Discrimination and the implicit association test

Group Processes and Intergroup Relations

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 359-372

  Rudman, Laurie A ^a   Ashmore, Richard D ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Discrimination; Implicit prejudice; Implicit stereotypes; Intergroup relations; Racial stereotypes; Social cognition

Indexed keywords

EID: 34347399359     PISSN: 13684302     EISSN: 14617188     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1368430207078696     Document Type: Article

References (56)

1. Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New York: Addison-Wesley.
2. Arkes, H.R., & Tetlock, P.E. (2004). Attributions of implicit prejudice, or 'would Jesse Jackson "fail" the Implicit Association Test?' Psychological Inquiry, 15, 257-278.
3. Ashburn-Nardo, L., Voils, C.I., & Monteith, M.J. (2001). Implicit associations as the seeds of intergroup bias: How easily do they take root? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 789-799.
4. Ashmore, R.D. (1970). The problem of intergroup prejudice. In B. E. Collins (Ed.), Social psychology: Social influence, attitude change, group processes, and prejudice (pp. 245-339). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
5. Banaji, M.R. (2001). Implicit attitudes can be measured. In H. L. Roediger, J. S. Nairne, I. Neath, & A. Surprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (pp. 117-150). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
6. Blair, I.V. (2001). Implicit stereotypes and prejudice. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition (pp. 359-374). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. Blair, I.V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 242-261.
8. Bombardieri, M. (2005, April 8). Summers displays new understanding of women's careers. The Boston Globe, p. B3.
9. Breckler, S.J. (1984). Empirical validation of affect, behavior, and cognition as distinct components of attitude. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 1191-1205.
10. Brewer, M.B. (1988). A dual-process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. W. Wyer, Jr. (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale: NJ: Erlbaum.
11. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
12. Contrada, R.J., Ashmore, R.D., Gary, M.L., Coups, E., Egeth, J.D., Sewell, A. et al. (2001). Measures of ethnicity-related stress: Psychometric properties, ethnic group differences, and associations with well-being. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 1775-1820.
13. Cunningham, W.A., Preacher, K.J., & Banaji, M.R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163-170.
14. Devine, P.G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
15. Dovidio, J.F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S.L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68.
16. Fazio, R.H., Jackson, J.R., Dunton, B.C., & Williams, C.J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes. A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
17. Fazio, R.H., & Olson, M.A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
18. Fiske, S.T. (2004). Intent and ordinary bias: Unintended thought and social motivation create casual prejudice. Social Justice Research, 17, 117-127.
19. Fiske, S.T., & Neuberg, S.L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1-74). New York: Academic Press.
20. Frantz, C.M., Cuddy, A.J.C., Burnett, M., Ray, H., & Hart, A. (2004). A threat in the computer: The race Implicit Association Test as a stereotype threat experience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1611-1624.
21. Gaertner, S.L., & Dovidio, J.F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-90). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
22. Greenwald, A.G., & Banaji, M.R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
23. Greenwald, A.G., & Farnham, S.D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.
24. Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D., & Schwartz, J.L.K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
25. Greenwald, A.G., Nosek, B.A., & Banaji, M.R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216.
26. Greenwald A.G., Pickrell, J.E., & Farnham, S.D. (2002). Implicit partisanship: Taking sides for no reason. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 367-379.
27. Haddock, G., Zanna, M.P., & Esses, V.M. (1993). Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 189-205.
28. Islam, M.R., & Hewstone, M. (1993). Dimensions of contact as predictors of intergroup anxiety, perceived out-group variability, and out-group attitude: An integrative model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 700-710.
29. Jackson, J.R. (1997). Automatically activated racial attitudes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University.
30. Jost, J.T., Pelham, B.W., & Carvallo, M.R. (2002). Non-conscious forms of system justification: Implicit and behavioral preferences for higher status groups. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 38, 586-602.
31. Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J.L. (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774-788.
32. Karpinski, A., Steinman, R.B., & Hilton, J.L. (2005). Attitude importance as a moderator of the relationship between implicit and explicit attitude measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 949-962.
33. Lambert, A.J., Payne, B.K., Ramsey, S., & Shaffer, L.M. (2005). On the predictive validity of implicit attitude measures: The moderating effect of perceived group variability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 114-128.
34. Livingston, R.W. (2002). The role of perceived negativity in the moderation of African Americans' implicit and explicit racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 405-413.
35. Mackie, D.M., & Smith, E.R. (1998). Intergroup relations: Insights from a theoretically integrative approach. Psychological Review, 105, 499-529.
36. McConahay, J.B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91-126). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
37. McConnell, A.R., & Leibold, J.M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, explicit attitudes, and discriminatory behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435-442.
38. Monteith, M.J., Voils, C.I., & Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2001). Taking a look underground: Detecting, interpreting, and reacting to implicit biases. Social Cognition, 19, 395-417.
39. Nosek, B.A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 565-584.
40. Nosek, B.A., Banaji, M.R., & Greenwald, A.G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site. Group Dynamics, 6, 101-115.
41. Nosek, B.A., & Hansen, J.J. (in press). The associations in our heads belong to us: Searching for attitudes and knowledge in implicit evaluation. Cognition and Emotion.
42. Olson, M.A., & Fazio, R.H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extra-personal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653-667.
43. Poehlman, T.A., Uhlmann, E., Greenwald, A.G., & Banaji, M.R. (2004). Measuring and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Manuscript submitted for publication.
44. Rudman, L.A. (2004). Sources of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 79-83.
45. Rudman, L.A., Ashmore, R.D., & Gary, M.L. (2001). 'Unlearning' automatic biases: The malleability of implicit stereotypes and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 856-868.
46. Rudman, L.A., Feinberg, J.M., & Fairchild, K. (2002). Minority members' implicit attitudes: Ingroup bias as a function of group status. Social Cognition, 20, 294-320.
47. Rudman, L.A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743-762.
48. Rudman, L.A., Greenwald, A.G., Mellott, D.S., & Schwartz, J.L.K. (1999). Measuring the automatic components of prejudice: Flexibility and generality of the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 17(4), 1-29.
49. Rudman, L.A., & Lee, M.R. (2002). Implicit and explicit consequences of exposure to violent and misogynous rap music. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 5, 133-150.
50. Sears, D. (1988). Symbolic racism. In P. Katz & D. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 53-84). New York: Plenum.
51. Son Hing, L.S., Li, W., & Zanna, M.P. (2002). Inducing hypocrisy to reduce prejudicial responses among aversive racists. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 71-78.
52. Stephan, W.G., & Stephan, C.W. (1985). Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 157-175.
53. Uhlmann, E., & Poehlman, T.A. (2005). Automatic associations: Personal attitudes or cultural knowledge? Unpublished manuscript, Yale University.
54. Wheeler, M.E., & Fiske, S.T. (2005). Controlling racial prejudice: Social cognitive goals affect amygdala and stereotype activation. Psychological Science, 16, 56-63.
55. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C.M., & Park, B. (1997). Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262-274.
56. Zanna, M.P. (2004). The naive epistemology of a working social psychologist (or the working epistemology of a naive social psychologist): The value of taking 'temporary givens' seriously. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 210-218.