Modulation of the gastrointestinal microbiome with nondigestible fermentable carbohydrates to improve human health

Microbiology Spectrum

Volumn 5, Issue 5, 2017, Pages

  Deehan, Edward C ^a   Duar, Rebbeca M ^a   Armet, Anissa M ^a   Perez Muñoz, Maria Elisa ^a   Jin, Mingliang ^b   Walter, Jens ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

^b NORTHWESTERN POLYTECHNICAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

PREBIOTIC AGENT;

BACTERIUM; CARBOHYDRATE DIET; CLASSIFICATION; FERMENTATION; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HEALTH; HUMAN; INTESTINE FLORA; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; METABOLISM; MICROBIOLOGY;

BACTERIA; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; FERMENTATION; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HEALTH; HUMANS; PREBIOTICS;

EID: 85030834925     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21650497     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.BAD-0019-2017     Document Type: Article

References (248)

1. Walter J, Ley R. 2011. The human gut microbiome: ecology and recent evolutionary changes. Annu Rev Microbiol 65:411-429 http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-micro-090110-102830.
2. Schroeder BO, Bäckhed F. 2016. Signals from the gut microbiota to distant organs in physiology and disease. Nat Med 22:1079-1089 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.4185.
3. Walker AW, Lawley TD. 2013. Therapeutic modulation of intestinal dysbiosis. Pharmacol Res 69:75-86 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2012.09.008.
4. Brahe LK, Astrup A, Larsen LH. 2016. Can we prevent obesity-related metabolic diseases by dietary modulation of the gut microbiota? Adv Nutr 7:90-101 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.115.010587.
5. Olle B. 2013. Medicines from microbiota. Nat Biotechnol 31:309-315 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt.2548.
6. David LA, Maurice CF, Carmody RN, Gootenberg DB, Button JE, Wolfe BE, Ling AV, Devlin AS, Varma Y, Fischbach MA, Biddinger SB, Dutton RJ, Turnbaugh PJ. 2014. Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome. Nature 505:559-563 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12820.
7. Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, Bittinger K, Chen Y-Y, Keilbaugh SA, Bewtra M, Knights D, Walters WA, Knight R, Sinha R, Gilroy E, Gupta K, Baldassano R, Nessel L, Li H, Bushman FD, Lewis JD. 2011. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science 334:105-108 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1208344.
8. Wu GD, Compher C, Chen EZ, Smith SA, Shah RD, Bittinger K, Chehoud C, Albenberg LG, Nessel L, Gilroy E, Star J, Weljie AM, Flint HJ, Metz DC, Bennett MJ, Li H, Bushman FD, Lewis JD. 2016. Comparative metabolomics in vegans and omnivores reveal constraints on dietdependent gut microbiota metabolite production. Gut 65:63-72 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2014-308209.
9. Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB. 1995. Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr 125:1401-1412.
10. Bach J-F. 2002. The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 347:911-920 http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra020100.
11. Bickler SW, DeMaio A. 2008. Western diseases: current concepts and implications for pediatric surgery research and practice. Pediatr Surg Int 24:251-255 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00383-007-2095-3.
12. Deehan EC, Walter J. 2016. The fiber gap and the disappearing gut microbiome: implications for human nutrition. Trends Endocrinol Metab 27:239-242 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2016.03.001.
13. Burkitt DP, Walker ARP, Painter NS. 1974. Dietary fiber and disease. JAMA 229:1068-1074 http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1974.03230460018013.
14. Eaton SB, Eaton SB III, Konner MJ. 1997. Paleolithic nutrition revisited: a twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications. Eur J Clin Nutr 51:207-216 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600389.
15. Burkitt DP. 1973. Some diseases characteristic of modern Western civilization. BMJ 1:274-278 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5848.274.
16. Sonnenburg ED, Sonnenburg JL. 2014. Starving our microbial self: the deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in microbiota-accessible carbohydrates. Cell Metab 20:779-786 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2014.07.003.
17. Koh A, De Vadder F, Kovatcheva-Datchary P, Bäckhed F. 2016. From dietary fiber to host physiology: short-chain fatty acids as key bacterial metabolites. Cell 165:1332-1345 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.05.041.
18. Martínez I, Stegen JC, Maldonado-Gómez MX, Eren AM, Siba PM, Greenhill AR, Walter J. 2015. The gut microbiota of rural Papua New Guineans: composition, diversity patterns, and ecological processes. Cell Reports 11:527-538 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2015.03.049.
19. Schnorr SL, Candela M, Rampelli S, Centanni M, Consolandi C, Basaglia G, Turroni S, Biagi E, Peano C, Severgnini M, Fiori J, Gotti R, De Bellis G, Luiselli D, Brigidi P, Mabulla A, Marlowe F, Henry AG, Crittenden AN. 2014. Gut microbiome of the Hadza hunter-gatherers. Nat Commun 5:3654 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4654.
20. Clemente JC, Pehrsson EC, Blaser MJ, Sandhu K, Gao Z, Wang B, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Contreras M, Noya-Alarcón Ó, Lander O, McDonald J, Cox M, Walter J, Oh PL, Ruiz JF, Rodriguez S, Shen N, Song SJ, Metcalf J, Knight R, Dantas G, Dominguez-Bello MG. 2015. The microbiome of uncontacted Amerindians. Sci Adv 1:e1500183 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500183.
21. Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, Trehan I, Dominguez-Bello MG, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Baldassano RN, Anokhin AP, Heath AC, Warner B, Reeder J, Kuczynski J, Caporaso JG, Lozupone CA, Lauber C, Clemente JC, Knights D, Knight R, Gordon JI. 2012. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 486:222-227.
22. De Filippo C, Cavalieri D, Di Paola M, Ramazzotti M, Poullet JB, Massart S, Collini S, Pieraccini G, Lionetti P. 2010. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:14691-14696 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1005963107.
23. Sonnenburg ED, Smits SA, Tikhonov M, Higginbottom SK, Wingreen NS, Sonnenburg JL. 2016. Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations. Nature 529:212-215 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature16504.
24. Hamaker BR, Tuncil YE. 2014. A perspective on the complexity of dietary fiber structures and their potential effect on the gut microbiota. J Mol Biol 426:3838-3850 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2014.07.028.
25. King DE, Mainous AG III, Lambourne CA. 2012. Trends in dietary fiber intake in the United States, 1999-2008. J Acad Nutr Diet 112:642-648 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2012.01.019.
26. Jones JM. 2014. CODEX-aligned dietary fiber definitions help to bridge the 'fiber gap'. Nutr J 13:34 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-13-34.
27. Hill DR, Newburg DS. 2015. Clinical applications of bioactive milk components. Nutr Rev 73:463-476 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuv009.
28. Bindels LB, Delzenne NM, Cani PD, Walter J. 2015. Towards a more comprehensive concept for prebiotics. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 12:303-310 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2015.47.
29. Gibson GR, Hutkins R, Sanders ME, Prescott SL, Reimer RA, Salminen SJ, Scott K, Stanton C, Swanson KS, Cani PD, Verbeke K, Reid G. 2017. Expert consensus document: the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 14:491-502 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2017.75.
30. Gibson GR, Scott KP, Rastall RA, Tuohy KM, Hotchkiss A, Dubert-Ferrandon A, Gareau M, Murphy EF, Saulnier D, Loh G, Macfarlane S, Delzenne N, Ringel Y, Kozianowski G, Dickmann R, Lenoir-Wijnkoop I, Walker C, Buddington R. 2010. Dietary prebiotics: current status and new definition. Food Sci Tech Bull Funct Foods 7:1-19 http://dx.doi.org/10.1616/1476-2137.15880.
31. Roberfroid M. 2007. Prebiotics: the concept revisited. J Nutr 137 (Suppl 2):830S-837S.
32. Katsnelson A. 2016. Core concept: prebiotics gain prominence but remain poorly defined. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113:14168-14169 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618366113.
33. Verspreet J, Damen B, Broekaert WF, Verbeke K, Delcour JA, Courtin CM. 2016. A critical look at prebiotics within the dietary fiber concept. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 7:167-190 http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-081315-032749.
34. Suez J, Elinav E. 2017. The path towards microbiome-based metabolite treatment. Nat Microbiol 2:17075 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.75.
35. Shanahan F. 2015. Fiber man meets microbial man. Am J Clin Nutr 101:1-2 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.101550.
36. Louis P, Flint HJ, Michel C. 2016. How to manipulate the microbiota:prebiotics. Adv Exp Med Biol 902:119-142 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31248-4_9.
37. Martínez I, Lattimer JM, Hubach KL, Case JA, Yang J, Weber CG, Louk JA, Rose DJ, Kyureghian G, Peterson DA, Haub MD, Walter J. 2013. Gut microbiome composition is linked to whole grain-induced immunological improvements. ISME J 7:269-280 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2012.104.
38. Quévrain E, Maubert M-A, Michon C, Chain F, Marquant R, Tailhades J, Miquel S, Carlier L, Bermúdez-Humarán LG, Pigneur B, Lequin O, Kharrat P, Thomas G, Rainteau D, Aubry C, Breyner N, Afonso C, Lavielle S, Grill JP, Chassaing G, Chatel J-M, Trugnan G, Xavier R, Langella P, Sokol H, Seksik P. 2016. Identification of an antiinflammatory protein from Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, a commensal bacterium deficient in Crohn's disease. Gut 65:415-425 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2014-307649.
39. Zeevi D, Korem T, Zmora N, Israeli D, Rothschild D, Weinberger A, Ben-Yacov O, Lador D, Avnit-Sagi T, Lotan-Pompan M, Suez J, Mahdi JA, Matot E, Malka G, Kosower N, Rein M, Zilberman-Schapira G, Dohnalová L, Pevsner-Fischer M, Bikovsky R, Halpern Z, Elinav E, Segal E. 2015. Personalized nutrition by prediction of glycemic responses. Cell 163:1079-1094 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.001.
40. Everard A, Belzer C, Geurts L, Ouwerkerk JP, Druart C, Bindels LB, Guiot Y, Derrien M, Muccioli GG, Delzenne NM, de Vos WM, Cani PD. 2013. Cross-talk between Akkermansia muciniphila and intestinal epithelium controls diet-induced obesity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:9066-9071 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1219451110.
41. Atarashi K, Tanoue T, Oshima K, Suda W, Nagano Y, Nishikawa H, Fukuda S, Saito T, Narushima S, Hase K, Kim S, Fritz JV, Wilmes P, Ueha S, Matsushima K, Ohno H, Olle B, Sakaguchi S, Taniguchi T, Morita H, Hattori M, Honda K. 2013. Treg induction by a rationally selected mixture of Clostridia strains from the human microbiota. Nature 500:232-236 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12331.
42. Round JL, Lee SM, Li J, Tran G, Jabri B, Chatila TA, Mazmanian SK. 2011. The Toll-like receptor 2 pathway establishes colonization by a commensal of the human microbiota. Science 332:974-977 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1206095.
43. Le Chatelier E, et al, MetaHIT Consortium. 2013. Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers. Nature 500:541-546 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12506.
44. Cotillard A, Kennedy SP, Kong LC, Prifti E, Pons N, Le Chatelier E, Almeida M, Quinquis B, Levenez F, Galleron N, Gougis S, Rizkalla S, Batto J-M, Renault P, Doré J, Zucker JD, Clément K, Ehrlich SD, ANR MicroObes Consortium. 2013. Dietary intervention impact on gut microbial gene richness. Nature 500:585-588 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12480.
45. Lozupone CA, Stombaugh JI, Gordon JI, Jansson JK, Knight R. 2012. Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature 489:220-230 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature11550.
46. LeBlanc JG, Chain F, Martín R, Bermúdez-Humarán LG, Courau S, Langella P. 2017. Beneficial effects on host energy metabolism of shortchain fatty acids and vitamins produced by commensal and probiotic bacteria. Microb Cell Fact 16:79 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12934-017-0691-z.
47. Canfora EE, Jocken JW, Blaak EE. 2015. Short-chain fatty acids in control of body weight and insulin sensitivity. Nat Rev Endocrinol 11:577-591 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2015.128.
48. Zheng J, Ruan L, Sun M, Gänzle M. 2015. A genomic view of lactobacilli and pediococci demonstrates that phylogeny matches ecology and physiology. Appl Environ Microbiol 81:7233-7243 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02116-15.
49. Makras L, Falony G, Van der Meulen R, De Vuyst L. 2006. Letter to the editor. J Appl Microbiol 100:1388-1389 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02943.x.
50. Klijn A, Mercenier A, Arigoni F. 2005. Lessons from the genomes of bifidobacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev 29:491-509 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fmrre.2005.04.010.
51. Flint HJ, Duncan SH, Scott KP, Louis P. 2015. Links between diet, gut microbiota composition and gut metabolism. Proc Nutr Soc 74:13-22 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0029665114001463.
52. Dewulf EM, Cani PD, Claus SP, Fuentes S, Puylaert PGB, Neyrinck AM, Bindels LB, de Vos WM, Gibson GR, Thissen J-P, Delzenne NM. 2013. Insight into the prebiotic concept: lessons from an exploratory, double blind intervention study with inulin-type fructans in obese women. Gut 62:1112-1121 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2012-303304.
53. Venkataraman A, Sieber JR, Schmidt AW, Waldron C, Theis KR, Schmidt TM. 2016. Variable responses of human microbiomes to dietary supplementation with resistant starch. Microbiome 4:33 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40168-016-0178-x.
54. Walker AW, Ince J, Duncan SH, Webster LM, Holtrop G, Ze X, Brown D, Stares MD, Scott P, Bergerat A, Louis P, McIntosh F, Johnstone AM, Lobley GE, Parkhill J, Flint HJ. 2011. Dominant and diet-responsive groups of bacteria within the human colonic microbiota. ISME J 5:220-230 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2010.118.
55. Martínez I, Kim J, Duffy PR, Schlegel VL, Walter J. 2010. Resistant starches types 2 and 4 have differential effects on the composition of the fecal microbiota in human subjects. PLoS One 5:e15046 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015046.
56. El Kaoutari A, Armougom F, Gordon JI, Raoult D, Henrissat B. 2013. The abundance and variety of carbohydrate-active enzymes in the human gut microbiota. Nat Rev Microbiol 11:497-504 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3050.
57. Flint HJ, Bayer EA, Rincon MT, Lamed R, White BA. 2008. Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: potential for new insights from genomic analysis. Nat Rev Microbiol 6:121-131 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1817.
58. Chung WSF, Walker AW, Louis P, Parkhill J, Vermeiren J, Bosscher D, Duncan SH, Flint HJ. 2016. Modulation of the human gut microbiota by dietary fibres occurs at the species level. BMC Biol 14:3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12915-015-0224-3.
59. Sawicki CM, Livingston KA, Obin M, Roberts SB, Chung M, McKeown NM. 2017. Dietary fiber and the human gut microbiota:application of evidence mapping methodology. Nutrients 9:125 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu9020125.
60. Davis LMG, Martínez I, Walter J, Goin C, Hutkins RW. 2011. Barcoded pyrosequencing reveals that consumption of galactooligosaccharides results in a highly specific bifidogenic response in humans. PLoS One 6:e25200 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025200.
61. Walker AW, Duncan SH, McWilliam Leitch EC, Child MW, Flint HJ. 2005. pH and peptide supply can radically alter bacterial populations and short-chain fatty acid ratios within microbial communities from the human colon. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:3692-3700 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.71.7.3692-3700.2005.
62. Duncan SH, Louis P, Thomson JM, Flint HJ. 2009. The role of pH in determining the species composition of the human colonic microbiota. Environ Microbiol 11:2112-2122 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01931.x.
63. Tannock GW, Lawley B, Munro K, Sims IM, Lee J, Butts CA, Roy N. 2014. RNA-stable-isotope probing shows utilization of carbon from inulin by specific bacterial populations in the rat large bowel. Appl Environ Microbiol 80:2240-2247 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03799-13.
64. Holscher HD. 2017. Dietary fiber and prebiotics and the gastrointestinal microbiota. Gut Microbes 8:172-184 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2017.1290756.
65. Slavin J. 2013. Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients 5:1417-1435 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu5041417.
66. Hipsley EH. 1953. Dietary "fibre" and pregnancy toxaemia. BMJ 2:420-422 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.4833.420.
67. Trowell HC. 1974. Editorial: definitions of dietary fibre. Lancet 1:503 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(74)92802-5.
68. Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. 2010. Secretariat of the CODEX Alimentarius Commission: CODEX Alimentarius (CODEX) guidelines on nutrition labeling CAC/GL 2-1985 as last amended 2010. FAO, Rome, Italy.
69. Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. Report no. RIN 0910-AF22. FDA, College Park, MD.
70. Fuller S, Beck E, Salman H, Tapsell L. 2016. New horizons for the study of dietary fiber and health: a review. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 71:1-12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11130-016-0529-6.
71. Tungland BC, Meyer D. 2002. Nondigestible oligo- and polysaccharides (dietary fiber): their physiology and role in human health and food. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 1:90-109 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2002.tb00009.x.
72. Raigond P, Ezekiel R, Raigond B. 2015. Resistant starch in food: a review. J Sci Food Agric 95:1968-1978 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6966.
73. Mudgil D, Barak S. 2013. Composition, properties and health benefits of indigestible carbohydrate polymers as dietary fiber: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 61:1-6 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.06.044.
74. Guillona F, Champ M. 2000. Structural and physical properties of dietary fibres, and consequences of processing on human physiology. Food Res Int 33:233-245 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0963-9969(00)00038-7.
75. Ze X, Duncan SH, Louis P, Flint HJ. 2012. Ruminococcus bromii is a keystone species for the degradation of resistant starch in the human colon. ISME J 6:1535-1543 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2012.4.
76. Hehemann J-H, Correc G, Barbeyron T, Helbert W, Czjzek M, Michel G. 2010. Transfer of carbohydrate-active enzymes from marine bacteria to Japanese gut microbiota. Nature 464:908-912 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08937.
77. Chassard C, Delmas E, Robert C, Bernalier-Donadille A. 2010. The cellulose-degrading microbial community of the human gut varies according to the presence or absence of methanogens. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 74:205-213 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.2010.00941.x.
78. Walter J. 2015. Murine gut microbiota-diet trumps genes. Cell Host Microbe 17:3-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2014.12.004.
79. Kovatcheva-Datchary P, Egert M, Maathuis A, Rajilić-Stojanović M, de Graaf AA, Smidt H, de Vos WM, Venema K. 2009. Linking phylogenetic identities of bacteria to starch fermentation in an in vitro model of the large intestine by RNA-based stable isotope probing. Environ Microbiol 11:914-926 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01815.x.
80. Leitch ECM, Walker AW, Duncan SH, Holtrop G, Flint HJ. 2007. Selective colonization of insoluble substrates by human faecal bacteria. Environ Microbiol 9:667-679 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01186.x.
81. Rakoff-Nahoum S, Coyne MJ, Comstock LE. 2014. An ecological network of polysaccharide utilization among human intestinal symbionts. Curr Biol 24:40-49 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.077.
82. Flint HJ, Scott KP, Duncan SH, Louis P, Forano E. 2012. Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut. Gut Microbes 3:289-306 http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/gmic.19897.
83. Belenguer A, Duncan SH, Calder AG, Holtrop G, Louis P, Lobley GE, Flint HJ. 2006. Two routes of metabolic cross-feeding between Bifidobacterium adolescentis and butyrate-producing anaerobes from the human gut. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:3593-3599 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.72.5.3593-3599.2006.
84. Coyte KZ, Schluter J, Foster KR. 2015. The ecology of the microbiome: networks, competition, and stability. Science 350:663-666 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aad2602.
85. Koropatkin NM, Cameron EA, Martens EC. 2012. How glycan metabolism shapes the human gut microbiota. Nat Rev Microbiol 10:323-335.
86. Rey FE, Faith JJ, Bain J, Muehlbauer MJ, Stevens RD, Newgard CB, Gordon JI. 2010. Dissecting the in vivo metabolic potential of two human gut acetogens. J Biol Chem 285:22082-22090 http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M110.117713.
87. Fischbach MA, Sonnenburg JL. 2011. Eating for two: how metabolism establishes interspecies interactions in the gut. Cell Host Microbe 10:336-347 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2011.10.002.
88. Barcenilla A, Pryde SE, Martin JC, Duncan SH, Stewart CS, Henderson C, Flint HJ. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships of butyrate-producing bacteria from the human gut. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:1654-1661 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.66.4.1654-1661.2000.
89. Chassard C, Bernalier-Donadille A. 2006. H2 and acetate transfers during xylan fermentation between a butyrate-producing xylanolytic species and hydrogenotrophic microorganisms from the human gut. FEMS Microbiol Lett 254:116-122 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6968.2005.00016.x.
90. Duncan SH, Louis P, Flint HJ. 2004. Lactate-utilizing bacteria, isolated from human feces, that produce butyrate as a major fermentation product. Appl EnvironMicrobiol 70:5810-5817 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.10.5810-5817.2004.
91. Lozupone CA, Hamady M, Cantarel BL, Coutinho PM, Henrissat B, Gordon JI, Knight R. 2008. The convergence of carbohydrate active gene repertoires in human gut microbes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:15076-15081 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0807339105.
92. Vandeputte D, Falony G, Vieira-Silva S, Wang J, Sailer M, Theis S, Verbeke K, Raes J. 2017. Prebiotic inulin-type fructans induce specific changes in the human gut microbiota. Gut. [Epub ahead of print.] http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2016-313271.
93. Tap J, Furet J-P, Bensaada M, Philippe C, Roth H, Rabot S, Lakhdari O, Lombard V, Henrissat B, Corthier G, Fontaine E, Doré J, Leclerc M. 2015. Gut microbiota richness promotes its stability upon increased dietary fibre intake in healthy adults. Environ Microbiol 17:4954-4964 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.13006.
94. Segata N. 2015. Gut microbiome: westernization and the disappearance of intestinal diversity. Curr Biol 25:R611-R613 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.040.
95. Heiman ML, Greenway FL. 2016. A healthy gastrointestinal microbiome is dependent on dietary diversity. Mol Metab 5:317-320 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2016.02.005.
96. Clayton JB, Vangay P, Huang H, Ward T, Hillmann BM, Al-Ghalith GA, Travis DA, Long HT, Tuan BV, Minh VV, Cabana F, Nadler T, Toddes B, Murphy T, Glander KE, Johnson TJ, Knights D. 2016. Captivity humanizes the primate microbiome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113:10376-10381 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1521835113.
97. Kong LC, Holmes BA, Cotillard A, Habi-Rachedi F, Brazeilles R, Gougis S, Gausserès N, Cani PD, Fellahi S, Bastard J-P, Kennedy SP, Doré J, Ehrlich SD, Zucker J-D, Rizkalla SW, Clément K. 2014. Dietary patterns differently associate with inflammation and gut microbiota in overweight and obese subjects. PLoS One 9:e109434 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109434.
98. Upadhyaya B, McCormack L, Fardin-Kia AR, Juenemann R, Nichenametla S, Clapper J, Specker B, Dey M. 2016. Impact of dietary resistant starch type 4 on human gut microbiota and immunometabolic functions. Sci Rep 6:28797 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep28797.
99. West NP, Christophersen CT, Pyne DB, Cripps AW, Conlon MA, Topping DL, Kang S, McSweeney CS, Fricker PA, Aguirre D, Clarke JM. 2013. Butyrylated starch increases colonic butyrate concentration but has limited effects on immunity in healthy physically active individuals. Exerc Immunol Rev 19:102-119.
100. Hooda S, Boler BMV, Serao MCR, Brulc JM, Staeger MA, Boileau TW, Dowd SE, Fahey GCJ Jr, Swanson KS. 2012. 454 pyrosequencing reveals a shift in fecal microbiota of healthy adult men consuming polydextrose or soluble corn fiber. J Nutr 142:1259-1265 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.112.158766.
101. Wong JM, de Souza R, Kendall CW, Emam A, Jenkins DJ. 2006. Colonic health: fermentation and short chain fatty acids. J Clin Gastroenterol 40:235-243 http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004836-200603000-00015.
102. Cummings JH, Pomare EW, Branch WJ, Naylor CP, Macfarlane GT. 1987. Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood. Gut 28:1221-1227 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.28.10.1221.
103. Boets E, Gomand SV, Deroover L, Preston T, Vermeulen K, De Preter V, Hamer HM, Van den Mooter G, De Vuyst L, Courtin CM, Annaert P, Delcour JA, Verbeke KA. 2017. Systemic availability and metabolism of colonic-derived short-chain fatty acids in healthy subjects:a stable isotope study. J Physiol 595:541-555 http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/JP272613.
104. Yang J, Martínez I, Walter J, Keshavarzian A, Rose DJ. 2013. In vitro characterization of the impact of selected dietary fibers on fecal microbiota composition and short chain fatty acid production. Anaerobe 23:74-81 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.06.012.
105. Yang J, Rose DJ. 2014. Long-term dietary pattern of fecal donor correlates with butyrate production and markers of protein fermentation during in vitro fecal fermentation. Nutr Res 34:749-759 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2014.08.006.
106. Roediger WE. 1980. Role of anaerobic bacteria in the metabolic welfare of the colonic mucosa in man. Gut 21:793-798 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.21.9.793.
107. Dahl WJ, Stewart ML. 2015. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Health Implications of Dietary Fiber. J Acad Nutr Diet 115:1861-1870 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2015.09.003.
108. Cummings JH, Macfarlane GT. 1991. The control and consequences of bacterial fermentation in the human colon. J Appl Bacteriol 70:443-459 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1991.tb02739.x.
109. Duncan SH, Belenguer A, Holtrop G, Johnstone AM, Flint HJ, Lobley GE. 2007. Reduced dietary intake of carbohydrates by obese subjects results in decreased concentrations of butyrate and butyrateproducing bacteria in feces. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:1073-1078 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02340-06.
110. Russell WR, Gratz SW, Duncan SH, Holtrop G, Ince J, Scobbie L, Duncan G, Johnstone AM, Lobley GE, Wallace RJ, Duthie GG, Flint HJ. 2011. High-protein, reduced-carbohydrate weight-loss diets promote metabolite profiles likely to be detrimental to colonic health. Am J Clin Nutr 93:1062-1072 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.002188.
111. Windey K, De Preter V, Verbeke K. 2012. Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health. Mol Nutr Food Res 56:184-196 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201100542.
112. Sonnenburg JL, Xu J, Leip DD, Chen C-H, Westover BP, Weatherford J, Buhler JD, Gordon JI. 2005. Glycan foraging in vivo by an intestine-adapted bacterial symbiont. Science 307:1955-1959 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1109051.
113. Earle KA, Billings G, Sigal M, Lichtman JS, Hansson GC, Elias JE, Amieva MR, Huang KC, Sonnenburg JL. 2015. Quantitative imaging of gut microbiota spatial organization. Cell Host Microbe 18:478-488 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2015.09.002.
114. Desai MS, Seekatz AM, Koropatkin NM, Kamada N, Hickey CA, Wolter M, Pudlo NA, Kitamoto S, Terrapon N, Muller A, Young VB, Henrissat B, Wilmes P, Stappenbeck TS, Núñez G, Martens EC. 2016. A dietary fiber-deprived gut microbiota degrades the colonic mucus barrier and enhances pathogen susceptibility. Cell 167:1339-1353.e21 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.10.043.
115. Lambeau KV, McRorie JWJ Jr. 2017. Fiber supplements and clinically proven health benefits: how to recognize and recommend an effective fiber therapy. J Am Assoc Nurse Pract 29:216-223.
116. Schwiertz A, Taras D, Schäfer K, Beijer S, Bos NA, Donus C, Hardt PD. 2010. Microbiota and SCFA in lean and overweight healthy subjects. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18:190-195 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/oby.2009.167.
117. Belcheva A, Irrazabal T, Robertson SJ, Streutker C, Maughan H, Rubino S, Moriyama EH, Copeland JK, Kumar S, Green B, Geddes K, Pezo RC, Navarre WW, Milosevic M, Wilson BC, Girardin SE, Wolever TMS, Edelmann W, Guttman DS, Philpott DJ, Martin A. 2014. Gut microbial metabolism drives transformation of MSH2-deficient colon epithelial cells. Cell 158:288-299 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.04.051.
118. Lupton JR. 2004. Microbial degradation products influence colon cancer risk: the butyrate controversy. J Nutr 134:479-482.
119. Du H, van der A DL, Boshuizen HC, Forouhi NG, Wareham NJ, Halkjaer J, Tjønneland A, Overvad K, Jakobsen MU, Boeing H, Buijsse B, Masala G, Palli D, Sørensen TI, Saris WH, Feskens EJ. 2010. Dietary fiber and subsequent changes in body weight and waist circumference in European men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 91:329-336 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28191.
120. Ben Q, Sun Y, Chai R, Qian A, Xu B, Yuan Y. 2014. Dietary fiber intake reduces risk for colorectal adenoma: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 146:689-699.e6.
121. Kunzmann AT, Coleman HG, Huang W-Y, Kitahara CM, Cantwell MM, Berndt SI. 2015. Dietary fiber intake and risk of colorectal cancer and incident and recurrent adenoma in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. Am J Clin Nutr 102:881-890 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.113282.
122. Tan J,McKenzie C, PotamitisM, Thorburn AN,Mackay CR,Macia L. 2014. The role of short-chain fatty acids in health and disease. Adv Immunol 121:91-119 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800100-4.00003-9.
123. Thangaraju M, Cresci GA, Liu K, Ananth S, Gnanaprakasam JP, Browning DD, Mellinger JD, Smith SB, Digby GJ, Lambert NA, Prasad PD, Ganapathy V. 2009. GPR109A is a G-protein-coupled receptor for the bacterial fermentation product butyrate and functions as a tumor suppressor in colon. Cancer Res 69:2826-2832 http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-4466.
124. Wanders D, Graff EC, Judd RL. 2012. Effects of high fat diet on GPR109A and GPR81 gene expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 425:278-283 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.07.082.
125. Cresci GA, Thangaraju M, Mellinger JD, Liu K, Ganapathy V. 2010. Colonic gene expression in conventional and germfree mice with a focus on the butyrate receptor GPR109A and the butyrate transporter SLC5A8. J Gastrointest Surg 14:449-461 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11605-009-1045-x.
126. Le Poul E, Loison C, Struyf S, Springael J-Y, Lannoy V, Decobecq M-E, Brezillon S, Dupriez V, Vassart G, Van Damme J, Parmentier M, Detheux M. 2003. Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation. J Biol Chem 278:25481-25489 http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M301403200.
127. Brown AJ, Goldsworthy SM, Barnes AA, Eilert MM, Tcheang L, Daniels D, Muir AI, Wigglesworth MJ, Kinghorn I, Fraser NJ, Pike NB, Strum JC, Steplewski KM, Murdock PR, Holder JC, Marshall FH, Szekeres PG, Wilson S, Ignar DM, Foord SM, Wise A, Dowell SJ. 2003. The Orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids. J Biol Chem 278:11312-11319 http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M211609200.
128. Blundell J, de Graaf C, Hulshof T, Jebb S, Livingstone B, Lluch A, Mela D, Salah S, Schuring E, van der Knaap H, Westerterp M. 2010. Appetite control: methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods. Obes Rev 11:251-270 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00714.x.
129. Samuel BS, Shaito A, Motoike T, Rey FE, Bäckhed F, Manchester JK, Hammer RE, Williams SC, Crowley J, Yanagisawa M, Gordon JI. 2008. Effects of the gut microbiota on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G protein-coupled receptor, Gpr41. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:16767-16772 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0808567105.
130. Tolhurst G, Heffron H, Lam YS, Parker HE, Habib AM, Diakogiannaki E, Cameron J, Grosse J, Reimann F, Gribble FM. 2012. Short-chain fatty acids stimulate glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion via the G-protein-coupled receptor FFAR2. Diabetes 61:364-371 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db11-1019.
131. Savage AP, Adrian TE, Carolan G, Chatterjee VK, Bloom SR. 1987. Effects of peptide YY (PYY) on mouth to caecum intestinal transit time and on the rate of gastric emptying in healthy volunteers. Gut 28:166-170 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.28.2.166.
132. Batterham RL, Cowley MA, Small CJ, Herzog H, Cohen MA, Dakin CL, Wren AM, Brynes AE, Low MJ, Ghatei MA, Cone RD, Bloom SR. 2002. Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 418:650-654 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature00887.
133. Wei Y, Mojsov S. 1995. Tissue-specific expression of the human receptor for glucagon-like peptide-I: brain, heart and pancreatic forms have the same deduced amino acid sequences. FEBS Lett 358:219-224 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793(94)01430-9.
134. Merchenthaler I, Lane M, Shughrue P. 1999. Distribution of pre-proglucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor messenger RNAs in the rat central nervous system. J Comp Neurol 403:261-280 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990111)403:2<261::AID-CNE8>3.0.CO;2-5.
135. Schjoldager BT, Mortensen PE, Christiansen J, Ørskov C, Holst JJ. 1989. GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide 1) and truncated GLP-1, fragments of human proglucagon, inhibit gastric acid secretion in humans. Dig Dis Sci 34:703-708 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01540341.
136. Näslund E, Bogefors J, Skogar S, Grybäck P, Jacobsson H, Holst JJ, Hellström PM. 1999. GLP-1 slows solid gastric emptying and inhibits insulin, glucagon, and PYY release in humans. AmJ Physiol 277:R910-R916.
137. Xiong Y, Miyamoto N, Shibata K, Valasek MA, Motoike T, Kedzierski RM, Yanagisawa M. 2004. Short-chain fatty acids stimulate leptin production in adipocytes through the G protein-coupled receptor GPR41. ProcNatl Acad Sci USA 101:1045-1050 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2637002100.
138. Zaibi MS, Stocker CJ, O'Dowd J, Davies A, Bellahcene M, Cawthorne MA, Brown AJH, Smith DM, Arch JRS. 2010. Roles of GPR41 and GPR43 in leptin secretory responses of murine adipocytes to short chain fatty acids. FEBS Lett 584:2381-2386 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2010.04.027.
139. Frost G, Sleeth ML, Sahuri-Arisoylu M, Lizarbe B, Cerdan S, Brody L, Anastasovska J, Ghourab S, Hankir M, Zhang S, Carling D, Swann JR, Gibson G, Viardot A, Morrison D, Louise Thomas E, Bell JD. 2014. The short-chain fatty acid acetate reduces appetite via a central homeostatic mechanism. Nat Commun 5:3611 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4611.
140. De Vadder F, Kovatcheva-Datchary P, Goncalves D, Vinera J, Zitoun C, Duchampt A, Bäckhed F, Mithieux G. 2014. Microbiota-generated metabolites promote metabolic benefits via gut-brain neural circuits. Cell 156:84-96 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.12.016.
141. Delaere F, Duchampt A, Mounien L, Seyer P, Duraffourd C, Zitoun C, Thorens B, Mithieux G. 2013. The role of sodium-coupled glucose cotransporter 3 in the satiety effect of portal glucose sensing. Mol Metab 2:47-53 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2012.11.003.
142. Kimura I, Inoue D, Maeda T, Hara T, Ichimura A, Miyauchi S, Kobayashi M, Hirasawa A, Tsujimoto G. 2011. Short-chain fatty acids and ketones directly regulate sympathetic nervous system via G proteincoupled receptor 41 (GPR41). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:8030-8035 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1016088108.
143. Gao Z, Yin J, Zhang J, Ward RE, Martin RJ, Lefevre M, Cefalu WT, Ye J. 2009. Butyrate improves insulin sensitivity and increases energy expenditure in mice. Diabetes 58:1509-1517 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db08-1637.
144. Freitag J, Berod L, Kamradt T, Sparwasser T. 2016. Immunometabolism and autoimmunity. Immunol Cell Biol 94:925-934 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/icb.2016.77.
145. Hajer GR, van Haeften TW, Visseren FLJ. 2008. Adipose tissue dysfunction in obesity, diabetes, and vascular diseases. Eur Heart J 29:2959-2971 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehn387.
146. Kellow NJ, Coughlan MT, Reid CM. 2014. Metabolic benefits of dietary prebiotics in human subjects: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr 111:1147-1161 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114513003607.
147. Whitehead A, Beck EJ, Tosh S, Wolever TMS. 2014. Cholesterollowering effects of oat β-glucan: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 100:1413-1421 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.086108.
148. Beserra BTS, Fernandes R, do Rosario VA, Mocellin MC, Kuntz MGF, Trindade EBSM. 2014. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prebiotics and synbiotics effects on glycaemia, insulin concentrations and lipid parameters in adult patients with overweight or obesity. Clin Nutr 34:845-858.
149. Ning H, Van Horn L, Shay CM, Lloyd-Jones DM. 2014. Associations of dietary fiber intake with long-term predicted cardiovascular disease risk and C-reactive protein levels (from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data [2005-2010]). Am J Cardiol 113:287-291 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2013.09.020.
150. Yao B, Fang H, Xu W, Yan Y, Xu H, Liu Y, Mo M, Zhang H, Zhao Y. 2014. Dietary fiber intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: a doseresponse analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Epidemiol 29:79-88 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10654-013-9876-x.
151. Kreymann B, Williams G, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. 1987. Glucagonlike peptide-1 7-36: a physiological incretin in man. Lancet 2:1300-1304 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(87)91194-9.
152. Komatsu R, Matsuyama T, Namba M, Watanabe N, Itoh H, Kono N, Tarui S. 1989. Glucagonostatic and insulinotropic action of glucagonlike peptide I-(7-36)-amide. Diabetes 38:902-905 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diab.38.7.902.
153. Farilla L, Bulotta A, Hirshberg B, Li Calzi S, Khoury N, Noushmehr H, Bertolotto C, Di Mario U, Harlan DM, Perfetti R. 2003. Glucagon-like peptide 1 inhibits cell apoptosis and improves glucose responsiveness of freshly isolated human islets. Endocrinology 144:5149-5158 http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2003-0323.
154. Holz GGI IV, Kühtreiber WM, Habener JF. 1993. Pancreatic betacells are rendered glucose-competent by the insulinotropic hormone glucagon-like peptide-1(7-37). Nature 361:362-365 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/361362a0.
155. Pingitore A, Chambers ES, Hill T, Maldonado IR, Liu B, Bewick G, Morrison DJ, Preston T, Wallis GA, Tedford C, Castañera González R, Huang GC, Choudhary P, Frost G, Persaud SJ. 2017. The diet-derived short chain fatty acid propionate improves beta-cell function in humans and stimulates insulin secretion from human islets in vitro. Diabetes Obes Metab 19:257-265 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dom.12811.
156. Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W. 2016. Pancreatic regulation of glucose homeostasis. Exp Mol Med 48:e219 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/emm.2016.6.
157. Clore JN, Stillman J, Sugerman H. 2000. Glucose-6-phosphatase flux in vitro is increased in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 49:969-974 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diabetes.49.6.969.
158. Magnusson I, Rothman DL, Katz LD, Shulman RG, Shulman GI. 1992. Increased rate of gluconeogenesis in type II diabetes mellitus. A 13C nuclear magnetic resonance study. J Clin Invest 90:1323-1327 http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI115997.
159. den Besten G, Bleeker A, Gerding A, van Eunen K, Havinga R, van Dijk TH, Oosterveer MH, Jonker JW, Groen AK, Reijngoud D-J, Bakker BM. 2015. Short-chain fatty acids protect against high-fat diet-induced obesity via a PPARγ-dependent switch from lipogenesis to fat oxidation. Diabetes 64:2398-2408 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db14-1213.
160. Wolever TM, Spadafora P, Eshuis H. 1991. Interaction between colonic acetate and propionate in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 53:681-687.
161. Ge H, Li X, Weiszmann J, Wang P, Baribault H, Chen J-L, Tian H, Li Y. 2008. Activation of G protein-coupled receptor 43 in adipocytes leads to inhibition of lipolysis and suppression of plasma free fatty acids. Endocrinology 149:4519-4526 http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2008-0059.
162. Al-Lahham S, Roelofsen H, Rezaee F, Weening D, Hoek A, Vonk R, Venema K. 2012. Propionic acid affects immune status and metabolism in adipose tissue from overweight subjects. Eur J Clin Invest 42:357-364 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2362.2011.02590.x.
163. Gregor MF, Hotamisligil GS. 2011. Inflammatory mechanisms in obesity. Annu Rev Immunol 29:415-445 http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-031210-101322.
164. Jiao J, Xu J-Y, Zhang W, Han S, Qin L-Q. 2015. Effect of dietary fiber on circulating C-reactive protein in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Food Sci Nutr 66:114-119 http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09637486.2014.959898.
165. North CJ, Venter CS, Jerling JC. 2009. The effects of dietary fibre on C-reactive protein, an inflammation marker predicting cardiovascular disease. Eur J Clin Nutr 63:921-933 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2009.8.
166. Piya MK, Harte AL, McTernan PG. 2013. Metabolic endotoxaemia:is it more than just a gut feeling? Curr Opin Lipidol 24:78-85 http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOL.0b013e32835b4431.
167. Lassenius MI, Pietiläinen KH, Kaartinen K, Pussinen PJ, Syrjänen J, Forsblom C, Pörsti I, Rissanen A, Kaprio J, Mustonen J, Groop P-H, Lehto M, FinnDiane Study Group. 2011. Bacterial endotoxin activity in human serum is associated with dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic inflammation. Diabetes Care 34:1809-1815 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc10-2197.
168. Hawkesworth S, Moore SE, Fulford AJ, Barclay GR, Darboe AA, Mark H, Nyan OA, Prentice AM. 2013. Evidence for metabolic endotoxemia in obese and diabetic Gambian women. Nutr Diabetes 3:e83 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nutd.2013.24.
169. Amar J, Burcelin R, Ruidavets JB, Cani PD, Fauvel J, Alessi MC, Chamontin B, Ferriéres J. 2008. Energy intake is associated with endotoxemia in apparently healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr 87:1219-1223.
170. Cani PD, Amar J, Iglesias MA, Poggi M, Knauf C, Bastelica D, Neyrinck AM, Fava F, Tuohy KM, Chabo C, Waget A, Delmée E, Cousin B, Sulpice T, Chamontin B, Ferrières J, Tanti J-F, Gibson GR, Casteilla L, Delzenne NM, Alessi MC, Burcelin R. 2007. Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance. Diabetes 56:1761-1772 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db06-1491.
171. Everard A, Lazarevic V, Derrien M, Girard M, Muccioli GG, Neyrinck AM, Possemiers S, Van Holle A, François P, de Vos WM, Delzenne NM, Schrenzel J, Cani PD. 2011. Responses of gut microbiota and glucose and lipid metabolism to prebiotics in genetic obese and dietinduced leptin-resistant mice. Diabetes 60:2775-2786 http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db11-0227.
172. Neyrinck AM, Possemiers S, Druart C, Van de Wiele T, De Backer F, Cani PD, Larondelle Y, Delzenne NM. 2011. Prebiotic effects of wheat arabinoxylan related to the increase in bifidobacteria, Roseburia and Bacteroides/Prevotella in diet-induced obese mice. PLoS One 6:e20944 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020944.
173. Cani PD, Possemiers S, Van de Wiele T, Guiot Y, Everard A, Rottier O, Geurts L, Naslain D, Neyrinck A, Lambert DM, Muccioli GG, Delzenne NM. 2009. Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut 58:1091-1103 http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.2008.165886.
174. Kelly CJ, Zheng L, Campbell EL, Saeedi B, Scholz CC, Bayless AJ, Wilson KE, Glover LE, Kominsky DJ, Magnuson A, Weir TL, Ehrentraut SF, Pickel C, Kuhn KA, Lanis JM, Nguyen V, Taylor CT, Colgan SP. 2015. Crosstalk between microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids and intestinal epithelial HIF augments tissue barrier function. Cell Host Microbe 17:662-671 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2015.03.005.
175. Saeedi BJ, Kao DJ, Kitzenberg DA, Dobrinskikh E, Schwisow KD, Masterson JC, Kendrick AA, Kelly CJ, Bayless AJ, Kominsky DJ, Campbell EL, Kuhn KA, Furuta GT, Colgan SP, Glover LE. 2015. HIFdependent regulation of claudin-1 is central to intestinal epithelial tight junction integrity. Mol Biol Cell 26:2252-2262 http://dx.doi.org/10.1091/mbc.E14-07-1194.
176. Peng L, He Z, Chen W, Holzman IR, Lin J. 2007. Effects of butyrate on intestinal barrier function in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model of intestinal barrier. Pediatr Res 61:37-41 http://dx.doi.org/10.1203/01.pdr.0000250014.92242.f3.
177. Chen H, Wang W, Degroote J, Possemiers S, Chen D, De Smet S, Michiels J. 2015. Arabinoxylan in wheat is more responsible than cellulose for promoting intestinal barrier function in weaned male piglets. J Nutr 145:51-58 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.114.201772.
178. Gaudier E, Jarry A, Blottière HM, de Coppet P, Buisine M-P, Aubert J-P, Laboisse C, Cherbut C, Hoebler C. 2004. Butyrate specifically modulates MUC gene expression in intestinal epithelial goblet cells deprived of glucose. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 287:G1168-G1174 http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00219.2004.
179. Burger-van Paassen N, Vincent A, Puiman PJ, van der Sluis M, Bouma J, Boehm G, van Goudoever JB, van Seuningen I, Renes IB. 2009. The regulation of intestinal mucin MUC2 expression by short-chain fatty acids: implications for epithelial protection. Biochem J 420:211-219 http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/BJ20082222.
180. Singh N, Gurav A, Sivaprakasam S, Brady E, Padia R, Shi H, Thangaraju M, Prasad PD, Manicassamy S, Munn DH, Lee JR, Offermanns S, Ganapathy V. 2014. Activation of Gpr109a, receptor for niacin and the commensal metabolite butyrate, suppresses colonic inflammation and carcinogenesis. Immunity 40:128-139 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2013.12.007.
181. Nowarski R, Jackson R, Gagliani N, de Zoete MR, Palm NW, Bailis W, Low JS, Harman CCD, Graham M, Elinav E, Flavell RA. 2015. Epithelial IL-18 equilibrium controls barrier function in colitis. Cell 163:1444-1456 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.072.
182. Zeng H, Chi H. 2015. Metabolic control of regulatory T cell development and function. Trends Immunol 36:3-12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2014.08.003.
183. Cipolletta D. 2014. Adipose tissue-resident regulatory T cells: phenotypic specialization, functions and therapeutic potential. Immunology 142:517-525 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/imm.12262.
184. Smith PM, Howitt MR, Panikov N, Michaud M, Gallini CA, Bohlooly-Y M, Glickman JN, Garrett WS. 2013. The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science 341:569-573 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1241165.
185. Arpaia N, Campbell C, Fan X, Dikiy S, van der Veeken J, deRoos P, Liu H, Cross JR, Pfeffer K, Coffer PJ, Rudensky AY. 2013. Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature 504:451-455 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12726.
186. Furusawa Y, Obata Y, Fukuda S, Endo TA, Nakato G, Takahashi D, Nakanishi Y, Uetake C, Kato K, Kato T, Takahashi M, Fukuda NN, Murakami S, Miyauchi E, Hino S, Atarashi K, Onawa S, Fujimura Y, Lockett T, Clarke JM, Topping DL, Tomita M, Hori S, Ohara O, Morita T, Koseki H, Kikuchi J, Honda K, Hase K, Ohno H. 2013. Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells. Nature 504:446-450 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12721.
187. Park J, Kim M, Kang SG, Jannasch AH, Cooper B, Patterson J, Kim CH. 2015. Short-chain fatty acids induce both effector and regulatory T cells by suppression of histone deacetylases and regulation of the mTOR-S6K pathway. Mucosal Immunol 8:80-93 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mi.2014.44.
188. Trompette A, Gollwitzer ES, Yadava K, Sichelstiel AK, Sprenger N, Ngom-Bru C, Blanchard C, Junt T, Nicod LP, Harris NL, Marsland BJ. 2014. Gut microbiota metabolism of dietary fiber influences allergic airway disease and hematopoiesis. Nat Med 20:159-166 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm.3444.
189. Schwarz A, Bruhs A, Schwarz T. 2017. The short-chain fatty acid sodium butyrate functions as a regulator of the skin immune system. J Invest Dermatol 137:855-864 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2016.11.014.
190. Ji J, Shu D, Zheng M, Wang J, Luo C, Wang Y, Guo F, Zou X, Lv X, Li Y, Liu T, Qu H. 2016. Microbial metabolite butyrate facilitates M2 macrophage polarization and function. Sci Rep 6:24838 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep24838.
191. Chang PV, Hao L, Offermanns S, Medzhitov R. 2014. The microbial metabolite butyrate regulates intestinal macrophage function via histone deacetylase inhibition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:2247-2252 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322269111.
192. Kamp ME, Shim R, Nicholls AJ, Oliveira AC, Mason LJ, Binge L, Mackay CR, Wong CHY. 2016. G protein-coupled receptor 43 modulates neutrophil recruitment during acute inflammation. PLoS One 11:e0163750 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163750.
193. Vinolo MAR, Rodrigues HG, Hatanaka E, Sato FT, Sampaio SC, Curi R. 2011. Suppressive effect of short-chain fatty acids on production of proinflammatory mediators by neutrophils. J Nutr Biochem 22:849-855 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2010.07.009.
194. Maslowski KM, Vieira AT, Ng A, Kranich J, Sierro F, Yu D, Schilter HC, Rolph MS, Mackay F, Artis D, Xavier RJ, Teixeira MM, Mackay CR. 2009. Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature 461:1282-1286 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08530.
195. Wu W, Sun M, Chen F, Cao AT, Liu H, Zhao Y, Huang X, Xiao Y, Yao S, Zhao Q, Liu Z, Cong Y. 2017. Microbiota metabolite shortchain fatty acid acetate promotes intestinal IgA response to microbiota which is mediated by GPR43. Mucosal Immunol 10:946-956 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mi.2016.114.
196. Kim M, Qie Y, Park J, Kim CH. 2016. Gut microbial metabolites fuel host antibody responses. Cell Host Microbe 20:202-214 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2016.07.001.
197. Sun J, Furio L, Mecheri R, van der Does AM, Lundeberg E, Saveanu L, Chen Y, van Endert P, Agerberth B, Diana J. 2015. Pancreatic β-cells limit autoimmune diabetes via an immunoregulatory antimicrobial peptide expressed under the influence of the gut microbiota. Immunity 43:304-317 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2015.07.013.
198. Cani PD, Neyrinck AM, Fava F, Knauf C, Burcelin RG, Tuohy KM, Gibson GR, Delzenne NM. 2007. Selective increases of bifidobacteria in gut microflora improve high-fat-diet-induced diabetes in mice through a mechanism associated with endotoxaemia. Diabetologia 50:2374-2383 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-007-0791-0.
199. He B, Nohara K, Ajami NJ, Michalek RD, Tian X, Wong M, Losee-Olson SH, Petrosino JF, Yoo S-H, Shimomura K, Chen Z. 2015. Transmissible microbial and metabolomic remodeling by soluble dietary fiber improves metabolic homeostasis. Sci Rep 5:10604 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep10604.
200. Priyadarshini M, Villa SR, Fuller M, Wicksteed B, Mackay CR, Alquier T, Poitout V, Mancebo H, Mirmira RG, Gilchrist A, Layden BT. 2015. An acetate-specific GPCR, FFAR2, regulates insulin secretion. Mol Endocrinol 29:1055-1066 http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/me.2015-1007.
201. Psichas A, Sleeth ML, Murphy KG, Brooks L, Bewick GA, Hanyaloglu AC, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR, Frost G. 2015. The short chain fatty acid propionate stimulates GLP-1 and PYY secretion via free fatty acid receptor 2 in rodents. Int J Obes 39:424-429 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.153.
202. Brooks L, Viardot A, Tsakmaki A, Stolarczyk E, Howard JK, Cani PD, Everard A, Sleeth ML, Psichas A, Anastasovskaj J, Bell JD, Bell-Anderson K, Mackay CR, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR, Frost G, Bewick GA. 2017. Fermentable carbohydrate stimulates FFAR2-dependent colonic PYY cell expansion to increase satiety. Mol Metab 6:48-60 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2016.10.011.
203. NatarajanN,Hori D, Flavahan S, Steppan J, FlavahanNA, Berkowitz DE, Pluznick JL. 2016. Microbial short chain fatty acid metabolites lower blood pressure via endothelial G-protein coupled receptor 41. Physiol Genomics 48:826-834 http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00089.2016.
204. Macia L, Tan J, Vieira AT, Leach K, Stanley D, Luong S, Maruya M, Ian McKenzie C, Hijikata A, Wong C, Binge L, Thorburn AN, Chevalier N, Ang C, Marino E, Robert R, Offermanns S, Teixeira MM, Moore RJ, Flavell RA, Fagarasan S, Mackay CR. 2015. Metabolite-sensing receptors GPR43 and GPR109A facilitate dietary fibre-induced gut homeostasis through regulation of the inflammasome. Nat Commun 6:6734 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7734.
205. Belkaid Y, Hand TW. 2014. Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation. Cell 157:121-141 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.011.
206. Coates ME. 1975. Gnotobiotic animals in research: their uses and limitations. Lab Anim 9:275-282 http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/002367775780957296.
207. Bäckhed F, Manchester JK, Semenkovich CF, Gordon JI. 2007. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germfree mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:979-984 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605374104.
208. Schwabe RF, Jobin C. 2013. The microbiome and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 13:800-812 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc3610.
209. Sonnenburg JL, Bäckhed F. 2016. Diet-microbiota interactions as moderators of human metabolism. Nature 535:56-64 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature18846.
210. Buyken AE, Goletzke J, Joslowski G, Felbick A, Cheng G, Herder C, Brand-Miller JC. 2014. Association between carbohydrate quality and inflammatory markers: systematic review of observational and interventional studies. Am J Clin Nutr 99:813-833 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.074252.
211. Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Subpart E: Specific Requirements for Health Claims. Report no. 21CFR101. FDA, College Park, MD.
212. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products Nutrition and Allergies. 2015. Scientific opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to "native chicory inulin" and maintenance of normal defecation by increasing stool frequency pursuant to Article 13.5 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA J 13:3951 http://dx.doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.3951.
213. Clarke ST, Green-Johnson JM, Brooks SPJ, Ramdath DD, Bercik P, Avila C, Inglis GD, Green J, Yanke LJ, Selinger LB, Kalmokoff M. 2016. β2-1 fructan supplementation alters host immune responses in a manner consistent with increased exposure to microbial components: results from a double-blinded, randomised, cross-over study in healthy adults. Br J Nutr 115:1748-1759 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516000908.
214. Lambert JE, Parnell JA, Tunnicliffe JM, Han J, Sturzenegger T, Reimer RA. 2017. Consuming yellow pea fiber reduces voluntary energy intake and body fat in overweight/obese adults in a 12-week randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr 36:126-133 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.12.016.
215. Vanegas SM, Meydani M, Barnett JB, Goldin B, Kane A, Rasmussen H, Brown C, Vangay P, Knights D, Jonnalagadda S, Koecher K, Karl JP, Thomas M, Dolnikowski G, Li L, Saltzman E, Wu D, Meydani SN. 2017. Substituting whole grains for refined grains in a 6-wk randomized trial has a modest effect on gut microbiota and immune and inflammatory markers of healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 105:635-650 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.146928.
216. Nicolucci AC, Hume MP, Martínez I, Mayengbam S, Walter J, Reimer RA. 2017. Prebiotic reduces body fat and alters intestinal microbiota in children with overweight or obesity. Gastroenterology. [Epub ahead of print.] doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2017.05.055.
217. Collado Yurrita L, San Mauro Martín I, Ciudad-Cabañas MJ, Calle-Purón ME, Hernández Cabria M. 2014. Effectiveness of inulin intake on indicators of chronic constipation; a meta-analysis of controlled randomized clinical trials. Nutr Hosp 30:244-252.
218. Brighenti F. 2007. Dietary fructans and serum triacylglycerols: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Nutr 137(Suppl):2552S-2556S.
219. Liu F, Prabhakar M, Ju J, Long H, Zhou HW. 2017. Effect of inulintype fructans on blood lipid profile and glucose level: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Clin Nutr 71:9-20 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.156.
220. Fechner A, Kiehntopf M, Jahreis G. 2014. The formation of shortchain fatty acids is positively associated with the blood lipid-lowering effect of lupin kernel fiber in moderately hypercholesterolemic adults. J Nutr 144:599-607 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.113.186858.
221. Buttó LF, Haller D. 2017. Functional relevance of microbiome signatures: the correlation era requires tools for consolidation. J AllergyClin Immunol 139:1092-1098 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.02.010.
222. Kovatcheva-Datchary P, Nilsson A, Akrami R, Lee YS, De Vadder F, Arora T, Hallen A, Martens E, Björck I, Bäckhed F. 2015. Dietary fiberinduced improvement in glucose metabolism is associated with increased abundance of Prevotella. Cell Metab 22:971-982 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.10.001.
223. Freeland KR, Wolever TMS. 2010. Acute effects of intravenous and rectal acetate on glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY, ghrelin, adiponectin and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Br J Nutr 103:460-466 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114509991863.
224. van der Beek CM, Canfora EE, Lenaerts K, Troost FJ, Olde Damink SWM, Holst JJ, Masclee AAM, Dejong CHC, Blaak EE. 2016. Distal, not proximal, colonic acetate infusions promote fat oxidation and improve metabolic markers in overweight/obese men. Clin Sci (Lond) 130:2073-2082 http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CS20160263.
225. Livingston KA, Chung M, Sawicki CM, Lyle BJ, Wang DD, Roberts SB, McKeown NM. 2016. Development of a publicly available, comprehensive database of fiber and health outcomes: rationale and methods. PLoS One 11:e0156961 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156961.
226. Saura-Calixto F. 2011. Dietary fiber as a carrier of dietary antioxidants:an essential physiological function. J Agric Food Chem 59:43-49 http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf1036596.
227. Vitaglione P, Mennella I, Ferracane R, Rivellese AA, Giacco R, Ercolini D, Gibbons SM, La Storia A, Gilbert JA, Jonnalagadda S, Thielecke F, Gallo MA, Scalfi L, Fogliano V. 2015. Whole-grain wheat consumption reduces inflammation in a randomized controlled trial on overweight and obese subjects with unhealthy dietary and lifestyle behaviors: role of polyphenols bound to cereal dietary fiber. Am J Clin Nutr 101:251-261 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.088120.
228. Quirós-Sauceda AE, Palafox-Carlos H, Sáyago-Ayerdi SG, Ayala-Zavala JF, Bello-Perez LA, Alvarez-Parrilla E, de la Rosa LA, González-Córdova AF, González-Aguilar GA. 2014. Dietary fiber and phenolic compounds as functional ingredients: interaction and possible effect after ingestion. Food Funct 5:1063-1072 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C4FO00073K.
229. Jacobs DR Jr, Tapsell LC. 2007. Food, not nutrients, is the fundamental unit in nutrition. Nutr Rev 65:439-450.
230. Cardona F, Andrés-Lacueva C, Tulipani S, Tinahones FJ, Queipo-Ortuño MI. 2013. Benefits of polyphenols on gut microbiota and implications in human health. J Nutr Biochem 24:1415-1422 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2013.05.001.
231. O'Keefe SJD, Li JV, Lahti L, Ou J, Carbonero F, Mohammed K, Posma JM, Kinross J, Wahl E, Ruder E, Vipperla K, Naidoo V, Mtshali L, Tims S, Puylaert PGB, DeLany J, Krasinskas A, Benefiel AC, Kaseb HO, Newton K, Nicholson JK, de Vos WM, Gaskins HR, Zoetendal EG. 2015. Fat, fibre and cancer risk in African Americans and rural Africans. Nat Commun 6:6342 http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7342.
232. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Popovich DG, Vidgen E, Mehling CC, Vuksan V, Ransom TP, Rao AV, Rosenberg-Zand R, Tariq N, Corey P, Jones PJ, Raeini M, Story JA, Furumoto EJ, Illingworth DR, Pappu AS, Connelly PW. 2001. Effect of a very-high-fiber vegetable, fruit, and nut diet on serum lipids and colonic function. Metabolism 50:494-503 http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/meta.2001.21037.
233. Kendall CW, Esfahani A, Jenkins DJ. 2010. The link between dietary fibre and human health. Food Hydrocoll 24:42-48 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.08.002.
234. Delcour JA, Aman P, Courtin CM, Hamaker BR, Verbeke K. 2016. Prebiotics, fermentable dietary fiber, and health claims. Adv Nutr 7:1-4 http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.115.010546.
235. Martínez I, Perdicaro DJ, Brown AW, Hammons S, Carden TJ, Carr TP, Eskridge KM, Walter J. 2013. Diet-induced alterations of host cholesterol metabolism are likely to affect the gut microbiota composition in hamsters. Appl Environ Microbiol 79:516-524 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03046-12.
236. Carding S, Verbeke K, Vipond DT, Corfe BM, Owen LJ. 2015. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota in disease. Microb Ecol Health Dis 26:26191.
237. Bindels LB, Segura Munoz RR, Gomes-Neto JC, Mutemberezi V, Martínez I, Salazar N, Cody EA, Quintero-Villegas MI, Kittana H, de Los Reyes-Gavilán CG, Schmaltz RJ, Muccioli GG, Walter J, Ramer-Tait AE. 2017. Resistant starch can improve insulin sensitivity independently of the gut microbiota. Microbiome 5:12 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40168-017-0230-5.
238. Burkitt DP, Walker ARP, Painter NS. 1972. Effect of dietary fibre on stools and the transit-times, and its role in the causation of disease. Lancet 2:1408-1411 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(72)92974-1.
239. Falony G, Joossens M, Vieira-Silva S, Wang J, Darzi Y, Faust K, Kurilshikov A, Bonder MJ, Valles-Colomer M, Vandeputte D, Tito RY, Chaffron S, Rymenans L, Verspecht C, De Sutter L, Lima-Mendez G, D'hoe K, Jonckheere K, Homola D, Garcia R, Tigchelaar EF, Eeckhaudt L, Fu J, Henckaerts L, Zhernakova A, Wijmenga C, Raes J. 2016. Population- level analysis of gut microbiome variation. Science 352:560-564 http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aad3503.
240. Cameron-Smith D, Collier GR, O'Dea K. 1994. Effect of soluble dietary fibre on the viscosity of gastrointestinal contents and the acute glycaemic response in the rat. Br J Nutr 71:563-571 http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/BJN19940163.
241. Dikeman CL, Murphy MR, Fahey GCJ Jr. 2006. Dietary fibers affect viscosity of solutions and simulated human gastric and small intestinal digesta. J Nutr 136:913-919.
242. Ferguson LR,Harris PJ. 2001. Adsorption of carcinogens by dietary fiber, p 207-213. In Cho SS, Dreher ML (ed), Hand-book of Dietary Fiber. Marcel Dekker, New York, NY. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780203904220.ch14
243. Gunness P, Gidley MJ. 2010. Mechanisms underlying the cholesterol- lowering properties of soluble dietary fibre polysaccharides. Food Funct 1:149-155 http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c0fo00080a.
244. Anderson JW, Baird P, Davis RHJ Jr, Ferreri S, Knudtson M, Koraym A, Waters V, Williams CL. 2009. Health benefits of dietary fiber. Nutr Rev 67:188-205 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00189.x.
245. Li T, Chiang JYL. 2014. Bile acid signaling in metabolic disease and drug therapy. Pharmacol Rev 66:948-983 http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/pr.113.008201.
246. Shepherd R, Shepherd R. 2002. Resistance to changes in diet. Proc Nutr Soc 61:267-272 http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/PNS2002147.
247. Yang L, Lu X, Nossa CW, Francois F, Peek RM, Pei Z. 2009. Inflammation and intestinal metaplasia of the distal esophagus are associated with alterations in the microbiome. Gastroenterology 137:588-597 http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2009.04.046.
248. Wu T, Zhang Z, Liu B, Hou D, Liang Y, Zhang J, Shi P. 2013. Gut microbiota dysbiosis and bacterial community assembly associated with cholesterol gallstones in large-scale study. BMC Genomics 14:669 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-14-669.