Intergroup Perception and Cognition: An Integrative Framework for Understanding the Causes and Consequences of Social Categorization

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 55, Issue , 2017, Pages 1-80

  Kawakami, K ^a   Amodio, D M ^b   Hugenberg, K ^c  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c MIAMI UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Face perception social neuroscience; Implicit biases; Intergroup processes; Prejudice; Stereotyping

Indexed keywords

CLASSIFICATION; DECISION MAKING; EMPATHY; FACIAL RECOGNITION; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; INTERGROUP BIAS; NEUROSCIENCE; PREJUDICE; STEREOTYPING; STEREOTYPY;

EID: 85008506958     PISSN: 00652601     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.10.001     Document Type: Chapter

References (421)

1. Aberson, C.L., Porter, M.K., Gaffney, A.M., Friendships influence Hispanic students’ implicit attitudes toward white non-Hispanics relative to African Americans. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 30 (2008), 544–556.
2. Ackerman, J.M., Becker, D.V., Mortensen, C.R., Sasaki, T., Neuberg, S.L., Kenrick, D.T., A pox on the mind: Disjunction of attention and memory in processing physical disfigurement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (2009), 478–485.
3. Adams, R.B. Jr., Ambady, N., Nakayama, K., Shimojo, S., The science of social vision. 2010, Oxford University Press, New York.
4. Adams, R.B., Hess, U., Kleck, R.E., The intersection of gender-related facial appearance and facial displays of emotion. Emotion Review 7 (2015), 5–13.
5. Adolphs, R., Recognizing emotion from facial expressions: Psychological and neurological mechanisms. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews 1 (2002), 21–62.
6. Agerstrom, J., Rooth, D., The role of automatic obesity stereotypes in real hiring discrimination. Journal of Applied Psychology 96 (2011), 790–805.
7. Alaei, R., Rule, N.O., Accuracy of perceiving social attributes. Hall, J.A., Schmid Mast, M., West, T.V., (eds.) The social psychology of perceiving others accurately, 2016, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 125–142.
8. Allport, G.W., The nature of prejudice. 1954, Perseus, Washington, DC.
9. Allport, G.W., Kramer, B.M., Some roots of prejudice. Journal of Psychology 22 (1946), 9–39.
10. Amodio, D.M., The social neuroscience of intergroup relations. European Review of Social Psychology 19 (2008), 1–54.
11. Amodio, D.M., Intergroup anxiety effects on the control of racial stereotypes: A psychoneuroendocrine analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (2009), 60–67.
12. Amodio, D.M., Coordinated roles of motivation and perception in the regulation of intergroup responses: Frontal cortical asymmetry effects on the P2 event-related potential and behavior. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22 (2010), 2609–2617.
13. Amodio, D.M., The neuroscience of prejudice and stereotyping. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 15 (2014), 670–682.
14. Amodio, D.M., Dual experiences, multiple processes: Looking beyond dualities for mechanisms of the mind. Sherman, J.S., Gawronski, B., Trope, Y., (eds.) Dual process theories of the social mind, 2014, Guilford Press, New York, 560–576.
15. Amodio, D.M., Bartholow, B.D., Event-related potential methods in social cognition. Voss, A., Stahl, C., Klauer, C., (eds.) Cognitive methods in social psychology, 2011, Guilford Press, New York, 303–339.
16. Amodio, D.M., Bartholow, B.D., Ito, T.A., Tracking the dynamics of the social brain: ERP approaches for social cognitive and affective neuroscience. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 9 (2014), 385–393.
17. Amodio, D.M., Devine, P.G., Stereotyping and evaluation in implicit race bias: Evidence for independent constructs and unique effects on behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006), 652–661.
18. Amodio, D.M., Devine, P.G., On the interpersonal functions of implicit stereotyping and evaluative race bias: Insights from social neuroscience. Petty, R.E., Fazio, R.H., Briñol, P., (eds.) Attitudes: Insights from the new wave of implicit measures, 2008, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 193–226.
19. Amodio, D.M., Devine, P.G., Regulating behavior in the social world: Control in the context of intergroup bias. Hassin, R.R., Ochsner, K.N., Trope, Y., (eds.) Self control in society, mind and brain, 2010, Oxford University Press, New York, 49–75.
20. Amodio, D.M., Devine, P.G., Harmon-Jones, E., A dynamic model of guilt: Implications for motivation and self-regulation in the context of prejudice. Psychological Science 18 (2007), 524–530.
21. Amodio, D.M., Devine, P.G., Harmon-Jones, E., Individual differences in the regulation of intergroup bias: The role of conflict monitoring and neural signals for control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008), 60–74.
22. Amodio, D.M., Frith, C.D., Meeting of minds: The medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7 (2006), 268–277.
23. Amodio, D.M., Hamilton, H.K., Intergroup anxiety effects on implicit racial evaluation and stereotyping. Emotion 12 (2012), 1273–1280.
24. Amodio, D.M., Harmon-Jones, E., Devine, P.G., Individual differences in the activation and control of affective race bias as assessed by startle eyeblink responses and self-report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003), 738–753.
25. Amodio, D.M., Harmon-Jones, E., Devine, P.G., Curtin, J.J., Hartley, S.L., Covert, A.E., Neural signals for the detection of unintentional race bias. Psychological Science 15 (2004), 88–93.
26. Amodio, D.M., Jost, J.T., Master, S.L., Yee, C.M., Neurocognitive correlates of liberalism and conservatism. Nature Neuroscience 10 (2007), 1246–1247.
27. Amodio, D.M., Kubota, J.T., Harmon-Jones, E., Devine, P.G., Alternative mechanisms for regulating racial responses according to internal vs. external cues. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 1 (2006), 26–36.
28. Amodio, D.M., Mendoza, S.A., Implicit intergroup bias: Cognitive, affective, and motivational underpinnings. Gawronski, B., Payne, B.K., (eds.) Handbook of implicit social cognition, 2010, Guilford, New York, 353–374.
29. Amodio, D.M., Ratner, K.G., A memory systems model of implicit social cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science 20 (2011), 143–148.
30. Apfelbaum, E.P., Sommers, S.R., Norton, M.I., Seeing race and seeming racist? Evaluating strategic colorblindness in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008), 918–932.
31. Argyle, M., Cook, M., Gaze and mutual gaze. 1976, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
32. Aron, A., Aron, E.N., Smollan, D., Inclusion of the other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1992), 596–612.
33. Aronson, E., Blaney, N.T., Stephan, C., Rosenfeld, R., Sikes, J., Interdependence in the classroom: A field study. Journal of Educational Psychology 69 (1977), 121–128.
34. Aronson, E., Bridgeman, D., Jigsaw groups and the desegregated classroom: In pursuit of common goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 5 (1979), 438–446.
35. Ashburn-Nardo, L., Knowles, M.L., Monteith, M.J., Black Americans’ implicit racial associations and their implications for intergroup judgment. Social Cognition 21 (2003), 61–87.
36. Balcetis, E., Dunning, D., See what you want to see: Motivational influences on visual perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006), 612–625.
37. Balcetis, E., Lassiter, G.D., Social psychology of visual perception. 2010, Psychology Press, New York.
38. Baldwin, M., Keefer, L.A., Gravelin, C.R., Biernat, M., Perceived importance of cross-race targets facilitate recall: Support for a motivated account of race memory. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 16 (2013), 505–515.
39. Bar, M., Kassam, K., Ghuman, A., Boshyan, J., Dale, A., Hämäläinen, M., et al. Top-down facilitation of visual recognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (2006), 449–454.
40. Barden, J., Maddux, W.W., Petty, R.E., Brewer, M.B., Contextual moderation of racial bias: The impact of social roles on controlled and automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (2004), 5–22.
41. Bargh, J.A., Chen, M., Burrows, L., Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (1996), 230–244.
42. Bargh, J.A., Williams, L.E., The automaticity of social life. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15 (2006), 1–4.
43. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Jolliffe, T., Is there a “language of the eyes”? Evidence from normal adults, and adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. Visual Cognition 4 (1997), 311–331.
44. Bartholow, B.D., Dickter, C.L., Sestir, M.A., Stereotype activation and control of race bias: Cognitive control of inhibition and its impairment by alcohol. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006), 272–287.
45. Barton, J.J.S., Press, D.Z., Keenan, J.P., O'Connor, M., Lesions of the fusiform area impair perception of facial configuration in prosopagnosia. Neurology 58 (2002), 71–78.
46. Baumeister, R.F., Vohs, K.D., Funder, D.C., Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior?. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2 (2007), 396–403.
47. Bean, M., Slaten, D., Horton, W., Murphy, M., Todd, A., Richeson, J., Prejudice concerns and race-based attentional bias: New evidence from Eye tracking. Social Psychological and Personality Science 3 (2012), 722–729.
48. Becker, D.V., Kenrick, D.T., Neuberg, S.L., Blackwell, K.C., Smith, D.M., The confounded nature of angry men and happy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007), 179–190.
49. Beer, J.S., Stallen, M., Lombardo, M.V., Gonsalkorale, K., Cunningham, W.A., Sherman, J.W., The quadruple process model approach to examining the neural underpinnings of prejudice. NeuroImage 43 (2008), 775–783.
50. Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E., McCarthy, G., Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8 (1996), 551–565.
51. Bernard, P., Gervais, S.J., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S., Klein, O., Integrating sexual objectification with object versus person recognition: The sexualized-body-inversion hypothesis. Psychological Science 23 (2012), 469–471.
52. Bernieri, F.J., Coordinated movement and rapport in teacher–student interactions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 12 (1988), 120–138.
53. Bernstein, M.J., Young, S.G., Brown, C.M., Sacco, D.F., Claypool, H.M., Adaptive responses to social exclusion: Social rejection improves detection of real and fake smiles. Psychological Science 19 (2008), 981–983.
54. Bernstein, M.J., Young, S.G., Hugenberg, K., The cross-category effect: Mere social categorization is sufficient to elicit an own-group bias in face recognition. Psychological Science 18 (2007), 709–712.
55. Berry, D.S., McArthur, L.Z., Perceiving character in faces: The impact of age-related craniofacial changes on social perception. Psychological Bulletin 100 (1986), 3–18.
56. Bijlstra, G., Holland, R.W., Dotsch, R., Hugenberg, K., Wigboldus, D.H.J., Stereotype associations and emotion recognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 40 (2014), 567–577.
57. Blair, I.V., The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review 6 (2002), 242–261.
58. Blair, I.V., Banaji, M.R., Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996), 1142–1163.
59. Blair, I.V., Judd, C.M., Chapleau, K.M., The influence of Afrocentric facial features in criminal sentencing. Psychological Science 15 (2004), 674–679.
60. Blair, I.V., Judd, C.M., Sadler, M.S., Jenkins, C., The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002), 5–25.
61. Bosson, J.K., Swann, W.B. Jr., Pennebaker, J., Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000), 631–643.
62. Botvinick, M.M., Braver, T.S., Barch, D.M., Carter, C.S., Cohen, J.D., Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review 108 (2001), 624–652.
63. Botvinick, M., Cohen, J., Rubber hands “feel” touch that eyes see. Nature, 391, 1998, 756.
64. Brauer, M., Er-rafiy, A., Increasing perceived variability reduces prejudice and discrimination. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011), 871–877.
65. Brauer, M., Er-rafiy, A., Kawakami, K., Phills, C.E., Describing a group in positive terms reduces prejudice less effectively than describing it in positive and negative terms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012), 757–761.
66. Brewer, M.B., A dual-process model of impression formation. Srull, T., Wyer, R., (eds.) Advances in social cognition, Vol. 1, 1988, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1–36.
67. Brewer, M.B., Silver, M., Ingroup bias as a function of task characteristics. European Journal of Social Psychology 8 (1978), 393–400.
68. Briñol, P., Petty, R.E., The history of attitudes and persuasion research. Kruglanski, A., Stroebe, W., (eds.) Handbook of the history of social psychology, 2012, Psychology Press, New York, 285–320.
69. Brody, L.R., Hall, J.A., Gender, emotion, and expression. Lewis, M., Haviland, J.M., (eds.) Handbook of emotions, 2nd ed., 2000, Guilford Press, New York, NY, 447–460.
70. Bruner, J.S., Postman, L., On the perception of incongruity: A paradigm. Journal of Personality 18 (1949), 206–223.
71. Butz, D., Yogeeswaran, K., A new threat in the air: Macroeconomic threat increases prejudice against Asian Americans. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011), 22–27.
72. Caldara, R., Rossion, B., Bovet, P., Hauert, C., Event-related potentials and time course of the “other-race” face classification advantage. NeuroReport, 15, 2004, 905.
73. Caldara, R., Thut, G., Servoir, P., Michel, C., Bovet, P., Renault, B., Face versus non-face object perception and the “other-race” effect: A spatio-temporal ERP study. Clinical Neurophysiology 114 (2003), 515–528.
74. Campbell, D.T., Ethnocentric and other altruistic motives, 1965, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.
75. Cañadas, E., Lupiáñez, J., Kawakami, K., Niedenthal, P.M., Rodríguez-Bailón, R., Perceiving emotions: Cueing social categorization processes and attentional control through facial expressions. Cognition and Emotion 30 (2015), 1149–1163.
76. Cañadas, E., Rodríguez-Bailón, R., Milliken, B., Lupiáñez, J., Social Categories as a context for the allocation of attentional control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 142 (2013), 934–943.
77. Cappella, J.N., Panalp, S., Talk and silence sequences in informal conversations: III Interspeaker influence. Human Communication Research 7 (1981), 117–132.
78. Cassidy, B. S., Krendl, A. C., Stanko, K. A., Rydell, R. J., Hugenberg, K., & Young, S. G. (under review). Configural face processing impacts race disparities in humanization and trust. Unpublished manuscript.
79. Cesario, J., Grant, H., Higgins, E.T., Regulatory fit and persuasion: Transfer from “feeling right.”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004), 388–404.
80. Chartrand, T.L., Bargh, J.A., The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (1999), 893–910.
81. Chartrand, T.L., Maddux, W.W., Lakin, J.K., Beyond the perception-behavior link: The ubiquitous utility and motivational mediators of nonconscious mimicry. Hassin, R.R., Uleman, J.S., Bargh, J.A., (eds.) The new unconscious, 2005, Oxford University Press, New York, 334–361.
82. Chen, M., Bargh, J.A., Nonconscious behavioral confirmation processes: The self-fulfilling consequences of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (1997), 541–560.
83. Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R.J., Thorne, A., Walker, M.R., Freeman, S., Sloan, L.R., Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976), 366–375.
84. Cialdini, R.B., Richardson, K.D., Two indirect tactics of image management: Basking and blasting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980), 406–415.
85. Cikara, M., Botvinick, M.M., Fiske, S.T., Us versus them: Social identity shapes neural responses to intergroup competition and harm. Psychological Science 22 (2011), 306–313.
86. Cikara, M., Bruneau, E.G., Van Bavel, J.J., Saxe, R., Their pain gives us pleasure: How intergroup dynamics shape empathic failures and counter-empathic responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 55 (2014), 110–125.
87. Cikara, M., Fiske, S.T., Bounded empathy: Neural responses to ougroup targets’ (mis)fortunes. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23 (2011), 3791–3803.
88. Cikara, M., Fiske, S.T., Their pain, our pleasure: Stereotype content and schadenfreude. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 1299 (2013), 52–59.
89. Cloutier, J., Mason, M.F., Macrae, C.N., The perceptual determinants of person construal: Reopening the social-cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005), 885–894.
90. Contreras, J.M., Banaji, M.R., Mitchell, J.P., Dissociable neural correlates of stereotypes and other forms of semantic knowledge. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 7 (2012), 764–770.
91. Correll, J., Park, B., A model of the ingroup as a social resource. Personality and Social Psychology Review 9 (2005), 341–359.
92. Correll, J., Urland, G., Ito, T., Event-related potentials and the decision to shoot: The role of threat perception and cognitive control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006), 120–128.
93. Cox, W.T.L., Devine, P.G., Bischmann, A.A., Hyde, J., Inferences about sexual orientation: The role of stereotypes, faces, and the gaydar myth. Journal of Sex Research 53 (2015), 157–171.
94. Craemer, T., Shaw, T.C., Edwards, C., Jefferson, H., ‘Race still matters, however…’: Implicit identification with blacks, pro-black policy support and the Obama candidacy. Ethnic and Racial Studies 36 (2013), 1047–1069.
95. Crandall, C.S., Eshleman, A., O'Brien, L., Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002), 359–378.
96. Cutting, J.E., Generation of synthetic male and female walkers through manipulation of a biomechanical invariant. Perception 7 (1978), 393–405.
97. Cvencek, D., Greenwald, A.G., Meltzoff, A.N., Balanced identity theory: Review of evidence for implicit consistency in social cognition. Gawronski, B., Strack, F., Gawronski, B., Strack, F., (eds.) Cognitive consistency: A fundamental principle in social cognition, 2012, Guilford Press, New York, NY, 157–177.
98. Dasgupta, N., Asgari, S., Seeing is believing: Exposure to counterstereotypic women leaders and its effect on the malleability of automatic gender stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40 (2004), 642–658.
99. Dasgupta, N., Greenwald, A.G., Exposure to admired group members reduces automatic intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001), 800–814.
100. Dasgupta, N., Greenwald, A.G., On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001), 800–814.
101. Dasgupta, N., Rivera, L.M., When social context matters: The influence of long-term contact and short-term exposure to admired group members on implicit attitudes and behavioral intentions. Social Cognition 26 (2008), 112–123.
102. DeLozier, S., Rhodes, M.G., The impact of value-directed remembering on the own-race bias. Acta Psychologica 154 (2015), 62–68.
103. Deska, J.D., Lloyd, E.P., Hugenberg, K., Advancing our understanding of the interface between perception and intergroup relations. Psychological Inquiry 27 (2016), 286–289.
104. Deska, J. D., Lloyd, E. P., & Hugenberg, K. (under review-a). Facing humanness: Facial width-to-height ratio predicts ascriptions of humanness. Invited for resubmission to Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Unpublished manuscript.
105. Deska, J. D., Lloyd, E. P., & Hugenberg, K. (under review-b). Facial width-to-height ratio influences the extraction of anger and fear signals. Unpublished manuscript.
106. Devine, P.G., Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1989), 5–18.
107. Devine, P.G., Forscher, P.S., Austin, A.T., Cox, W.T.L., Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012), 1267–1278.
108. Devine, P.G., Monteith, M.J., The role of discrepancy associated affect in prejudice reduction. Macke, D.M., Hamilton, D.L., (eds.) Affect cognition and stereotyping: Interactive processes in intergroup perception, 1993, Academic Press, San Diego, FL, 317–344.
109. Devine, P.G., Plant, E.A., Amodio, D.M., Harmon-Jones, E., Vance, S.L., The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002), 835–848.
110. Donders, N.C., Correll, J., Wittenbrink, B., Danger stereotypes predict racially biased attentional location. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008), 1328–1333.
111. Dotsch, R., Wigboldus, D.H., Langner, O., van Knippenberg, A., Ethnic out-group faces are biased in the prejudiced mind. Psychological Science, 19, 2008, 978.
112. Dovidio, J., Brigham, J., Johnson, B., Gaertner, S., Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination: Another look. Macrae, N., Stangor, C., Hewstone, M., (eds.) Stereotypes and stereotyping, 1996, Guilford Press, New York, 276–319.
113. Dovidio, J.F., Gaertner, S.L., Kawakami, K., Intergroup contact: The past, present and the future. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 6 (2003), 5–21.
114. Dovidio, J.F., Gaertner, S.L., Kawakami, K., Racism. Dovidio, J.F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., Esses, V.M., (eds.) Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination, 2010, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 312–327.
115. Dovidio, J.F., Gaertner, S.L., Kawakami, K., Hodson, G., Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 8 (2002), 88–102.
116. Dovidio, J.F., Kawakami, K., Gaertner, S.L., Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002), 62–68.
117. Dovidio, J.F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., Howard, A., On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (1997), 510–540.
118. Dovidio, J.F., Kawakami, K., Smoak, N., Gaertner, S.L., The roles of implicit and explicit processes in contemporary prejudice. Petty, R.E., Fazio, R.H., Briñol, P., (eds.) Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures, 2009, Psychology Press, New York, 165–192.
119. Dunham, Y., An angry = outgroup effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011), 668–671.
120. Dunham, Y., Stepanova, E.V., Dotsch, R., Todorov, A., The development of race-based perceptual categorization: Skin color dominates early category judgments. Developmental Science 18 (2015), 469–483.
121. Dunn, E.W., Ashton-James, C.E., On emotional innumeracy: Predicted and actual affective responses to grand-scale tragedies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008), 692–698.
122. Dunning, D., Balcetis, E., Wishful seeing: How preferences shape visual perception. Current Directions in Psychological Science 22 (2013), 33–37.
123. Eagly, A.H., Mladinic, A., Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. Stroebe, W., Hewstone, M., (eds.) European review of social psychology, Vol. 5, 1994, Wiley, New York, 1–35.
124. Eberhardt, J.L., Dasgupta, N., Banaszynski, T.L., Believing is seeing: The effects of racial labels and implicit beliefs on face perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003), 360–370.
125. Eberhardt, J.L., Davies, P.G., Purdie-Vaughns, V.J., Johnson, S.L., Looking deathworthy: Perceived stereotypicality of black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychological Science 17 (2006), 383–386.
126. Ebner, N.C., He, Y., Fichtenholtz, H.M., McCarthy, G., Johnson, M.K., Electrophysiological correlates of processing faces of younger and older individuals. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 6 (2011), 526–535.
127. Elfenbein, H.A., Ambady, N., On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002), 203–235.
128. Elfenbein, H.A., Beaupre, M., Levesque, M., Hess, U., Toward a dialect theory: Cultural differences in the expression and recognition of posed facial expressions. Emotion 7 (2007), 131–146.
129. Esses, V.M., Haddock, G., Zanna, M.P., Values, stereotypes, and emotions as determinants of intergroup attitudes. Mackie, D.M., Hamilton, D.L., (eds.) Affect, cognition and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception, 1993, Academic Press, San Diego, 137–166.
130. Esses, V.M., Jackson, L.M., Armstrong, T.L., Intergroup competition and attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: An instrumental model of group conflict. Journal of Social Issues 54 (1998), 699–724.
131. Fabes, R.A., Martin, C.L., Gender and age stereotypes of emotionality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991), 532–540.
132. Fairhall, S.L., Ishai, A., Effective connectivity within the distributed cortical network for face perception. Cerebral Cortex 17 (2007), 2400–2406.
133. Farmer, H., Tajadura-Jiménez, A., Tsakiris, M., Beyond the color of my skin: How skin color affects the sense of body-ownership. Consciousness and Cognition 21 (2012), 1242–1256.
134. Fazio, R.H., Jackson, J.R., Dunton, B.C., Williams, C.J., Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995), 1013–1027.
135. Fazio, R.H., Sanbonmatsu, D.M., Powell, M.C., Kardes, F.R., On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986), 229–238.
136. Festinger, L., A theory of cognitive dissonance. 1957, Stanford University Press, California.
137. Fincher, K.M., Tetlock, P.E., Perceptual dehumanization of faces is activated by norm violations and facilitates norm enforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145 (2016), 131–146.
138. Firestone, C., & Scholl, B. J. (in press). Cognition does not affect perception: Evaluating the evidence for ‘top-down’ effects. Behavioral and Brain Sciences.
139. Fishbach, A., Dhar, R., Zhang, Y., Subgoals as substitutes or complements: The role of goal accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006), 232–242.
140. Fishbach, A., Zhang, Y., Together or apart: When goals and temptations complement versus compete. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008), 547–559.
141. Fiske, S.T., Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination., 4th ed. Gilbert, D.T., Fiske, S.T., Lindzey, G., (eds.) Handbook of social psychology, Vol. 2, 1998, McGraw-Hill, New York, 357–411 (4th ed.). (pp. 357-411).
142. Fiske, S.T., Neuberg, S.L., A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Olson, J.M., Zanna, M.P., (eds.) Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 44, 1990, Academic Press, New York, 1–74.
143. Freeman, J.B., Ambady, N., A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. Psychological Review 118 (2011), 247–279.
144. Freeman, J., Ambady, N., Holcomb, P., The face-sensitive N170 encodes social category information. NeuroReport 21 (2010), 24–28.
145. Freeman, J.B., Johnson, K.L., More than meets the eye: Split-second social perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 20 (2016), 362–374.
146. Freeman, J.B., Johnson, K.L., Ambady, N., Rule, N.O., Sexual orientation perception involves gendered facial cues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (2010), 1318–1331.
147. Freeman, J.B., Penner, A.M., Saperstein, A., Scheutz, M., Ambady, N., Looking the part: Social status cues shape race perception. PLoS One, 6, 2011, e25107.
148. French, A.R., Franz, T.M., Phelan, L.L., Blaine, B.E., Reducing Muslim/Arab stereotypes through evaluative conditioning. The Journal of Social Psychology 153 (2013), 6–9.
149. Fridlund, A.J., Human facial expression: An evolutionary view. 1994, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
150. Friesen, J., Kawakami, K., Caprara, R., Sidhu, D., Hugenberg, K., Rodriguez-Bailón, R., et al. (under review). Emotion identification bias: Impact of attention to the eyes on decoding true and false smiles on ingroup and outgroup faces. Unpublished manuscript.
151. Frischen, A., Bayliss, A.P., Tipper, S.P., Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin 133 (2007), 694–724.
152. Gabriel, S., Kawakami, K., Bartak, C., Kang, S., Mann, N., Negative self-synchronization: Will I change to be like you when it is bad for me?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010), 857–871.
153. Gaertner, S.L., Dovidio, J.F., Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. 2000, Psychology Press, Philadelphia.
154. Galinksy, A.D., Moskowitz, G.B., Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and ingroup-favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (2000), 708–724.
155. Galinsky, A.D., Ku, G., Wang, C.S., Perspective-taking and self-other overlap: Fostering social bonds and facilitating social coordination. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 8 (2005), 109–124.
156. Galinsky, A.D., Wang, C.S., Ku, G., Perspective-takers behave more stereotypically. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008), 404–419.
157. Gallate, J., Wong, C., Ellwood, S., Chi, R., Snyder, A., Noninvasive brain stimulation reduces prejudice scores on an implicit association test. Neuropsychology 25 (2011), 185–192.
158. Gauthier, I., Curran, T., Curby, K.M., Collins, D., Perceptual interference supports a non-modular account of face processing. Nature Neuroscience 6 (2003), 428–523.
159. Gauthier, I., Tarr, M.J., Moylan, J., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J.C., Anderson, A.W., The fusiform “face area” is part of a network that processes faces at the individual level. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (2000), 495–504.
160. Gawronski, B., Deutsch, R., Mbirkou, S., Seibt, B., Strack, F., When “Just Say No” is not enough: Affirmative versus negation training and the reduction of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008), 370–377.
161. Gawronski, B., Payne, K.B., (eds.) Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications, 2011, Guildford Press, New York.
162. Gawronski, B., Strack, F., (eds.) Cognitive consistency: A fundamental principle in social cognition, 2012, Guilford Press, New York, NY.
163. Gilbert, S.J., Swencionis, J.K., Amodio, D.M., Evaluative vs. trait representation in intergroup social judgments: Distinct roles of anterior temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychologia 50 (2012), 3600–3611.
164. Goff, P.A., Eberhardt, J.L., Williams, M.J., Jackson, M.C., Not yet human: Implicit knowledge historical dehumanization and contemporary consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008), 292–306.
165. Golby, A.J., Gabrieli, J.D.E., Chiao, J.Y., Eberhardt, J.L., Differential fusiform responses to same- and other-race faces. Nature Neuroscience 4 (2001), 845–850.
166. Gollwitzer, P.M., Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social Psychology 4 (1993), 141–185.
167. Gollwitzer, P.M., Sheeran, P., Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Zanna, M.P., (eds.) Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 38, 2006, Academic Press, New York, 69–119.
168. Gonsalkorale, K., Sherman, J.W., Allen, T.J., Klauer, K.C., Amodio, D.M., Accounting for successful control of implicit racial bias: The roles of association activation, response monitoring, and overcoming bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (2011), 1534–1545.
169. Gray, H.M., Gray, K., Wegner, D.M., Dimensions of mind perception. Science, 315, 2007, 619.
170. Greenwald, A.G., Banaji, M.R., Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review 102 (1995), 4–27.
171. Greenwald, A.G., Banaji, M.R., Rudman, L.A., Farnham, S.D., Nosek, B.A., Mellot, D.S., A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review 109 (2002), 3–25.
172. Greenwald, A.G., Farnham, S.D., Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000), 1022–1038.
173. Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., Schwartz, J.L.K., Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998), 1464–1480.
174. Greenwald, A.G., Poehlman, T.A., Uhlmann, E.L., Banaji, M.R., Understanding and using the implicit association test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97 (2009), 17–41.
175. Greenwald, A.G., Smith, C.T., Sriram, N., Bar-Anan, Y., Nosek, B.A., Implicit race attitudes predicted vote in the 2008 U. S. Presidential election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 9 (2009), 241–253.
176. Grill-Spector, K., Knouf, N., Kanwisher, N., The fusiform face area subserves face perception, not generic within-category identification. Nature Neuroscience 7 (2004), 555–562.
177. Halberstadt, J., Sherman, S.J., Sherman, J.W., Why Barack Obama is black: A cognitive account of hypodescent. Psychological Science 22 (2011), 29–33.
178. Hall, J.A., Halberstadt, A.G., “Subordination” and sensitivity to nonverbal cues: A study of married working women. Sex Roles 31 (1994), 3–7.
179. Hanson, S.J., Matsuka, T., Haxby, J.V., Combinatorial codes in ventral temporal lobe for object recognition: Haxby (2001) revisited: Is there a “face” area?. NeuroImage 23 (2004), 156–166.
180. Hardin, C.D., Banaji, M.R., The nature of implicit prejudice: Implications for personal and public policy. Shafir, E., (eds.) The behavioral foundations of public policy, 2013, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 13–31.
181. Hart, A.J., Whalen, P.J., Shin, L.M., McInerney, S.C., Fischer, H., Rauch, S.L., Differential response in the human amygdala to racial outgroup vs. ingroup face stimuli. NeuroReport 11 (2000), 2351–2355.
182. Haslam, N., Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (2006), 252–264.
183. Hasson, U., Nir, Y., Levy, I., Fuhrmann, G., Malach, R., Intersubject synchronization of cortical activity during natural vision. Science 303 (2004), 1634–1640.
184. Haxby, J.V., Gobbini, M.I., Furey, M.L., Ishai, A., Schouten, J.L., Pietrini, P., Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects ventral temporal cortex. Science 287 (2001), 643–646.
185. Haxby, J., Hoffman, E., Gobbini, M., The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (2000), 223–232.
186. He, Y., Johnson, M., Dovidio, J., McCarthy, G., The relation between race-related implicit associations and scalp-recorded neural activity evoked by faces from different races. Social Neuroscience 4 (2009), 426–442.
187. Hein, G., Silani, G., Preuschoff, K., Batson, C.D., Singer, T., Neural responses to ingroup and outgroup members’ suffering predict individual differences in costly helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2010), 1022–1038.
188. Herek, G.M., Capitanio, J.P., “Some of my best friends”: Intergroup contact, concealable stigma, and heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22 (1996), 412–424.
189. Hess, U., Adams, R.B. Jr., Kleck, R.E., Dominance, gender and emotion expression. Emotion 4 (2004), 378–388.
190. Hess, U., Adams, R.B. Jr., Kleck, R.E., Who may frown and who should smile? Dominance, affiliation, and the display of happiness and anger. Cognition and Emotion 19 (2005), 515–536.
191. Ho, A.K., Roberts, S.O., Gelman, S.A., Essentialism and racial bias jointly contribute to the categorization of multiracial individuals. Psychological Science 26 (2015), 1639–1645.
192. Ho, A.K., Sidanius, J., Cuddy, A.J.C., Banaji, M.R., Status-boundary enforcement and the categorization of Black-White biracials. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49 (2013), 940–943.
193. Ho, A.K., Sidanius, J., Levin, D.T., Banaji, M.R., Evidence for hypodescent and racial hierarchy in the categorization and perception of biracial individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100 (2011), 492–506.
194. Hoffman, E.A., Haxby, J.V., Distinct representations of eye gaze and identity in the distributed human neural system for face perception. Nature Neuroscience 3 (2000), 80–84.
195. Hoffman, K.M., Trawalter, S., Axt, J.R., Oliver, N., Raical bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113 (2016), 4296–4301.
196. Hofmann, W., De Houwer, J., Perugini, M., Baeyens, F., Crombez, G., Evaluative conditioning in humans: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 136 (2010), 390–421.
197. Holland, P.C., Gallagher, M., Amygdala circuitry in attentional and representational processes. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3 (1999), 65–73.
198. Holoien, D.S., Bergsieker, H.B., Shelton, J.N., Alegre, J.M., Do you really understand? Achieving accuracy in interracial relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108 (2015), 76–92.
199. Hugenberg, K., Social categorization and the perception of facial affect: Target race moderates the response latency advantage for happy faces. Emotion 5 (2005), 267–276.
200. Hugenberg, K., Bodenhausen, G.V., Facing prejudice: Implicit prejudice and the perception of facial threat. Psychological Science 14 (2003), 640–643.
201. Hugenberg, K., Bodenhausen, G.V., Ambiguity in social categorization: The role of prejudice and facial affect in race categorization. Psychological Science 15 (2004), 342–345.
202. Hugenberg, K., Corneille, O., Holistic processing is tuned for in-group faces. Cognitive Science 33 (2009), 1173–1181.
203. Hugenberg, K., Miller, J., Claypool, H., Categorization and individuation in the cross race recognition deficit: Toward a solution for an insidious problem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43 (2007), 334–340.
204. Hugenberg, K., Wilson, J.P., Faces are central to social cognition. Carlston, D., (eds.) The Oxford handbook of social cognition, 2013, Oxford University Press, New York.
205. Hugenberg, K., Wilson, J.P., See, P.E., Young, S.G., Toward a synthetic model of Own group biases in face memory. Visual Cognition 21 (2013), 1392–1417.
206. Hugenberg, K., Young, S., Bernstein, M., Sacco, D.F., The categorization individuation model: An integrative account of the cross race recognition deficit. Psychological Review 117 (2010), 1168–1187.
207. Hugenberg, K., Young, S.G., Rydell, R.J., Almaraz, S.M., Stanko, K.A., See, P.E., et al. The face of humanity: Configural face processing influences ascriptions of humanness. Social Psychological and Personality Science 7 (2016), 167–175.
208. Hutchings, P.B., Haddock, G., Look Black in anger: The role of implicit prejudice in the categorization and perceived emotional intensity of racially ambiguous faces. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008), 1418–1420.
209. Ito, T.A., Urland, G.R., Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003), 616–626.
210. Ito, T.A., Urland, G.R., The influence of processing objectives on the perceptions of faces: An ERP study of race and gender perception. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 5 (2005), 21–36.
211. Izard, C.E., The face of emotion, 1971, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
212. Jacques, C., Rossion, B., Electrophysiological evidence for temporal dissociation between spatial attention and sensory competition during human face processing. Cerebral Cortex 17 (2007), 1055–1065.
213. Johnson, K.L., Adams, R.B. Jr., Social vision: An introduction. Social Cognition 31 (2013), 633–635.
214. Johnson, K.L., Freeman, J.B., Pauker, K., Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012), 116–131.
215. Johnson, K.L., Gill, S., Reichman, V., Tassinary, L.G., Swagger, sway, and sexuality: Judging sexual orientation from body motion and morphology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007), 321–334.
216. Johnson, K.L., Iida, M., Person (mis)perception: On the functional biases that derail construal of others. Johnson, K.L., Shiffrar, M., (eds.) People watching: Social, perceptual, and neurophysiological studies of body perception, 2013, Oxford University Press, New York, 203–219.
217. Johnson, K.L., Lick, D.J., Carpinella, C.M., Emergent research in social vision: An integrated approach to the determinants and consequences of social categorization. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 9 (2015), 15–30.
218. Johnson, K.L., Pollick, F., McKay, L., Social constraints on the visual perception of biological motion. Adams, R.B., Ambady, N., Nakayama, K., Shimojo, S., (eds.) Social vision, 2010, Oxford University Press, New York.
219. Johnson, K.L., Tassinary, L.G., Perceiving sex directly and indirectly: Meaning in motion and morphology. Psychological Science 16 (2005), 890–897.
220. Johnson, K.L., Tassinary, L.G., Compatibility of basic social perceptions determines perceived attractiveness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007), 5246–5251.
221. Kang, S.K., Chasteen, A.L., Beyond the double-jeopardy hypothesis: Assessing emotion on the faces of multiply-categorizable targets of prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (2009), 1281–1285.
222. Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., Chun, M.M., The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. The Journal of Neuroscience 17 (1997), 4302–4311.
223. Karmali, F., Kawakami, K., & Page-Gould, E. (under review). Psychophysiological responses to racism. Invited for resubmission to Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. Unpublished manuscript.
224. Karmali, F., Kawakami, K., & Shim, J. (under review). Responding to targets and perpetrators of racism. Unpublished manuscript.
225. Kawakami, K., Studying intergroup biases: Where to begin and where to end?. Kawakami, K., (eds.) The psychology of prejudice (Four volume set), Vol. 1, 2014, Sage, London, xix–xlii.
226. Kawakami, K., Dion, K.L., Dovidio, J.F., Racial prejudice and stereotype activation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24 (1998), 407–416.
227. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., The reliability of implicit stereotyping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (2001), 212–225.
228. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., Dijksterhuis, A., Effect of social category priming on personal attitudes. Psychological Science 14 (2003), 315–319.
229. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., Russin, A., Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (2000), 871–888.
230. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., van Kamp, S., Kicking the habit: Effects of nonstereotypic association training on the application of stereotypes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41 (2005), 68–75.
231. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., van Kamp, S., The impact of counterstereotypic training and correction processes on the application of stereotypes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 10 (2007), 139–156.
232. Kawakami, K., Dunn, E., Karmali, F., Dovidio, J.F., Mispredicting affective and behavioral responses to racism. Science 323 (2009), 276–278.
233. Kawakami, K., Phills, C.E., Greenwald, A.G., Simard, D., Pontiero, J., Brnjas, A., et al. In perfect harmony: Synchronizing the self to activated social categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012), 562–575.
234. Kawakami, K., Phills, C.E., Steele, J.R., Dovidio, J.F., (Close) Distance makes the heart grow fonder: Improving implicit racial attitudes and interracial interactions through approach behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007), 957–971.
235. Kawakami, K., Steele, J.R., Cifa, C., Phills, C.E., Dovidio, J.F., Approaching math increases math = me, math = pleasant. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008), 818–825.
236. Kawakami, K., Williams, A., Sidhu, D., Choma, B.L., Rodriguez-Bailón, R., Cañadas, E., et al. An eye for the I: Preferential attention to the eyes of ingroup members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107 (2014), 1–20.
237. Kawakami, K., Young, H., Dovidio, J.F., Automatic stereotyping: Category, trait, and behavioral activations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002), 3–15.
238. Kawakami, K., Karmali, F., Phills, C., Williams, A., Friesen, J., and Vaccarino, E. (under review). I don't see race: Exploring strategies and implications related to strategic colorblindness. Unpublished manuscript.
239. Kawakami, K., Williams, A., Friesen, J., Vingilis-Jaremko, L., Sidhu, D., Rodriguez-Bailón, R., et al. (under review). Similarity and race attract attention to the eyes. Unpublished manuscript.
240. Kelley, H.H., Thibaut, J.W., Interpersonal relations: A theory of interdependence. 1978, Wiley, New York, 341 (p. 341).
241. Keltner, D., Haidt, J., Social functions of emotions at four levels of analysis. Cognition and Emotion 13 (1999), 505–521.
242. Kenworthy, J.B., Barden, M.A., Diamond, S., del Carmen, A., Ingroup identification as a moderator of racial bias in a shoot–no shoot decision task. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 14 (2011), 311–318.
243. Khalid, S., Deska, J.C., Hugenberg, K., The eyes are the windows to the mind: Direct eye gaze triggers the ascription of others’ minds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 42 (2016), 1666–1677.
244. Kihlstrom, J.E., Cantor, N., Mental representations of the self. Berkowitz, L., (eds.) Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 15, 1984, Academic Press, New York, 1–47.
245. King, E.B., Knight, J.L., Hebl, M.R., The influence of economic conditions on aspects of stigmatization. Journal of Social Issues 66 (2010), 446–460.
246. Knowles, E.D., Lowery, B.S., Schaumberg, R.L., Racial prejudice predicts opposition to Obama and his health care reform plan. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010), 420–423.
247. Krosch, A.K., Amodio, D.M., Economic scarcity alters the perception of race. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 111 (2014), 9079–9084.
248. Krosch, A. R. & Amodio, D. M. (under review). Perceptual dehumanization of Black faces promotes racial discrimination under economic stress. Unpublished manuscript.
249. Krosch, A.R., Berntsen, L., Amodio, D.M., Jost, J.T., Bavel, J.J.V., On the ideology of hypodescent: Political conservatism predicts categorization of racially ambiguous faces as Black. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49 (2013), 1196–1203.
250. Kteily, N., Bruneau, E., Waytz, A., Cotterill, S., The ascent of man: A theoretical and empirical case for blatant dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109 (2015), 901–931.
251. Kubota, J.T., Ito, T.A., Multiple cues in social perception: The time course of processing race and facial expression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43 (2007), 738–752.
252. Kubota, J.T., Ito, T.A., The role of expression and race in weapon identification. Emotion 14 (2014), 1115–1124.
253. Kunda, Z., Thagard, P., Forming impressions using stereotypes, traits, and behaviors: A parallel constraint satisfaction theory. Psychological Review 103 (1996), 284–308.
254. Kunstman, J.W., Plant, E.A., Zielaskowski, K., LaCosse, J., Feeling in with the outgroup: Outgroup acceptance and the internalization of the motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 2013, 443.
255. LaFrance, M., Hecht, M.A., Paluck, E.L., The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003), 305–334.
256. Lai, C.K., Hoffman, K.M., Nosek, B.A., Reducing implicit prejudice. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 7 (2013), 315–330.
257. Lai, C.K., Marini, M., Lehr, S.A., Cerruti, C., Shin, J.L., Joy-Gaba, J.A., et al. Reducing implicit racial preferences: I. A comparative investigation of 17 interventions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143 (2014), 1765–1785.
258. Lai, C.K., Skinner, A.L., Cooley, E., Murrar, S., Brauer, M., Devos, T., et al. Reducing implicit racial preferences: II. Intervention effectiveness across time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145 (2016), 1001–1016.
259. LeDoux, J.E., Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience 23 (2000), 155–184.
260. LeVine, R.A., Campbell, D.T., Ethnocentrism: Theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes, and group behavior (Vol. ix). 1972, John Wiley & Sons, Oxford, England.
261. Levy, B.R., Banaji, M.R., Implicit ageism. Nelson, T.D., (eds.) Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons, 2002, the MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
262. Leyens, J.P., Paladino, P.M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez-Perez, A., et al. The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4 (2000), 186–197.
263. Liberman, N., Trope, Y., Stephan, E., Psychological distance. Kruglanski, A.W., Higgins, E.T., (eds.) Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles, 2007, Guildford Press, New York.
264. Lick, D.J., Golay, A.E., Johnson, K.L., Race categorizations drawn from dynamic body motions: Accuracy, heuristics, and intersectional biases., Poster presented at Society for Personality and Social Psychology annual conference, Austin, TX, 2014.
265. Lowery, B.S., Hardin, C.D., Sinclair, S., Social influence effect on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001), 842–855.
266. Luhtanen, R., Crocker, J., A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (1992), 302–318.
267. Lund, F.H., Berg, W.C., Identifiability of nationality characteristics. The Journal of Social Psychology 24 (1946), 77–83.
268. Mackie, D.M., Smith, E.R., From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups. 2002, Psychology Press, Philadelphia.
269. MacLin, O.H., Malpass, R.S., Racial categorization of faces: The ambiguous race face effect. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 7 (2001), 98–118.
270. MacLin, O.H., Malpass, R.S., The ambiguous-race face illusion. Perception 32 (2003), 249–252.
271. Macrae, C.N., Bodenhausen, G.V., Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology 51 (2000), 93–120.
272. Macrae, C.N., Bodenhausen, G.V., Milne, A.B., The dissection of selection in person perception: Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995), 397–407.
273. Macrae, C.N., Bodenhausen, G.V., Milne, A.B., Thorn, T.M.J., Castelli, L., On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (1997), 471–489.
274. Macrae, C.N., Martin, D., A boy primed Sue: Feature-based processing and person construal. European Journal of Social Psychology 37 (2007), 793–805.
275. Macrae, C.N., Quinn, K.A., Mason, M.F., Quadflieg, S., Understanding others: The face and person construal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005), 686–695.
276. Maddox, K.B., Perspectives on racial phenotypicality bias. Personality and Social Psychology Review 8 (2004), 383–401.
277. Maddox, K.B., Gray, A., Cognitive representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the role of skin tone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002), 250–259.
278. Madera, J.M., Hebl, M.R., Discrimination against facially stigmatized applicants in interviews: An eye-tracking and face-to-face investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012), 317–330.
279. Maister, L., Sebanz, N., Knoblich, G., Tsakiris, M., Experiencing ownership over a dark-skinned body reduces implicit racial bias. Cognition 128 (2013), 170–178.
280. Mandalaywala, T. M., Amodio, D. M., & Rhodes, W. (under review). Essentialism promotes racial prejudice by increasing acceptance of the status quo. Unpublished manuscript.
281. Mangini, M., Biederman, I., Making the ineffable explicit: Estimating the information employed for face classifications. Cognitive Science 28 (2004), 209–226.
282. Mann, N.H., Kawakami, K., The long steep path to equality: Progressing on egalitarian goals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 141 (2012), 187–197.
283. Markus, H., Kunda, Z., Stability and malleability of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (1986), 858–866.
284. Matsumoto, D., Cultural similarities and differences in display rule. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 20 (1989), 92–105.
285. Matsumoto, D., Olide, A., Willingham, B., Is there an ingroup advantage in recognizing spontaneously expressed emotions?. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 33 (2009), 181–191.
286. Maurer, D., Le Grand, R., Mondloch, C.J., The many faces of configural processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6 (2002), 255–260.
287. McCarthy, G., Puce, A., Gore, J.C., Allison, T., Face-specific processing in the human fusiform gyrus. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 9 (1997), 605–610.
288. McConnell, A.R., Dunn, E.W., Austin, S.N., Rawn, C.D., Blind spots in the search for happiness: Implicit attitudes and nonverbal leakage predict affective forecasting errors. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011), 628–634.
289. McConnell, A.R., Leibold, J.M., Relations among the implicit association test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37 (2001), 435–442.
290. Meissner, C.A., Brigham, J.C., Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 7 (2001), 3–35.
291. Mendoza, S.A., Gollwitzer, P.M., Amodio, D.M., Reducing the expression of implicit stereotypes: Reflexive control through implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (2010), 512–523.
292. Mendoza, S.A., Lane, S.P., Amodio, D.M., For members only: Ingroup punishment of fairness norm violations in the ultimatum game. Social Psychological and Personality Science 5 (2014), 662–670.
293. Michel, C., Corneille, O., Rossion, B., Race categorization modulates holistic encoding. Cognitive Science 31 (2007), 911–924.
294. Michel, C., Rossion, B., Han, J., Chung, C.S., Caldara, R., Holistic processing is finely tuned for faces of one's own race. Psychological Science 17 (2006), 608–615.
295. Mitchell, J.P., Macrae, C.N., Banaji, M.R., Dissociable medial prefrontal contributions to judgments of similar and dissimilar others. Neuron 50 (2006), 655–663.
296. Monteith, M.J., Self-regulation of prejudiced responses: Implications for progress in prejudice-reduction efforts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1993), 469–485.
297. Monteith, M.J., Ashburn-Nardo, L., Voils, C.I., Czopp, A.M., Putting the brakes on prejudice: On the development and operation of cues for control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002), 1029–1050.
298. Montepare, J.M., Zebrowitz-McArthur, L.A., Person perception comes of age: The salience and significance of age in social judgments. Zanna, M.P., (eds.) Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 30, 1998, Academic Press, New York, 93–163.
299. Mouchetant-Rostaing, Y., Girard, M.H., Bentin, S., Aguera, P.E., Pernier, J., Neurophysiological correlates of face gender processing in humans. European Journal of Neuroscience 12 (2000), 303–310.
300. Neuberg, S.L., Warner, C.M., Mistler, S.A., Berlin, A., Hill, E.D., Johnson, J.D., et al. Religion and intergroup conflict: Findings from the global group relations project. Psychological Science 25 (2014), 198–206.
301. Norton, M.I., Sommers, S.R., Apfelbaum, E.P., Pura, N., Ariely, D., Colorblindness and interracial interaction: Playing the political correctness game. Psychological Science 17 (2006), 949–953.
302. Nosek, B.A., Implicit–explicit relations. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007), 65–69.
303. Nosek, B.A., Hawkins, C.B., Frazier, R., Implicit social cognition: From measures to mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 15 (2012), 152–159.
304. Nummenmaa, L., Hyönä, J., Hietanen, J.K., I'll walk this way: Eyes reveal the direction of locomotion and make passersby look and go the other way. Psychological Science 20 (2009), 1454–1458.
305. Nussinson, R., Seibt, B., Hafner, M., Strack, F., Come a bit closer: Approach motor actions lead to feeling similar and behaviorally assimilating to others. Social Cognition 28 (2010), 40–58.
306. Ofan, R.H., Rubin, N., Amodio, D.M., Seeing race: N170 responses to race and their relation to automatic racial attitudes and controlled processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23 (2011), 3152–3161.
307. Ofan, R.H., Rubin, N., Amodio, D.M., Situation-based social anxiety enhances the neural encoding of faces: Evidence from an intergroup context. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 9 (2014), 1055–1061.
308. Olivola, C.Y., Todorov, A., Fooled by first impressions? Reexamining the diagnostic value of appearance-based inferences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010), 315–324.
309. Olson, M.A., Fazio, R.H., Reducing automatically activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (2006), 421–433.
310. Olson, I.R., McCoy, D., Klobusicky, E., Ross, L.A., Social cognition and the anterior temporal lobes: A review and theoretical framework. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 8 (2013), 123–133.
311. Olsson, A., Ebert, J.P., Banaji, M.R., Phelps, E.A., The role of social groups in the persistence of learned fear. Science 309 (2005), 785–787.
312. Ostrom, T.M., Sedikides, C., Out-group homogeneity effects in natural and minimal groups. Psychological Bulletin 112 (1992), 536–552.
313. Page-Gould, E., Mendoza-Denton, R., Allegre, J.M., Sij, J.O., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010), 775–793.
314. Page-Gould, E., Mendoza-Denton, R., Tropp, L.R., With a little help from my cross-group friend: Reducing anxiety in intergroup contexts through cross-group friendship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008), 1080–1094.
315. Paluk, E.L., Green, D.P., Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice. Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009), 339–367.
316. Pauker, K., Weisbuch, M., Ambady, N., Sommers, S.R., Adams, R.B. Jr., Ivcevic, Z., Not so Black and White: Memory for ambiguous group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009), 795–810.
317. Payne, B.K., Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001), 181–192.
318. Payne, B.K., Conceptualizing control in social cognition: How executive control modulates the expression of automatic stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005), 488–503.
319. Payne, K., Lundberg, K., The affect misattribution procedure: Ten years of evidence on reliability, validity, and mechanism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 8 (2014), 672–686.
320. Peck, T., Seinfeld, S., Aglioti, M., Slater, M., Putting yourself in the skin of a black avatar reduces implicit racial bias. Consciousness and Cognition 22 (2013), 779–787.
321. Peery, D., Bodenhausen, G.V., Black + White = Black: Hypodescent in reflexive categorization of racially ambiguous faces. Psychological Science 19 (2008), 973–977.
322. Pek, J., Hoyle, R.H., On the (in) validity of tests of simple mediation: Threats and solutions. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10 (2016), 150–163.
323. Pettigrew, T.F., Tropp, L.R., A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006), 751–783.
324. Phelps, E.A., O'Connor, K.J., Cunningham, W.A., Funayama, S., Gatenby, J.C., Gore, J.C., et al. Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (2000), 729–738.
325. Phills, C. E., Kawakami, K., Krusemark, D. R., & Nyguen, J. (under review). Does reducing prejudice increase outgroup identification? The downstream consequences of associating positive concepts with racial categories. Invited for resubmission to Social Psychological and Personality Science. Unpublished manuscript.
326. Phills, C.E., Kawakami, K., Tabi, E., Nadolny, D., Inzlicht, M., Mind the gap: Increasing associations between the self and Blacks with approach behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100 (2011), 197–210.
327. Phills, C.E., Santelli, A., Kawakami, K., Struthers, W., Higgins, E.T., Reducing implicit prejudice: Matching approach/avoidance strategies to contextual valence and regulatory focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011), 968–973.
328. Plant, E.A., Devine, P.G., Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998), 811–832.
329. Pokorny, J., de Waal, F.B.M., Monkeys recognize the faces of group mates in photographs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009), 21539–21543.
330. Proffitt, D.R., Stefanucci, J.K., Banton, T., Epstein, W., The role of effort in perceiving distance. Psychological Science 14 (2003), 106–112.
331. Prothro, E.T., Melikian, L.H., Studies in stereotypes: V. Familiarity and the kernel of truth hypothesis. The Journal of Social Psychology 41 (1955), 3–10.
332. Quillian, L., Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe. American Sociological Review 60 (1995), 586–611.
333. Quinn, K.A., Mason, M.F., Macrae, C.N., Familiarity and person construal: Individual knowledge moderates the automaticity of category activation. European Journal of Social Psychology 39 (2009), 852–861.
334. Quinn, K.A., Mason, M.F., Macrae, C.N., When Arnold is “The Terminator”, we no longer see him as a man: The temporal determinants of person perception. Experimental Psychology 57 (2010), 27–35.
335. Ratner, K.G., Amodio, D.M., Seeing “us vs. them”: Minimal group effects on the neural encoding of faces. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49 (2013), 298–301.
336. Ratner, K.G., Dotsch, R., Wigboldus, D., van Knippenberg, A., Amodio, D.M., Visualizing minimal ingroup and outgroup faces: Implications for impressions, attitudes, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 106 (2014), 897–911.
337. Ray, D.G., Way, N., Hamilton, D.L., Cross-categorization, evaluation, and face recognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010), 449–452.
338. Rhodes, G., Locke, V., Ewing, L., Evangelista, E., Race coding and the other-race effect in face recognition. Perception 38 (2009), 232–241.
339. Rice, D.R., Mullen, B., Isaac, Ishmael, and Janus: Past and future lessons regarding the ethnic categorization of faces. Applied Cognitive Psychology 17 (2003), 1129–1147.
340. Richmond, V.P., McCroskey, J.C., Hickson, M.L., Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relationships, 2008, Pearson, Boston.
341. Riddoch, M.J., Johnston, R.A., Bracewell, R.M., Boutsen, L., Humphreys, G.W., Are faces special? A case of pure prosopagnosia. Cognitive Neuropsychology 25 (2008), 3–26.
342. Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J.A., Gygax, L., Bailey, J.M., Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology 44 (2008), 46–58.
343. Ro, T., Russell, C., Lavie, N., Changing faces: A detection advantage in the flicker paradigm. Psychological Science 12 (2001), 94–99.
344. Rodeheffer, C., Hill, S.E., Lord, C.G., Does this recession make me look Black? The effect of resource scarcity on the categorization of biracial faces. Psychological Science 23 (2012), 1476–1478.
345. Rooth, D., Automatic associations and discrimination in hiring: Real world evidence. Labor Economics 17 (2010), 523–534.
346. Rossion, B., Gauthier, I., Tarr, M.J., Despland, P., Bruyer, R., Linotte, S., et al. The N170 occipito-temporal component is delayed and enhanced to inverted faces but not to inverted objects: An electrophysiological account of face-specific processes in the human brain. NeuroReport 11 (2000), 69–74.
347. Rudman, L.A., Ashmore, R.D., Discrimination and the implicit association test. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 10 (2007), 359–372.
348. Rudman, L.A., Ashmore, R.D., Gary, M.L., “Unlearning” automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001), 856–868.
349. Rule, N.O., Ambady, N., Brief exposures: Male sexual orientation is accurately perceived at 50-ms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 (2008), 1100–1105.
350. Rule, N.O., Ambady, N., Democrats and Republicans can be differentiated from their faces. PLoS One, 5, 2010, e8733.
351. Rule, N.O., Ambady, N., Adams, R.B. Jr., Macrae, C.N., Us and them: Memory advantages in perceptually ambiguous groups. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 14 (2007), 687–692.
352. Rule, N.O., Ambady, N., Adams, R.B. Jr., Macrae, C.N., Accuracy and awareness in the perception and categorization of male sexual orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008), 1019–1028.
353. Rule, N.O., Ambady, N., Hallett, K.C., Female sexual orientation is perceived accurately, rapidly, and automatically from the face and its features. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (2009), 1245–1251.
354. Rule, N.O., Garrett, J.V., Ambady, N., On the perception of religious group membership from faces. PLoS One, 5, 2010, e14241.
355. Rule, N.O., Garrett, J.V., Ambady, N., Faces and places: Geographic environment influences the ingroup memory advantage. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010), 343–355.
356. Rule, N.O., Macrae, C.N., Ambady, N., Ambiguous group membership is extracted automatically from faces. Psychological Science 20 (2009), 441–443.
357. Ryan, C.S., Judd, C.M., Park, B., The effect of stereotypes on judgments of individuals: The moderating role of perceived group variability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 32 (1996), 71–103.
358. Sacco, D.F., Hugenberg, K., The look of fear and anger: Facial maturity modulates the recognition of fearful and angry expressions. Emotion 9 (2009), 39–49.
359. Scheck, B., Neufeld, P., Dwyer, J., Actual innocence. 2000, Signet, New York, NY.
360. Schmid, P.C., Amodio, D.M., Power effects on implicit prejudice and stereotyping: The role of intergroup face processing. Social Neuroscience, 2016, 10.1080/17470919.2016.1144647.
361. Schmid, P.C., Kleiman, T., Amodio, D.M., Power effects on cognitive control: Turning conflict into action. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 144 (2015), 655–663.
362. Sekaquaptewa, D., Espinoza, P., Thompson, M., Vargas, P., von Hippel, W., Stereotypic explanatory bias: Implicit stereotyping as a predictor of discrimination. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (2003), 75–82.
363. Sherif, M., Sherif, C.W., Groups in harmony and tension: An integration of studies of intergroup relations, Vol. xiii, 1953, Harper & Brothers, Oxford, England.
364. Sherman, J., Gawronski, B., Gonsalkorale, K., Hugenberg, K., Allen, T., Groom, C., The self-regulation of automatic associations and behavioral impulses. Psychological Review 115 (2008), 314–335.
365. Shook, N.J., Fazio, R.H., Interracial roommate relationships: An experimental field test of the contact hypothesis. Psychological Science 19 (2008), 717–723.
366. Shriver, E., Hugenberg, K., Power, individuation, and the cross-race recognition deficit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (2010), 767–774.
367. Shriver, E., Young, S.G., Hugenberg, K., Bernstein, M.J., Lanter, J., Class, race, and the face: Social context moderates the cross-race effect in face recognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34 (2008), 260–278.
368. Shteynberg, G., Galinsky, A.D., Implicit coordination: Sharing goals with similar others intensifies goal pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011), 1291–1294.
369. Sinclair, S., Lowery, B., Hardin, C., Colangelo, A., Social tuning of automatic attitudes: The role of affiliative motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005), 583–592.
370. Snyder, C.R., Lassegard, M., Ford, C.E., Distancing after group success and failure: Basking in reflected glory and cutting off reflected failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (1986), 382–388.
371. Sporer, S.L., The cross-race effect. Psychology. Public Policy, and Law, Band 7 (2001), 170–200.
372. Stangor, C., Lynch, L., Duan, C., Glass, B., Categorization of individuals on the basis of multiple social features. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (1992), 207–218.
373. Stanley, D.A., Sokol-Hessner, P., Banaji, M.R., Phelps, E.A., Implicit race attitudes predict trustworthiness judgments and economic trust decisions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (2011), 7710–7715.
374. Stepanova, E.V., Strube, M.J., Making of a face: Role of facial physiognomy, skin tone, and color presentation mode in evaluations of racial typicality. The Journal of Social Psychology 149 (2009), 66–81.
375. Stepanova, E.V., Strube, M.J., The role of skin color and facial physiognomy in racial categorization: Moderation by implicit racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012), 867–878.
376. Stepanova, E.V., Strube, M.J., What's in a face? The role of skin tone, facial physiognomy, and color presentation mode of facial primes in affective priming effects. The Journal of Social Psychology 152 (2012), 212–227.
377. Stephan, W.G., Boniecki, K.A., Ybarra, O., Bettencourt, A., Ervin, K.S., Jackson, L.A., et al. The role of threats in the racial attitudes of blacks and whites. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002), 1242–1254.
378. Stephan, W.G., Renfro, C., Esses, V.M., Stephan, C.W., Martin, T., The effects of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 29 (2005), 1–19.
379. Stephan, W.G., Stephan, C.W., Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues 41 (1985), 157–175.
380. Stephan, W.G., Ybarra, O., Bachman, G., Prejudice toward immigrants1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 29 (1999), 2221–2237.
381. Stewart, B.D., Payne, B.K., Bringing automatic stereotyping under control: Implementation intentions as efficient means of thought control. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34 (2008), 1332–1345.
382. Tajfel, H., Billig, M.G., Bundy, R.P., Flament, C., Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology 1 (1971), 149–178.
383. Tajfel, H., Turner, J.C., An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. Austin, W.G., Worchel, S., (eds.) The social psychology of intergroup relations, 1979, Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, 33–47.
384. Tajfel, H., Turner, J.C., The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Worchel, S., Austin, W.G., (eds.) Psychology of intergroup relations, 1986, Nelson-Hall, Chicago, IL, 7–24.
385. Tam, T., Hewstone, M., Harwood, J., Voci, A., Kenworthy, J., Intergroup contact and grandparent–grandchild communication: The effects of self-disclosure on implicit and explicit biases against older people. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 9 (2006), 413–429.
386. Tanaka, J.W., Curran, T., A neural basis for expert object recognition. Psychological Science 12 (2001), 43–47.
387. Tanaka, J.W., Gauthier, I., Expertise in object and face recognition. Goldstone, R.L., Schyns, P.G., Medin, D.L., (eds.) Psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 36, 1997, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 83–125.
388. Taylor, P., Kochhar, R., Fry, R., Twenty-to-one: Wealth gaps rise to record highs between Whites, Blacks, Hispanics. 2011, Pew Research Center: Social & Demographic Trends, Washington, DC July.
389. Theeuwes, J., Van der Stigchel, S., Faces capture attention: Evidence from inhibition of return. Visual Cognition 13 (2006), 657–665.
390. Tskhay, K.O., Rule, N.O., Accuracy in categorizing perceptually ambiguous groups: A review and meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 17 (2013), 72–86.
391. Turner, R.N., Hewstone, M., Voci, A., Reducing explicit and implicit outgroup prejudice via direct and extended contact: The mediating role of self-disclosure and intergroup anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 2007, 369.
392. Turner, J.C., Hogg, M.A., Oakes, P.J., Reicher, S.D., Wetherell, M.S., Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. 1987, Basil Blackwell, New York.
393. Valentine, T., Upside-down faces—A review of the effect of inversion upon face recognition. British Journal of Psychology 79 (1988), 471–491.
394. Van Bavel, J.J., Cunningham, W.A., A social identity approach to person memory group membership, collective identification, and social role shape attention and memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38 (2012), 1566–1578.
395. Van Bavel, J.J., Packer, D.J., Cunningham, W.A., Modulation of the Fusiform face area following minimal exposure to motivationally relevant faces: Evidence of in-group enhancement (not out-group disregard). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23 (2011), 3343–3354.
396. Van Bavel, J.J., Swencionis, J.K., O'Connor, R.C., Cunningham, W.A., Motivated social memory: Belonging needs moderate the own-group bias in face recognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012), 707–713.
397. Vorauer, J.D., Miscommunications surrounding efforts to reach out across group boundaries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005), 1653–1664.
398. Vorauer, J.D., Sakamoto, Y., I thought we could be friends, but…. Psychological Science 17 (2006), 326–331.
399. Walker, P., Silvert, L., Hewstone, M., Nobre, A., Social contact and other-race face processing in the human brain. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 3 (2008), 16–25.
400. Walton, G.M., Cohen, G.L., A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007), 82–96.
401. Walton, G.M., Cohen, G.L., Cwir, D., Spencer, S.J., Mere belonging: The power of social connections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012), 513–532.
402. Wiese, H., Stahl, J., Schweinberger, S., Configural processing of other-race faces is delayed but not decreased. Biological Psychology 81 (2009), 103–109.
403. Wilson, J.P., Rule, N.O., Facial trustworthiness predicts extreme criminal sentencing outcomes. Psychological Science 26 (2015), 1325–1331.
404. Wilson, J. P., Rule, N. O., & Hugenberg, K. (under review). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: Bottom-up and top-down factors. Unpublished manuscript.
405. Wilson, J.P., See, P., Bernstein, M.J., Hugenberg, K., Chartier, C., Differences in anticipated interaction drive own group biases in face memory. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e90668.
406. Windhager, S., Bookstein, F.L., Grammer, K., Oberzaucher, E., Said, H., Slice, D.E., et al. “Cars have their own faces”: Cross-cultural ratings of car shapes in biological (stereotypical) terms. Evolution and Human Behavior 33 (2012), 109–120.
407. Winston, J.S., Henson, R.N.A., Fine-Goulden, M.R., Dolan, R.J., fMRI-adaptation reveals dissociable neural representations of identity and expression in face perception. Journal of Neurophysiology 92 (2004), 1830–1839.
408. Wirth, J.H., Sacco, D.F., Hugenberg, K., Williams, K.D., Eye gaze as relational evaluation: Averted eye gaze leads to feelings of ostracism and relational devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (2010), 869–882.
409. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C.M., Park, B., Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001), 815–827.
410. Woodcock, A., Monteith, M.J., Forging links with the self to combat implicit bias. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 16 (2013), 445–461.
411. Word, C.O., Zanna, M.P., Cooper, J., The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 10 (1974), 109–120.
412. Xiao, Y.J., Coppin, G., Van Bavel, J.J., Perceiving the world through group-colored glasses: A perceptual model of intergroup relations. Psychological Inquiry 27 (2016), 255–274.
413. Xu, X., Zuo, X., Wang, X., Han, S., Do you feel my pain? Racial group membership modulates empathic neural responses. The Journal of Neuroscience 29 (2009), 8525–8529.
414. Yin, R.K., Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 81 (1969), 141–145.
415. Young, S.G., Bernstein, M.J., Hugenberg, K., When do Own-Group Biases in face recognition occur? Encoding versus post-encoding. Social Cognition 28 (2010), 240–250.
416. Young, S.G., Hugenberg, K., Mere social categorization modulates identification of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 99 (2010), 964–977.
417. Young, S.G., Hugenberg, K., Individuation motivation and face expertise can operate jointly to produce the Own-Race Bias. Social Psychological and Personality Science 3 (2012), 80–87.
418. Zaki, J., Cikara, M., Addressing empathic failures. Current Directions in Psychological Science 24 (2015), 471–476.
419. Zebrowitz, L., Kikuchi, M., Fellous, J.M., Facial resemblance to emotions: Group differences, impression effects, and race stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010), 175–189.
420. Zhang, H., Chan, D.K., Self-esteem as a source of evaluative conditioning. European Journal of Social Psychology 39 (2009), 1065–1074.
421. Zhou, H., Fishbach, A., The pitfall of experimenting on the web: How unattended selective attrition leads to surprising (yet false) research conclusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 111 (2016), 493–504.