On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 471-489

  Macrae, C Neil ^a   Bodenhausen, Galen V ^e   Milne, Alan B ^b   Thorn, Tania M J ^c   Castelli, Luigi ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

^c CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA   (Italy)

^e University of St Andrews ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031215306     PISSN: 00221031     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jesp.1997.1328     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2. Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. (1972). Human associative memory. Washington, DC: Winston.
3. Banaji, M. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1996). Automatic stereotyping. Psychological Science, 7, 136-141.
4. Bargh, J. A. (1989). Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 3-51). New York: Guilford.
5. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., Vol. 1, Basic processes, pp. 1-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6. Blair, I., & Banaji, M. (1996). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1142-1163.
7. Bodenhausen, G. V. (1990). Stereotypes as judgmental heuristics: Evidence of circadian variations in discrimination. Psychological Science, 1, 319-322.
8. Bodenhausen, G. V., & Lichtenstein, M. (1987). Social stereotypes and information-processing strategies: The impact of task complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 871-880.
9. Bodenhausen, G. V., & Wyer, R. S., Jr. (1985). Effects of stereotypes on decision making information processing strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 267-282.
10. Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
11. Bruce, V. (1988). Recognising faces. Hove, East Sussex, UK: Erlbaum.
12. Bruner, J. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, 123-152.
13. Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-428.
14. Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240-247.
15. Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
16. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
17. Dovidio, J. F., Evans, N., & Tyler, R. B. (1986). Racial stereotypes: The contents of their cognitive representations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 22-37.
18. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum model of impression formation from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-74). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
19. Francolini, C. M., & Egeth, H. (1980). On the nonautomaticity of "automatic" activation: Evidence of selective seeing. Perception and Psychophysics, 27, 331-342.
20. Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 509-517.
21. Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1979). Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 356-388.
22. Henik, A., Friedrich, F. J., & Kellogg, W. A. (1983). The dependence of semantic relatedness effects on prime processing. Memory & Cognition, 11, 366-373.
23. Hoffman, J. E., & MacMillan, F. W. (1985). Is semantic priming automatic? In M. I. Posner & O. S. M. Marin (Eds.), Attention and performance XI (pp. 585-599). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
24. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
25. Johnson, M. K., & Hasher, L. (1987). Human learning and memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 631-668.
26. Kahneman, D., & Triesman, A. (1984). Changing views of attention and automaticity. In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 29-61). New York: Academic Press.
27. LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.
28. Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 91, 295-327.
29. Logan, G. D. (1989). Automaticity and cognitive control. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 52-74). New York: Guilford.
30. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Milne, A. B. (1995). The dissection of selection in person perception: Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 397-407.
31. Macrae, C. N., Hewstone, M., & Griffiths, R. J. (1993). Processing load and memory for stereotype-based information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 76-87.
32. Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994a). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37-47.
33. Macrae, C. N., Stangor, C., & Milne, A. B. (1994b). Activating social stereotypes: A functional analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 370-389.
34. McArthur, L. Z., & Baron, R. M. (1983). Toward an ecological theory of social perception. Psychological Review, 90, 215-247.
35. Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227-234.
36. Moskowitz, G. B., & Uleman, J. S. (1987, August). The facilitation and inhibition of spontaneous trait inferences. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, New York.
37. Neely, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226-254.
38. Neely, J. H. (1991). Semantic priming effects in visual word recognition: A selective review of current findings and theories. In D. Besner & G. Humphreys (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: Visual word recognition (pp. 264-336). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Newman, L. S., & Uleman, J. S. (1989). Spontaneous trait inference. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 155-188). New York: Guilford.
40. Pendry, L. F., & Macrae, C. N. (1996). What the disinterested perceiver overlooks: Goal-directed social categorization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 250-257.
41. Perdue, C. W., & Gurtman, M. B. (1990). Evidence for the automaticity of ageism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 199-216.
42. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
43. Pratto, F., & Bargh, J. A. (1991). Stereotyping based upon apparently individuating information. Trait and global components of sex stereotypes under attention overload. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 26-47.
44. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 91, 392-413.
45. Smith, M. C. (1979). Contextual facilitation in a letter search task depends on how the prime is processed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 5, 239-251.
46. Smith, M. C., Theodor, L., & Franklin, P. E. (1983). The relationship between contextual facilitation and depth of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 697-712.
47. Stangor, C., & Duan, C. (1991). Effects of multiple task demands upon memory for information about social groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 357-378.
48. Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 25, 79-97.
49. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1995). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures. Unpublished manuscript, University of Colorado, Boulder.
50. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175.
51. Zárate, M. A., & Smith, E. R. (1990). Person categorization and stereotyping. Social Cognition, 8, 161-185.
52. Zebrowitz, L. A. (1990). Social perception. Buckingham, England: Open Univ. Press.