In perfect harmony: Synchronizing the self to activated social categories

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 102, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 562-575

  Kawakami, Kerry ^a   Phills, Curtis E ^a   Greenwald, Anthony G ^b   Simard, Daniel ^a   Pontiero, Jeannette ^a   Brnjas, Amy ^a   Khan, Beenish ^a   Mills, Jennifer ^a   Dovidio, John F ^c  

^a YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Automatic processes; Implicit biases; Intergroup relations; Self other overlap

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BODY IMAGE; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MOTIVATION; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL PARTICIPATION; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

BODY IMAGE; FEMALE; GOALS; HUMANS; MALE; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL PARTICIPATION; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 84861465771     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0025970     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Aaker, J., & Lee, A. Y. (2001). I seek pleasures, we avoid pains: The role of self regulatory goals in information processing and persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 33-49. doi:10.1086/321946
2. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley.
3. Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1-61). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
4. Bargh, J. A. (2006). What have we been priming all these years? On the development mechanisms and ecology of nonconscious social behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 147-168. doi:10.1002/ ejsp.336
5. Bargh, J. A., Bond, R. N., Lombardi, W. J., & Tota, M. E. (1986). The additive nature of chronic and temporary sources of construct accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 869-878. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.5.869
6. Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 230-244. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230
7. Bassili, J. N., & Smith, M. C. (1986). On the spontaneity of trait attribution: Converging evidence for the role of cognitive strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 239-245. doi:10.1037/00223514.50.2.239
8. Baumeister, R. F. (Ed.). (1999). The self in social psychology. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
9. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
10. Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., & Fallman, J. L. (2004). The automaticity of race and Afrocentric facial features in social judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 763-778. doi:10.1037/00223514.87.6.763
11. Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In R. S. Wyer Jr., & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
12. Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York, NY: Academic Press.
13. Cantor, N., Markus, H., Niedenthal, P., & Nurius, P. (1986). On motivation and the self-concept. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (pp. 96-121). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
14. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1996). Automatic activation of impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 464-478. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.464
15. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893-910. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.893
16. Chartrand, T. L., Maddux, W. W., & Lakin, J. L. (2005). Beyond the perception-behavior link: The ubiquitous utility and motivational moderators of nonconscious mimicry. In R. Hassin, J. S. Uleman, & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought 2: The new unconscious (pp. 334-361). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
17. Chen, M., & Bargh, J. A. (1997). Nonconscious behavioral confirmation processes: The self-fulfilling consequences of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 541-560. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1997.1329
18. Cheng, C. M., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Self-monitoring without awareness: Using mimicry as a nonconscious affiliation strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1170-1179. doi:10.1037/00223514.85.6.1170
19. Cloutier, J. C., Mason, M. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2005). The perceptual determinants of person construal: Reopening the social-cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 885-894. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.885
20. Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's.
21. Crandall, C., Nierman, A., & Hebl, M. (2009). Anti-fat prejudice. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 469-488). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
22. Demarree, K. G., Wheeler, S. C., & Petty, R. E. (2005). Priming a new identity: Self-monitoring moderates the effects of non-self primes on self-judgments and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 657-671. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.657
23. Dijksterhuis, A., & Bargh, J. A. (2001). The perception-behavior expressway: Automatic effects of social perception and social behavior. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 1-40). New York, NY: Academic Press.
24. Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (1998). The relation between perception and behavior or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 865-877. doi:10.1037/00223514.74.4.865
25. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510-540. doi:10.1006/ jesp.1997.1331
26. Dovidio, J. F., ten Vergert, M., Stewart, T. L., Gaertner, S. L., Johnson, J. D., Esses, V. M., . . . Pearson, A. R. (2004). Perspective and prejudice: Antecedents and mediating mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1537-1549. doi:10.1177/0146167204271177
27. Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 357-411). New York, NY: McGrawHill.
28. Fiske, S. T., Lin, M. H., & Neuberg, S. L. (1999). The Continuum Model: Ten years later. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 231-254). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
29. Fiske, S., & Neuberg, S. (1990). A continuum of impression formation from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1-73). New York, NY: Academic Press.
30. Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Kuschel, S. (2008). The effect of global versus local processing styles on assimilation versus contrast in social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 579-599. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.579
31. Gabriel, S., Kawakami, K., Bartak, C., Kang, S., & Mann, N. (2010). Self-synchronization: Will I change to be like you when it is bad for me? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 857-871. doi: 10.1037/a0019272
32. Gabriel, S., & Young, A. (2011). Becoming a vampire without being bitten: The narrative collective assimilation hypothesis. Psychological Science, 22, 990-994. doi:10.1177/0956797611415541
33. Galinsky, A. D., Ku, G., & Wang, C. S. (2005). Perspective-taking and self-other overlap: Fostering social bonds and facilitating social coordination. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 8, 109-124. doi: 10.1177/1368430205051060
34. Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708
35. Galinsky, A. D., Wang, C. S., & Ku, G. (2008). Perspective-takers behave more stereotypically. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 404-419. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.2.404
36. Gardner, W. L., Gabriel, S., & Lee, A. Y. (1999). "I" value freedom but "we" value relationships: Self-construal priming mirrors cultural differences in judgment. Psychological Science, 10, 321-326. doi:10.1111/ 1467-9280.00162
37. Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2000). Social exclusion and selective memory: How the need to belong influences memory for social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 486-496. doi:10.1177/0146167200266007
38. Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 509-517. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509
39. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
40. Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038. doi:10.1037/00223514.79.6.1022
41. Greenwald, A. G., Mcghee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
42. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
43. Greenwald, A. G., Pickrell, J. E., & Farnham, S. D. (2002). Implicit partisanship: Taking sides for no reason. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 367-379. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.367
44. Haslam, N., Rothschild, L., & Ernst, D. (2000). Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 113-127. doi:10.1348/014466600164363
45. Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141-154. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(77)80007-3
46. Hong, Y. Y., Morris, M., Chiu, C. Y., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55, 709-720. doi:10.1037/0003066X.55.7.709
47. Hsee, C. K., Hatfield, E., Carlson, J., & Chemtob, C. (1990). The effect of power on susceptibility to emotional contagion. Cognition & Emotion, 4, 327-340. doi:10.1080/02699939008408081
48. Hull, J. G., Slone, L. B., Meteyer, K. B., & Matthews, A. R. (2002). The nonconsciousness of self-consciousness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 406-424. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.406
49. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York, NY: Holt. doi:10.1037/11059-000
50. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). Effect of social category priming on personal attitudes. Psychological Science, 14, 315-319. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.14451
51. Kawakami, K., Steele, J. R., Cifa, C., Phills, C. E., & Dovidio, J. F. (2008). Approaching math increases math = me, math = pleasant. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 818-825. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.07.009
52. Kawakami, K., Young, H., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002). Automatic stereotyping: Category, trait, and behavioral activations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 3-15. doi:10.1177/0146167202281001
53. Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (1995). Construal of self as cultural frame: Implications for internationalizing psychology. In N. R. Goldberger & J. B. Veroff (Eds.), The culture and psychology reader (pp. 366-383). New York: New York University Press.
54. Kunda, Z. (1999). Social cognition: Making sense of people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
55. Kunda, Z., & Spencer, S. J. (2003). When do stereotypes come to mind and when do they color judgment? A goal-based theoretical framework for stereotype activation and application. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 522-544. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.522
56. Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14, 334-339. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.14481
57. Lakin, J. L., Jefferis, V. E., Cheng, C. M., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). The chameleon effect as social glue: Evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 145-162. doi:10.1023/A:1025389814290
58. Leary, M. R., & Tangney, J. P. (2003). The self as an organizing construct in the self and behavioral sciences. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 3-14). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
59. Lee, S., Lee, A. J., & Kern, M. C. (2011). Viewing time through the lens of the self: The fit effect of self-construal and temporal distance on task perception. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 191-200. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.765
60. Leyens, J.-P., Desert, M., Croizet, J.-C., & Darcis, C. (2000). Stereotype threat: Are lower status and history of stigmatization preconditions of stereotype threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1189-1199. doi:10.1177/0146167200262002
61. Livingston, R. W., & Brewer, M. B. (2002). What are we really priming? Cue-based versus category-based processing of facial stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 5-18. doi:10.1037/00223514.82.1.5
62. Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S. (2001). Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 842-855. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.842
63. Macrae, C., Bodenhausen, G., & Milne, A. (1995). The dissection of selection in person perception: Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 397-407. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.397
64. Macrae, C. N., Quinn, K. A., Mason, M. F., & Quadflieg, S. (2005). Understanding others: The face and person construal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 686-695. doi:10.1037/00223514.89.5.686
65. Markus, H. R., & Kunda, Z. (1986). Stability and malleability of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 858-866. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.858
66. Markus, H. R., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954
67. Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York, NY: Van Nostrand.
68. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
69. Mills, J. (2000). Graphic Image Altering Program (GIAP). Location: Publisher.
70. Neumann, R., & Strack, F. (2000). Approach and avoidance: The influence of proprioceptive and exteroceptive cues on encoding of affective information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 39-48. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.1.39
71. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 44-59. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.44
72. Page-Gould, E., Mendoza-Denton, R., Alegre, J. M., & Siy, J. O. (2010). Understanding the impact of cross-group friendship on interactions with novel outgroup members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 775-793. doi:10.1037/a0017880
73. Phills, C. E., Kawakami, K., Tabi, E., Nadolny, D., & Inzlicht, M. (2011). Mind the gap: Increasing associations between the self and Blacks with approach behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 197-210. doi:10.1037/a0022159
74. Pinter, B., & Greenwald, A. G. (2005). Clarifying the role of the "other" category in the self-esteem IAT. Experimental Psychology, 52, 74-79. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.52.1.74
75. Rothbart, M., & Taylor, M. (1992). Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds? In G. R. Semin & K. Fiedler (Eds.), Language, interaction, and social cognition (pp. 11-36). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
76. Schaller, M., Conway, L. C., & Peavy, K. M. (2010). Evolutionary processes. In J. F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick, & V. M. Esses (Eds.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 81-96). London, England: Sage.
77. Schubert, T., & Häfner, M. (2003). Contrast from social stereotypes in automatic behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 577-584. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00034-9
78. Showers, C. J., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2003). Organization of self-knowledge: Features, functions, and flexibility. In M. R. Leary & J. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 47-67). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
79. Sinclair, S., Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Colangelo, A. (2005). The social tuning of automatic ethnic attitudes: The role of affiliative motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 583-592. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.583
80. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1660-1672. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1660
81. Stangor, C., & Lange, J. E. (1994). Mental representations of social groups: Advances in understanding stereotypes and stereotyping. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 357-416). New York, NY: Academic Press.
82. Stangor, C., Lynch, L., Duan, C., & Glass, B. (1992). Categorization of individuals on the basis of multiple social features. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 207-218. doi:10.1037/00223514.62.2.207
83. Stapel, D. A., & Blanton, H. (2004). From seeing to being: Subliminal social comparisons affect implicit and explicit self-evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 468-481. doi:10.1037/00223514.87.4.468
84. Steele, J. R., & Ambady, N. (2006). "Math is hard!" The effect of gender priming on women's attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 428-436. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.06.003
85. Trafimow, D., Triandis, H. C., & Goto, S. G. (1991). Some tests of the distinction between the private self and the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 649-655. doi:10.1037/00223514.60.5.649
86. van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01501012.x
87. van Baaren, R. B., Holland, R. W., Steenaert, B., & van Knippenberg, A. (2003). Mimicry for money: Behavioral consequences of imitation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 393-398. doi:10.1016/ S0022-1031(03)00014-3
88. Wheeler, M. E., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Controlling racial prejudice: Social-cognitive goals affect amygdala and stereotype activation. Psychological Science, 16, 56-63. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00780.x
89. Wheeler, S. C., Demarree, K. G., & Petty, R. E. (2005). The roles of the self in priming-to-behavior effects. In A. Tesser, J. V. Wood, & D. A. Stapel (Eds.), On building, defending, and regulating the self: A psychological perspective (pp. 245-271). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
90. Wheeler, S. C., Demarree, K. G., & Petty, R. E. (2007). Understanding the role of the self in prime-to-behavior effects: The Active-Self Account. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 234-261. doi:10.1177/1088868307302223
91. Wheeler, S. C., & Petty, R. E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 797-826. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.797
92. Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 425-452. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641
93. Yzerbyt, V., Corneille, O., & Estrada, C. (2001). The interlay of subjective essentialism and entitativity in the formation of stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 141-155. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0502_5
94. Zárate, M. A., & Smith, E. R. (1990). Person categorization and stereo-typing. Social Cognition, 8, 161-185. doi:10.1521/soco.1990.8.2.161 Received October 16, 2010 Revision received July 11, 2011