber-Bornhauser S., Bosshard H.R., and Pluckthun A. Ribosome display efficiently selects and evolves high-affinity antibodies in vitro from immune libraries. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 (1998) 14130-14135
48. Hayden M.S., Gilliland L.K., and Ledbetter J.A. Antibody engineering. Curr Opin Immunol 9 (1997) 201-212
49. He M., and Taussig M.J. Antibody-ribosome-mRNA (ARM) complexes as efficient selection particles for in vitro display and evolution of antibody combining sites. Nucleic Acids Res 25 (1997) 5132-5134
50. He M., Menges M., Groves M.A.T., Corps E., Liu H., Bruggemann M., et al. Selection of a human anti-progesterone antibody fragment from a transgenic mouse library by ARM ribosome display. J Immunol Methods 231 (1999) 105-117
51. Hemminki A., Niemi S., Hautoniemi L., Soderlund H., and Takkinen K. Fine tuning of an anti-testosterone antibody binding site by stepwise optimization of the CDRs. Immunotechnology 4 (1998) 49-59
52. Hemminki A., Niemi S., Hoffren A.-M., Hakalahti L., Soderlund H., and Takkinen K. Specificity improvement of a recombinant anti-testosterone Fab fragment by CDRIII mutagenesis and phage display selection. Protein Eng 11 (1998) 311-319
53. Hirose M., Hayano T., Shirai H., Nakamura H., and Kikuchi M. Isolation of anti-glutathione antibodies from a phage display library. Protein Eng 11 (1998) 243-248
54. Hoogenboom H.R., and Winter G. By-passing immunization: human antibodies from synthetic repertoires of germline VH gene segments rearranged in vitro. J Mol Biol 227 (1992) 381-388
55. Hoogenboom H.R., De Bruine A.P., Hufton S.E., Hoet R.M., Arends J.W., and Roovers R.C. Antibody phage display technology and its applications. Immunotechnology 4 (1998) 1-20
56. Huang S.H., and Wu T.K. Modified colorimetric assay for uricase activity and a screen for mutant Bacillus subtilisis uricase genes following StEP mutagenesis. Eur J Biochem 271 (2004) 517-523
57. Huston J.S., Margolies M.N., and Haber E. Antibody binding sites. Adv Protein Chem 49 (1996) 329-450
58. Irving R.A., Kortt A.A., and Hudson P.J. Affinity maturation of recombinant antibodies using E. coli mutator cells. Immunotechnology 2 (1996) 127-143
59. Irving R.A., Coia G., Roberts A., Nuttal S.D., and Hudson P.J. Ribosome display and affinity maturation: from antibodies to single V-domains and steps towards cancer therapeutics. J Immunol Methods 248 (2001) 31-45
60. Irving R.A., Coia G., Raicevic A., and Hudson P.J. Use of Escherichia coli mutator cells to mature antibodies. Methods Mol Biol 178 (2002) 295-302
61. Jermutus L., Honegger A., Schwesinger F., Hanes J., and Pluckthun A. Tailoring in vitro evolution for protein affinity or stability. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98 (2001) 75-80
62. Jirholt P., Ohlin M., Borrebaeck C.K., and Soderlind E. Exploiting sequence space: shuffling in vivo formed complementary determining regions into a master framework. Gene 215 (1998) 471-476
63. Jorgensen T.O., Solem S.T., Espelid S., Warr G.E., Brandsdal B.O., and Smalas A. The antibody site in Atlantic salmon; phage display and modeling of scFv with anti-hapten binding ability. Dev Comp Immunol 26 (2002) 201-206
64. Kang A., Jones T.M., and Burton D.R. Antibody redesign by chain shuffling from random combinatorial immunoglobulin libraries. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88 (1991) 11120-11123
65. Knappik A., Ge L., Honegger A., Pack P., Fischer M., Wellnhofer G., et al. Fully synthetic human combinatorial antibody libraries (HuCAL) based on modular consensus frameworks and CDRs randomized with trinucleotides. J Mol Biol 296 (2000) 57-86
66. Kohler G., and Milstein C. Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of predefined specificity. Bio/Technology 24 (1975) 524-526
67. Kondo A., and Ueda M. Yeast cell-surface display - applications of molecular display. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 64 (2004) 28-40
68. Korpimaki T., Rosenberg J., Virtanen P., Lamminmaki U., Tuomola M., and Saviranta P. Further improvement of broad specificity hapten recognition with protein engineering. Protein Eng 16 (2003) 37-46
69. Kramer K. Evolutionary affinity and selectivity optimization of a pesticide-selective antibody utilizing a hapten-selective immunoglobulin repertoire. Environ Sci Technol 36 (2002) 4892-4898
70. Kuby J. Immunology (1997), W.H. Freeman and company, New-York
71. Kusharyoto W., Pleiss J., Bachmann T.T., and Schmid R.D. Mapping of a hapten-binding site: molecular modeling and site-directed mutagenesis study of an anti-atrazine antibody. Protein Eng 15 (2002) 233-244
72. Kussie P.H., Parhami-Seren B., Wysocki L.J., and Margolies M.N. A single engineered amino acid substitution changes antibody fine specificity. J Immunol 152 (1994) 146-152
73. Lamminmaki U., Pauperio S., Westerlund-Karlsson A., Karvinen J., Virtanen P., Lovgren T., et al. Expanding the conformational diversity by random insertions to CDRH2 results in improved anti-estradiol antibodies. J Mol Biol 291 (1999) 589-602
74. Lauer B., Ottleben I., Jacobsen H.-J., and Reinard T. Production of a single-chain variable fragment antibody against fumosinin B1. J Agric Food Chem 53 (2005) 899-904
75. Lavoie T.B., Drohan W.N., and Smith-Gill S.J. Experimental analysis by site-directed mutagenesis of somatic mutation effects on affinity and fine specificity in antibodies specific for lysozyme. J Immunol 148 (1992) 503-513
76. Li Y., Lipschultz C.A., Mohan S., and Smith-Gill S.J. Mutations of an epitope hot-spot residue alter rate limiting steps of antigen-antibody protein-protein associations. Biochemistry 40 (2001) 2011-2022
77. Li Y., Cockburn W., Kilpatrick J.B., and Whitelam G.C. High affinity scFvs from a single rabbit immunized with multiple haptens. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 268 (2000) 398-404
78. Little M., Welschof M., Braunagel M., Hermes I., Christ C., Keller A., et al. Generation of a large complex antibody library from multiple donors. J Immunol Methods 231 (1999) 3-9
79. Low N.M., Holliger P., and Winter G. Mimicking somatic hypermutation: affinity maturation of antibodies displayed on bacteriophage using a bacterial mutator strain. J Mol Biol 260 (1996) 359-368
80. MacCallum R.M., Martin A.C.R., and Thornton J.M. Antibody-antigen interactions: contact analysis and binding site topography. J Mol Biol 262 (1996) 732-745
81. Marks J.D., Hoogenboom H.R., Bonnert T.P., McCafferty J., Griffiths A., and Winter G. By-passing immunization: human antibodies from V-gene libraries displayed on phage. J Mol Biol 222 (1991) 581-597
82. Marks J.D., Griffiths A., Malmquist M., Clackson T.P., Bye J.M., and Winter G. Molecular evolution of proteins on filamentous phage. Mimicking the strategy of the immune system. Bio/Technology 10 (1992) 779-783
83. Marks J.D., Hoogenboom H.R., Griffiths A., and Winter G. Molecular evolution of proteins on filamentous phage. J Biol Chem 267 (1992) 16007-16010
84. Mattheakis L.C., Bhatt R.R., and Dower W.J. An in vitro polysome display system for identifying ligands from very large libraries. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 (1994) 9022-9026
85. McCarty B.J., and Hill A.S. Altering the fine specificity of an anti-Legionella single-chain antibody by a single amino acid change. J Immunol Methods 251 (2001) 137-149
86. McCafferty J., Griffiths A., Winter G., and Chiswell D.J. Phage antibodies: filamentous phage displaying antibody variable fragments. Nature 348 (1990) 552-554
87. Meffre E., Catalan N., Seltz F., Fischer A., Nussenzweig M.C., and Durandy A. Somatic hypermutation shapes the antibody repertoire of memory B cells in humans. J Exp Med 194 (2001) 375-378
88. Minshull J., and Stemmer W.P.C. Protein evolution by molecular breeding. Curr Opin Chem Biol 3 (1999) 284-290
89. Miyazaki C., Iba Y., Yamada Y., Takahashi H., Sawada J.-I., and Kurosawa Y. Changes in the specificity of antibodies by site-specific mutagenesis followed by random mutagenesis. Protein Eng 12 (1999) 407-415
90. Moghaddam A., Lobersli I., Gebhardt K., Braunagel M., and Marvik O.J. Selection and characterization of recombinant single-chain antibodies to the hapten aflatoxin-B1 from naive recombinant antibody libraries. J Immunol Methods 254 (2001) 169-181
91. Moghaddam A., Borgen T., Stacy J., Kausmally L., Simonsen B., Marvik O.J., et al. Identification of scFv antibody fragments that specifically recognise the heroin metabolite 6-monoacetylmorphine but not morphine. J Immunol Methods 280 (2003) 139-155
92. Morea V., Lesk A.M., and Tramontano A. Antibody modeling: implications for engineering and design. Methods 20 (2000) 267-279
93. Ness J.E., Welch M., Giver L., Bueno M., Cherry J.R., Borchert T.V., et al. DNA shuffling of subgenomic sequences of subtilisin. Nat Biotechnol 17 (1999) 893-896
94. Ness J.E., Kim S., Gottman A.R.P., Krebber A., Borchert T.V., Govindarajan S., et al. Synthetic shuffling expands functional protein diversity by allowing amino acids to recombine independently. Nat Biotechnol 20 (2002) 1251-1255
95. Nice E.C., and Catimel B. Instrumental biosensors: new perspectives for the analysis of biomolecular interactions. Bioassays 21 (1999) 339-352
96. Parhami-Seren B., Viswanathan M., and Margolies M.N. Selection of high affinity p-azophenylarsonate Fabs from heavy-chain CDR2 insertion libraries. J Immunol Methods 259 (2002) 43-53
97. Park S.-G., Lee J.-S., Je E.-Y., Kim I.-J., Chung J.-H., and Choi I.-H. Affinity maturation of natural antibody using a chain shuffling technique and the expression of recombinant antibodies in Escherichia coli. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 275 (2000) 553-557
98. Patten P.A., Howard R.J., and Stemmer W.P.C. Applications of DNA shuffling to pharmaceuticals and vaccines. Curr Opin Biotechnol 8 (1997) 724-733
99. Pini A., Viti F., Santucci A., Carnemolla B., Zardi L., Neri P., et al. Design and use of a phage-display library. Human antibodies with subnanomolar affinity against a marker of angiogenesis eluted from a two-dimensional gel. J Biol Chem 273 (1998) 21769-21776
100. Roberts R.W. Totally in vitro protein selection using mRNA-protein fusions and ribosome display. Curr Opin Chem Biol 3 (1999) 268-273
101. Ruff-Jamison S., and Glenney Jr. J.R. Molecular modeling and site-directed mutagenesis of an anti-phosphotyrosine antibody predicts the combining site and allows the detection of higher affinity interactions. Protein Eng 6 (1993) 661-668
102. Sale J.E., Bemark M., Williams G.T., Jolly C.J., Ehrenstein M.R., Rada C., et al. In vivo and in vitro studies of immunoglobulin gene somatic hypermutation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 356 (2001) 21-28
103. Sblattero D., and Bradbury A. Exploiting recombination in single bacteria to make large phage antibody libraries. Nat Biotechnol 18 (2000) 75-80
104. Schaffitzel C., Hanes J., Jermutus L., and Pluckthun A. Ribosome-display: an in vitro method for selection and evolution of antibodies from libraries. J Immunol Methods 231 (1999) 119-135
105. Schier R., Balint R.F., McCall A., Apell G., Larrick J.W., and Marks J.D. Identification of functional and structural amino-acid residues by parsimonious mutagenesis. Gene 169 (1996) 147-155
106. Schier R., Bye J.M., Apell G., McCall A., Adams G.P., Malmquist M., et al. Isolation of high-affinity monomeric human anti-c-erbB-2 single-chain Fv using affinity-driven selection. J Mol Biol 255 (1996) 28-43
107. Schier R., McCall A., Adams G.P., Marshall K.W., Merritt H., Yim M., et al. Isolation of picomolar affinity anti-c-erbB-2 single-chain Fv by molecular evolution of the complementary-determining regions in the center of the antibody binding site. J Mol Biol 263 (1996) 551-567
108. Schmitz U., Versmold A., Kaufmann P., and Frank H.-G. Phage-display: a molecular tool for the generation of antibodies: a review. Placenta 21 (2000) S106-S112
109. Scotti C., and Gherardi E. Structural basis of affinity maturation of the TEPC15/VK45.1 anti-2-phenyl-5-oxazolone antibodies. J Mol Biol 359 (2006) 1161-1169
110. Sheedy C., and Hall J.C. Immunoaffinity purification of chlorimuron-ethyl from soil extracts prior to quantitation by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Agric Food Chem 49 (2001) 1151-1157
111. Sheedy C., Yau K.Y.F., Hirama T., MacKenzie C.R., and Hall J.C. Selection, characterization, and CDR shuffling of naive llama single-domain antibodies selected against auxin and their cross-reactivity with auxinic herbicides from four chemical families. J Agric Food Chem 54 (2006) 3668-3678
112. Sheets M.D., Amersdorfer P., Finnern R., Sargent P., Lindquist E., Schier R., et al. Efficient construction of a large nonimmune phage antibody library: the production of high-affinity human single-chain antibodies to protein antigens. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 (1998) 6157-6162
113. Short M.K., Jeffrey P.D., Kwong R.-F., and Margolies M.N. Contribution of antibody heavy chain CDR1 to digoxin binding analyzed by random mutagenesis of phage-displayed Fab 26-10. J Biol Chem 270 (1995) 28541-28550
114. Short M.K., Krykbaev R.A., Jeffrey P.D., and Margolies M.N. Complementary combining site contact residue mutations of the anti-digoxin Fab 26-10 permit high affinity wild-type binding. J Biol Chem 277 (2002) 16365-16370
115. Sompuram S.R., and Sharon J. Verification of a model of a F(ab) complex with phenylarsonate by oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis. J Immunol 150 (1993) 1822-1828
116. Spinelli S., Frenken L.G.J., Hermans P.W.J.J., Verrips C.T., Brown K., Tegoni M., et al. Camelid heavy-chain variable domains provide efficient combining sites to haptens. Biochemistry 39 (2000) 1217-1222
117. Stemmer W.P.C. DNA shuffling by random fragmentation and reassembly: in vitro recombination for molecular evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 (1994) 10747-10751
118. Stemmer W.P.C., Crameri A., Ha K.D., Brennan T.M., and Heyneker H.L. Single-step assembly of a gene and entire plasmid from large numbers of oligodeoxyribonucleotides. Gene 164 (1995) 49-53
119. Stewart J.D., Roberts V.A., Thomas N.R., Getzoff E.D., and Benkovic S.J. Site-directed mutagenesis of a catalytic antibody: an arginine and a histidine residue play key roles. Biochemistry 33 (1994) 1994-2003
120. Strachan G., McElhiney J., Drever M.R., McIntosh F., Lawton L.A., and Porter A.J. Rapid selection of anti-hapten antibodies isolated from synthetic and semi-synthetic antibody phage display libraries expressed in Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Lett 210 (2002) 257-261
121. Takahashi H., Ebihara T., Mie M., Yanagida Y., Endo Y., Kobatake E., et al. Ribosome-display for selection of active dihydrofolate reductase mutants using immobilized methotrexate on agarose beads. FEBS Lett 514 (2002) 106-110
122. Tomlinson I.M., Walter G., Jones P.T., Dear P.H., Sonnhammer E.L.L., and Winter G. The imprint of somatic hypermutation on the repertoire of human germline V genes. J Mol Biol 256 (1996) 813-817
123. Tout N.L., Yau K.Y.F., Trevors J.T., Lee H., and Hall J.C. Synthesis of ligand-specific phage-display scFv against the herbicide picloram by direct cloning from hyperimmunized mice. J Agric Food Chem 49 (2001) 3628-3637
124. Valjakka J., Hemminki A., Niemi S., Soderlund H., Takkinen K., and Rouvinene J. Crystal structure of an in vitro affinity- and specificity-matured anti-testosterone Fab in complex with testosterone. J Biol Chem 277 (2002) 44021-44027
125. Van der Linden R.H.J., De Geus B., Frenken L.G.J., Peters H., and Verrips C.T. Improved production and function of llama heavy chain antibody fragments by molecular evolution. J Biotechnol 80 (2000) 261-270
126. Van der Linden R.H.J., De Geus B., Stok W., Bos J.W., van Wassenaar D., Verrips C.T., et al. Induction of immune responses and molecular cloning of the heavy chain repertoire of Lama glama. J Immunol Methods 240 (2000) 185-195
127. Van Wyngaardt W., Malatji T., Mashau C., Jordaan J., Miltiadou D., and du Plessis D.H. A large semi-synthetic single-chain Fv phage display library based on chicken immunoglobulin genes. BMC Biotechnol 4 (2004) 6
128. Vaughan T.J., Williams A.J., Pritchard K., Osbourn J.K., Pope A.R., Earnshaw J.C., et al. Human antibodies with sub-nanomolar affinities isolated from a large non-immunized phage-display library. Nat Biotechnol 14 (1996) 309-314
129. 3 domain. Food Agric Immunol 11 (1999) 207-218
130. Yang P.L., and Schultz P.G. Mutational analysis of the affinity maturation of antibody 48G7. J Mol Biol 294 (1999) 1191-1201
131. Yau K.Y.F., Groves M.A.T., Li S., Sheedy C., Lee H., Tanha J., et al. Selection of hapten-specific single-domain antibodies from a non-immunized llama ribosome-display library. J Immunol Methods 281 (2003) 161-175
132. Zhao H., Giver L., Shao Z., Affholter J.A., and Arnold F.H. Molecular evolution by staggered extension process (StEP) in vitro recombination. Nat Biotechnol 16 (1998) 258-261