On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 81, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 800-814

  Dasgupta, Nilanjana ^a   Greenwald, Anthony G ^b  

^a NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; AGING; ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; ATTITUDE; AUTOMATISM; CAUCASIAN; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PERCEPTION; SEMANTICS; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; AGING; ASSOCIATION; ATTITUDE; AUTOMATISM; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PREJUDICE; SEMANTICS; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 85047683742     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.800     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2. Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 319-342.
3. Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Devine, P. G. (2000). Individual differences in physiological and self-reported measures of race-biased emotion. Manuscript submitted for publication.
4. Banaji, M. R., Hardin, C. D., & Rothman, A. J. (1993). Implicit stereotyping in person judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 272-281.
5. Bargh, J. A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The case against the controllability of automatic stereotype effects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 361-382). New York, NY: Guilford.
6. Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R., & Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 893-912.
7. Bargh, J. A., & Pietromonaco, P. (1982). Automatic information processing and social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 437-449.
8. Bellezza, F. S., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1986). Words high and low in pleasantness as rated by male and female college students. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 18, 299-303.
9. Blair, I. V. (2001). Implicit stereotypes and prejudice. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton Symposium on the Legacy and Future of Social Cognition (pp. 359-374). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
10. Blair, I. V., & Banaji, M. R. (1996). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1142-1163.
11. Blair, I. V., Ma, J., & Lenton, A. P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of automatic stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 828-841.
12. Bodenhausen, G. V., Schwarz, N., Bless, H., & Wanke, M. (1995). Effects of atypical exemplars on racial beliefs: Enlightened racism or generalized appraisal? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 48-63.
13. Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1988). Contact and cooperation: When do they work? In P. A. Katz & D. A. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 315-326). New York: Plenum Press.
14. Butler, R. N. (1980). Ageism: A foreword. Journal of Social Issues, 36, 8-11.
15. Chaiken, S., & Yates, S. (1985). Affective-cognitive consistency and thought-induced attitude polarization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1470-1481.
16. Chen, M., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). Consequences of automatic evaluation: Immediate behavioral predispositions to approach or avoid the stimulus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 215-224.
17. Cialdini, R. (1976). Elastic shifts of opinion: Determinants of direction and durability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 663-672.
18. Citrin, L. B., & Greenwald, A. G. (1998, April). Measuring implicit cognition: Psychologists' and entomologists' attitudes toward insects. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL.
19. Cook, S. W. (1985). Experimenting on social issues: The case of school desegregation. American Psychologist, 40, 452-460.
20. Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 121, 163-170.
21. Dasgupta, N. (2001). [Implicit attitudes toward lesbians and gay men and their relationship to perceivers' implicit sexual identification]. Unpublished raw data.
22. Dasgupta, N., McGhee, D. E., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Automatic preference for White Americans: Ruling out the familiarity effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 316-328.
23. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
24. Devine, P. G., & Monteith, M. J. (1999). Automaticity and control in stereotyping. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 339-360). New York: Guilford.
25. Devine, P. G., Monteith, M. J., Zuwerink, J. R., & Elliot, A. J. (1991). Prejudice with and without compunction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 817-830.
26. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Beach, K. R. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes: Examination of the relationship between measures of intergroup bias. Unpublished manuscript.
27. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510-540.
28. Draine, S. C. (1998). Inquisit (Version 1.00) [Computer software]. Seattle, WA: Millisecond Software.
29. Duckitt, J. (1992). Psychology and prejudice: A historical analysis and integrative framework. American Psychologist, 47, 1182-1193.
30. Edwards, K. (1990). The interplay of affect and cognition in attitude formation and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 202-216.
31. Edwards, K., & von Hippel, W. (1995). Hearts and minds: The priority of affective versus cognitive factors in person perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 996-1011.
32. Fabrigar, L. R., & Petty, R. E. (1999). The role of the affective and cognitive bases of attitudes in susceptibility to affectively and cognitively based persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 363-381.
33. Farnham, S. D., & Greenwald, A. G. (1999, June). Ingroup favoritism = implicit self-esteem × ingroup identification. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Denver, CO.
34. Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
35. Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
36. Feldman, J. M., & Lynch, J. G. (1988). Self-generated validity and other effects of measurement on belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 421-435.
37. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1987). Motivational influences on impression formation: Outcome dependency, accuracy-driven attention, and individuating processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 431-444.
38. Forgas, J. P. (1992). On mood and peculiar people: Affect and person typicality in impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 863-875.
39. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). An aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). New York: Academic Press.
40. Glaser, J., & Banaji, M. R. (1999). When fair is foul and foul is fair: Reverse priming in automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 669-687.
41. Greenberg, B. S., & Brand, J. E. (1994). Minorities and the mass media: 1970s to 1990s. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 273-314). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
42. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
43. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
44. Haines, E. L. (1999). Elements of a social power schema: Gender standpoint, self-concept and experience. Unpublished manuscript, City University of New York.
45. Harding, J., Kutner, B., Proshansky, H., & Chein, I. (1954). Prejudice and ethnic relations. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), The handbook of social psychology. (Vol. 2, pp. 1021-1061). Cambridge, MA: Addison Wesley.
46. Harris, R. J. (1999). A cognitive psychology of mass communication (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
47. Herr, P. M. (1986). Consequences of priming: Judgment and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1106-1115.
48. Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141-154.
49. Jarvis, W. B. G. (1998). Do attitudes really change? Unpublished manuscript, Ohio State University, Columbus.
50. Katz, I., & Hass, R. G. (1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 893-905.
51. Katz, I., Wackenhut, J., & Hass, R. G. (1986). Racial ambivalence, value duality, and behavior. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 35-60). New York: Academic Press.
52. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effect of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871-888.
53. Kunda, Z., & Oleson, K. C. (1995). Maintaining stereotypes in the face of disconfirmation: Constructing grounds for subtyping deviants. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 565-579.
54. Lepore, L., & Brown, R. (1997). Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 275-287.
55. Lewicki, P. (1985). Nonconscious biasing effects of single instances on subsequent judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 563-574.
56. Lowery, B., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S. (2001). Social tuning effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 842-855.
57. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 808-817.
58. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., Thorn, T. M. J., & Castelli, L. (1997). On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 471-489.
59. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Wheeler, V. (1996). On resisting the temptation for simplification: Counterintentional effects of stereotype suppression on social memory. Social Cognition, 14, 1-20.
60. Martin, L. L. (1986). Set/reset: Use and disuse of concepts in impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 493-504.
61. McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations between the Implicit Association Test, explicit racial attitudes, and discriminatory behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435-442.
62. McFarland, C., Ross, M., & Conway, M. (1984). Self-persuasion and self-presentation as mediators of anticipatory attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 529-540.
63. McGuire, W. J., & Padawer-Singer, A. (1976). Trait salience in the spontaneous self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 743-754.
64. Mellott, D. S., & Greenwald, A. G. (1998, April). Do older adults show automatic ageism? Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL.
65. Mellott, D. S., & Greenwald, A. G. (1999, June). Measuring implicit ageism: Comparing the Implicit Association Test and priming methods. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Denver, CO.
66. Monteith, M. J. (1993). Self-regulation of prejudiced responses: Implications for progress in prejudice-reduction efforts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 469-485.
67. Monteith, M. J., Devine, P. G., & Zuwerink, J. R. (1993). Self-directed vs. other-directed affect as a consequence of prejudice-related discrepancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 198-210.
68. Monteith, M. J., Zuwerink, J. R., & Devine, P. G. (1994). Prejudice and prejudice reduction: Classic challenges, contemporary approaches. In P. G. Devine, D. L. Hamilton, & T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Social cognition: Impact on social psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
69. Moskowitz, G. B., Gollwitzer, P. M., Wasel, W., & Schaal, B. (1999). Preconscious control of stereotype activation through chronic egalitarian goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 167-184.
70. Moskowitz, G. B., Salomon, A. R., & Taylor, C. M. (2000). Preconsciously controlling stereotyping: Implicitly activated egalitarian goals prevent the activation of stereotypes. Social Cognition, 18, 151-177.
71. Myrdal, G. (1944). An American dilemma: The Negro problem and modern democracy. New York: Harper.
72. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1998, May). Math = Bad + Male, Me = Good + Female, Therefore Math ? Me. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC.
73. Ottaway, S. A., Hayden, D. C., & Oakes, M. A. (2001). Implicit attitudes and racism: Effect of word familiarity and frequency on the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 19, 97-144.
74. Perdue, C. W., & Gurtman, M. B. (1990). Evidence for the automaticity of ageism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 199-216.
75. Petty, R. E., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1998, October). What happens to the "old∑ attitude when attitudes change? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology, Lexington, KY.
76. Petty, R. E., Schumann, D. W., Richman, S. A., & Strathman, A. J. (1993). Positive mood and persuasion: Different roles for affect under high-and low-elaboration conditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 5-20.
77. Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729-738.
78. Rockeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.
79. Rothbart, M., & John, O. P. (1985). Social categorization and behavioral episodes: A cognitive analysis of the effects of intergroup contact. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 81-104.
80. Rudman, L. A., Ashmore, R. D., & Gary, M. (1999). Implicit and explicit prejudice and stereotypes: A continuum model of intergroup orientation assessment. Manuscript submitted for publication.
81. Rudman, L . A., Greenwald, A. G., Mellott, D. S., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1999). Measuring the automatic components of prejudice: Flexibility and generality of the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 17, 437-465.
82. Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1315-1328.
83. Sargent, M. J., & Theil, A. (2000). When do implicit racial attitudes predict behavior? On the moderating role of attributional ambiguity. Manuscript in preparation.
84. Schwarz, N., & Bless, H. (1992). Scandals and the public's trust in politicians: Assimilation and contrast effects. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 574-579.
85. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513-523.
86. Sherman, S. J., Mackie, D. M., & Driscoll, D. M. (1990). Priming and the differential use of dimensions in evaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 405-418.
87. Smith, E. R. (1992). The role of exemplars in social judgment. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
88. Smith, E. R., Fazio, R. H., & Cejka, M. A. (1996). Accessible attitudes influence categorization of multiply categorizable objects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 888-898.
89. Smith, E. R., & Zárate, M. A. (1992). Exemplar-based model of social judgment. Psychological Review, 99, 3-21.
90. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1660-1672.
91. Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed.,Vol. 2, pp. 559-658). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
92. Strack, F., Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Kuebler, A. (1993). Awareness of the influence as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 53-62.
93. Swanson, J. E., Rudman, L. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). Using the Implicit Association Test to investigate attitude-behavior consistency for stigmatized behavior. Cognition & Emotion, 15, 207-230.
94. Tesser, A., & Danheiser, P. (1978). Anticipated relationship, salience of partner and attitude change. Personaliry and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 35-38.
95. Weber, R., & Crocker, J. (1983). Cognitive processes in the revision of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 961-977.
96. Wilson, T. D., & Hodges, S. D. (1992). Attitudes as temporary constructions. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 37-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
97. Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101-126.
98. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 815-827.