Prejudice reduction: What works? a review and assessment of research and practice

Annual Review of Psychology

Volumn 60, Issue , 2009, Pages 339-367

  Paluck, Elizabeth Levy ^a   Green, Donald P ^b  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Antibias education; Contact hypothesis; Cooperative learning; Cultural competence; Diversity training; Evaluation; Field experiments; Media and reading interventions; Multicultural education; Peace education; Sensitivity training; Stereotype reduction

Indexed keywords

ADULT; CHILD; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; CULTURAL COMPETENCE; HUMAN; PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT; RESEARCH; REVIEW; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DISTANCE; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; WORKPLACE;

ADULT; CHILD; CULTURAL COMPETENCY; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; HUMANS; PREJUDICE; RESEARCH; SOCIAL CONFORMITY; SOCIAL DISTANCE; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL VALUES; STAFF DEVELOPMENT; STEREOTYPING; WORKPLACE;

EID: 60549097244     PISSN: 00664308     EISSN: 15452085     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163607     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Aboud FE, Doyle AB. 1996. Does talk of race foster prejudice or tolerance in children? Can. J. Behav. Sci. 28: 161-70
2. Aboud FE, Levy SR. 2000. Interventions to reduce prejudice and discrimination in children and adolescents. In Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination, ed. S Oskamp, pp. 269-93. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
3. Allport G. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 537 pp.
4. Am. Psychol. Assoc. 2001. Declaration for the UN World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance. http://wwwapaorg/pi/oema/racismdeclarationpdf
5. Aronson E, Blaney N, Stephan W, Sikes J, Snapp M. 1978. The Jigsaw Classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
6. Banaji MR. 2001. Implicit attitudes can be measured. In The Nature of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Robert G. Crowder, ed. HL Roediger, JS Nairne, I Neath, AM Surprenant, pp. 117-50. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
7. Bandura A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
8. Bandura A. 2006. Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 1: 164-80
9. Bargal D, Bar H. 1992. A Lewinian approach to intergroup workshops for Arab-Palestinian and Jewish youth. J. Soc. Issues 48: 139-54
10. Bargh JA, Chen M, Burrows L. 1996. Automaticity of social behavior: direct effect of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 71: 230-44
11. Batson CD. 1991. The Altruism Question: Toward a Social-Psychological Answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 272 pp.
12. Baumeister R, Leary M. 1997. Writing narrative literature reviews. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 13: 311-20
13. Berry JW. 1984. Multicultural policy in Canada: a social psychological analysis. Can. J. Behav. Sci. 16: 353-70
14. Bettencourt A, Brewer M, Croak M, Miller N 1992. Cooperation and the reduction of intergroup bias: the role of reward structure and social orientation. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 284: 301-19
15. Bigler RS. 1999. The use of multicultural curricula and materials to counter racism in children. J. Soc. Issues 55: 687-705
16. Blair I. 2002. The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 63: 242-61
17. Blanchard FA, Crandall CS, Brigham JC, Vaughn LA. 1994. Condemning and condoning racism: a social context approach to interracial settings. J. Appl. Psychol. 79: 993-97
18. Blanchard FA, Lilly T, Vaughn LA. 1991. Reducing the expression of racial prejudice. Psychol. Sci. 2: 101-5
19. Bodenhausen GV, Kramer GP, Susser K. 1994. Happiness and stereotypic thinking in social judgment. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 66: 621-32
20. Brewer MB, Gaertner SL. 2001. Strategies for reducing intergroup bias. In Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes, ed. RJ Brown, SL Gaertner, pp. 451-513. Oxford:
21. Blackwell Sci. Brown RJ, Turner JC. 1979. The criss-cross categorization effect in intergroup discrimination. Br. J. Soc. Clinical Psychol. 18: 371-83
22. Cameron L, Rutland A. 2006. Extended contact through story reading in school: reducing children's prejudice towards the disabled. J. Soc. Issues 62: 469-88
23. Cameron L, Rutland A, Brown RJ, Douch R. 2006. Changing children's intergroup attitudes towards refugees: testing different models of extended contact. Child Dev. 77: 1208-19
24. Clunies-Ross G, O'Meara K. 1989. Changing the attitudes of students towards peers with disabilities. Aust. Psychol. 24: 273-84
25. Cook SW. 1971. The effect of unintended interracial contact upon racial interaction and attitude change. Proj. No. 5-1320, Final Rep. Washington, DC: U.S. Dep. Health Educ. Welfare
26. Cook SW. 1978. Interpersonal and attitudinal outcomes in cooperating interracial groups. J. Res. Dev. Educ. 12: 97-113
27. Cook SW. 1985. Experimenting on social issues: the case of school desegregation. Am. Psychol. 40: 452-60
28. Crandall CS, Eshleman A, O'Brien LT. 2002. Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: the struggle for internalization. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 82: 359-78
29. Crandall CS, Stangor C. 2005. Conformity and prejudice. In On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years After Allport, ed. JF Dovidio, P Glick, LA Rudman, pp. 295-309. Maiden, MA: Blackwell Sci.
30. Crisp RJ, Hewstone M. 1999. Differential evaluation of crossed category groups: patterns processes and reducing intergroup bias. Group Proc. Intergroup Relat. 2: 303-33
31. Crisp RJ, Hewstone M. 2007. Multiple social categorization. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39: 163-254
32. Crosby F, Bromley S, Saxe L. 1980. Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: a literature review. Psychol. Bull. 87: 546-63
33. Dasgupta N, Greenwald AG. 2001. On the malleability of automatic attitudes: combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 81: 800-14
34. Deutsch M. 1949. A theory of co-operation and competition. Hum. Relat. 2: 129-52
35. Devine PG. 1989. Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 56: 5-18
36. Dobbs M, Crano WD. 2001. Outgroup accountability in the minimal group paradigm: implications for aversive discrimination and social identity theory. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27: 355-64
37. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL, Validzic A, Matoka K, Johnson B, Frazier S. 1997. Extending the benefits of recategorization: evaluations, self-disclosure, and helping. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 33: 401-20
38. Druckman JN, Nelson KR. 2003. Framing and deliberation: how citizens' conversations limit elite influence. Am.J. Pol. Sci. 474: 729-45
39. Duncan JG, Boisjoly J, Levy DM, Kremer M, Eccles J. 2003. Empathy or Antipathy? The Consequences of Racially and Socially Diverse Peers on Attitudes and Behaviors. Work. Pap., Inst. Policy Res., Northwestern Univ., Chicago, IL
40. Eagly A, Mladinic A. 1994. Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. In European Review of Social Psychology, ed. WStroebe, M Hewstone, 5: 1-35. New York: Wiley
41. Eisenstadt D, Leippe MR, Rivers JA, Stambush MA. 2003. Counterattitudinal advocacy on a matter of prejudice: effects of distraction commitment and personal importance. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 33(10): 2123-52
42. Ellis C, Sonnenfield JA. 1994. Diverse approaches to managing diversity. Hum. Res. Manag. 33: 79-109
43. Environics Res. Group Ltd. 2001. Citizenship Advertising Campaign "Canada: We All Belong." PNS 048 contract 6C501-010874/001/CB. Communication Canada
44. Esses VM, Dovidio JF. 2002. The role of emotions in determining willingness to engage in intergroup contact. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 289: 1202-14
45. Fein S, Spencer SJ. 1997. Prejudice as self-image maintenance: affirming the self through derogating others. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 73: 31-44
46. Festinger LA. 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press. 291 pp.
47. Fisher FL. 1968. Influences of reading and discussion on the attitudes of fifth graders toward American Indians. J. Educ. Res. 623:130-34
48. Flores G, Gee D, Kastner B. 2000. The teaching of cultural issues in US and Canadian medical schools. Acad. Med. 75:451-55
49. Gaertner SL, Dovidio JF. 2000. Reducing Intergroup Bias: The Common Ingroup Identity Model. Philadelphia, PA: Psychol. Press. 212 pp.
50. Gaertner SL, Dovidio JF, Rust MC, Nier J, Banker B, Ward CM. 1999. Reducing intergroup bias: elements of intergroup cooperation. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 76:388-402
51. Galinsky AD, Moskowitz GB. 2000. Perspective taking: decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 784:708-24
52. Gardiner GS. 1972. Complexity training and prejudice reduction. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2:326-42
53. Gerber AS, Green DP, Kaplan EH. 2004. The illusion of learning from observational research. In Problems and Methods in the Study of Politics, ed. I Shapiro, R Smith, TMassoud, pp. 251-73. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
54. Gerrig RJ. 1993. Experiencing Narrative Worlds. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press. 294 pp.
55. Gilliam FD Jr, Iyengar S. 2000. Prime suspects: the impact of local television news on the viewing public. Am. J. Polit. Sci. 44:560-73
56. Gray DB, Ashmore RD. 1975. Comparing the effects of informational role-playing and value-discrepant treatments of racial attitudes. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 5:262-81
57. Green DP, Wong JS. 2008. Tolerance and the contact hypothesis: a field experiment. In The Political Psychology of Democratic Citizenship, ed. E Borgida. London: Oxford Univ. Press. In press
58. Greenwald AG, McGhee DE, Schwartz JKL. 1998. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 74:1464-80
59. Gurin P, Peng T, Lopez G, Nagda BR. 1999. Context identity and intergroup relations. In Cultural Divides: The Social Psychology of Intergroup Contact, ed. D Prentice, D Miller, pp. 133-70. New York: Sage
60. Gwinn CB. 1998. The effect of multicultural literature on the attitudes of second-grade students. Unpubl. PhD dissert., Univ. Minn.
61. Green MC, Brock TC. 2002. In the mind's eye: transportation-imagery model of narrative persuasion. In Narrative Impact, ed. MC Green, JJ Strange, TC Brock, pp. 315-41. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
62. Hafer C, Begue L. 2005. Experimental research on just-world theory: problems, developments, and future challenges. Psychol. Bull. 1311:128-67
63. Hanover JMB, Cellar DF. 1998. Environmental factors and the effectiveness of workforce diversity training. Hum. Resour. Dev. Q. 9:105-24
64. Hansen F. 2003. Diversity's business case: doesn't add up. Workforce 824:28-32
65. Haring TG, Breen C, Pitts-Conway V, Lee M. 1987. Adolescent peer tutoring and special friend experiences. J. Assoc. Persons Severe Handicaps 12:280-86
66. Hewstone M. 2000. Contact and categorization: social psychological interventions to change intergroup relations. In Stereotypes and Prejudice: Essential Readings, ed. C Stangor, pp. 394-418. New York: Psychol. Press
67. Hornsey M, Hogg M. 2000a. Intergroup similarity and subgroup relations: some implications for assimilation. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 268:948-58
68. Hornsey M, Hogg M. 2000b. Assimilation and diversity: an integrative model of subgroup relations. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 42:143-56
69. Houlette M, Gaertner SL, Johnson KS, Banker BS, Riek BM, Dovidio JM. 2004. Developing a more inclusive social identity: an elementary school intervention. J. Soc. Issues 601:35-55
70. Hughes JM, Bigler RS, Levy SR. 2007. Consequences of learning about historical racism among European American and African American children. Child Dev. 78:1689-705
71. Jackman MR. 1994. The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender Class and Race Relations. Berkeley, CA: Univ. Calif. Press. 425 pp.
72. Johnson DW, Johnson RT. 1989. Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co. 265 pp.
73. Judd CM, Park B, Ryan CS, Brauer M, Kraus S. 1995. Stereotypes and ethnocentrism: diverging interethnic perceptions of African American and White American youth. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 69: 460-81
74. Karpinski A, Hilton JL. 2001. Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test.-. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 81: 774-78
75. Katz P. 2000. Research summary. Intergroup Relations Among Youth: Summary of a Research Workshop. New York: Carnegie Corp.
76. Katz PA, Zalk SR. 1978. Modification of children's racial attitudes. Dev. Psychol. 145: 447-61
77. Kawakami K, Dovidio JF, Moll J, Hermsen S, Russin A. 2000a. Just say no to stereotyping: effects of training in trait negation on stereotype activation. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 78: 871-88
78. Kawakami K, Phills CE, Steele JR, Dovidio JF. 2000b. Close distance makes the heart grow fonder: improving implicit racial attitudes and interracial interactions through approach behaviors. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 926: 957-71
79. Kelman HC, Fisher RJ. 2003. Conflict analysis and resolution. In Political Psychology, ed. DO Sears, L Huddy, R Jervis, pp. 315-56. London: Oxford Univ. Press
80. Kiselica MS, Maben P. 1999. Do multicultural education and diversity training appreciation training reduce prejudice among counseling trainees?-. Ment. Health Couns. 213-40
81. Kuklinski JH, Hurley NL. 1996. It's a matter of interpretation. In Political Persuasion and Attitude Change, ed. D Mutz, P Sniderman, R Brody, pp. 125-44. Ann Arbor: Mich. Univ. Press
82. Kulik CT, Perry EL, Bourhis AC. 2000. Ironic evaluation processes: effects of thought suppression on evaluations of older job applicants. J. Org. Behav. 21: 689-711
83. Landis D, Day HR, McGrew PL, Thomas JA, Miller AB. 1976. Can a black "culture assimilator" increase racial understanding? J. Soc. Issues 32: 169-83
84. Levy SR. 1999. Reducing prejudice: 1essons from social-cognitive factors underlying perceiver differences in prejudice. J. Soc. Issues 55: 745-65
85. Levy SR, Stroessner S, Dweck CS. 1998. Stereotype formation and endorsement: the role of implicit theories. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 74: 421-36
86. Levy SR, West TL, Ramirez LF, Pachankis JE. 2004. Racial and ethnic prejudice among children. In The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination: Racism in America, Vol. 1, ed. J Chin, pp. 37-60. Westport, CT: Praeger Publ.
87. Liebkind K, McAlister AL. 1999. Extended contact through peer modelling to promote tolerance in Finland. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 295-6: 765-80
88. Lustig I. 2003. The influence of studying foreign conflicts on students' perceptions of the Israeli Palestinian conflict. Unpubl. master's thesis: Univ. Haifa, Israel
89. Maass A. 1999. Linguistic intergroup bias: stereotype perpetuation through language. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 31: 79-121
90. Marcus-Newhall A, Miller N, Holtz R, Brewer MB. 1993. Cross-cutting category membership with role assignment: a means of reducing intergroup bias. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 32: 125-46
91. Mays L, Henderson EH, Seidman SK, Steiner VJ. 1975. An Evaluation Report on Vegetable Soup: The Effects of a Multi-Ethnic Children's Television Series on Intergroup Attitudes of Children. Dept. Educ, Albany, NY
92. McAlister A, Ama E, Barroso C, Peters RJ, Kelder S. 2000. Promoting tolerance and moral engagement through peer modeling. Cultur. Divers. Ethnic Minor. Psychol. 64: 363-73
93. McCauley C, Wright M, Harris M. 2000. Diversity workshops on campus: a survey of current practice at U.S. colleges and universities. Coll. Student J. 34: 100-14
94. Mendelberg T. 2001. The Race Card. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
95. Miller N, Brewer MB. 1986. Categorization effects on ingroup and outgroup perception. In Prejudice Discrimination and Racism, ed. JF Dovidio, SL Gaertner, pp. 209-230. Orlando, FL: Academic
96. Miller N, Harrington HJ. 1990. A model of social category salience for intergroup relations: empirical tests of relevant variables. In European Perspectives in Psychology, ed. R Takens, pp 205-20. New York: Wiley
97. Monteith MJ, Deneen NE, Tooman G. 1996. The effect of social norm activation on the expression on opinions concerning gay men and blacks. Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. 18: 267-88
98. Monteith MJ, Sherman J, Devine PG. 1998. Suppression as a stereotype control strategy. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2: 3-82
99. Monteith MJ, Zuwerink JR, Devine PG. 1994. Prejudice and prejudice reduction: classic challenges contemporary approaches. In Social Cognition: Impact on Social Psychology, ed. PG Devine, DL Hamilton, pp. 323-46. San Diego, CA: Academic
100. Morris L, Romero J, Tan DL. 1996. Changes in attitude after diversity training. Training Dev. 509: 54-55
101. Mullen B, Migdal M, Hewstone M. 2001. Crossed categorization versus simple categorization and intergroup evaluations: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 31: 721-36
102. Nagda B, Kim C, Truelove Y. 2004. Learning about difference: 1earning with others, learning to transgress. J. Soc. Issues 60: 195-214
103. Nagda B, Zúñiga X. 2003. Fostering meaningful racial engagement through intergroup dialogues. Group Process Intergr. 6: 111-28
104. Nier JA, Gaertner SL, Dovidio JF, Banker BS, Ward CM, Rust MC. 2001. Changing interracial evaluations and behavior: the effects of a common group identity. Group Process Interg. 44: 299-316
105. Olson MA, Fazio RH. 2008. Reducing automatically activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 32: 421-33
106. Oskamp S. 2000. Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 370 pp.
107. Pagtolun-An IM, Clair JM. 1986. An experimental study of attitudes toward homosexuality. Dev. Behav. 7: 121-35
108. Paluck EL. 2006a. Diversity training and intergroup contact: a call to action research. J. Soc. Issues 623: 439-51
109. Paluck EL. 2006b. Peer pressure against prejudice: afield experimental test of a national high school prejudice reduction program. Work. Pap., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA
110. Paluck EL. 2008. Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: a field experiment in Rwanda. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. In press
111. Paluck EL, Green DP. 2008. Deference dissent and dispute resolution: afield experiment on a mass media intervention in Rwanda. Work. Pap., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA
112. Pedersen A, Walker I, Wise M. 2005. "Talk does not cook rice": beyond antiracism rhetoric to strategies for social action. Aust. Psychol. 401: 20-30
113. Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR. 2006. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 90: 751-83
114. Powers DA, Ellison CG. 1995. Interracial contact and black racial attitudes: the contact hypothesis and selectivity bias. Soc. Forces 74: 205-26
115. Price EG, Beach MC, Gary TL, Robinson KA, Gozu A, Palacio A. 2005. A systematic review of the methodological rigor of studies evaluating cultural competence training of health professionals. Acad. Med. 806: 579-86
116. Puma MJ, Jones CC, Rock D, Fernandez R. 1993. Prospects: The congressionally mandated study of educational growth and opportunity. Interim rep., Bethesda, MD: Abt Assoc.
117. Rich Y, Kedem P, Shlesinger A. 1995. Enhancing intergroup relations among children: a field test of the Miller-Brewer model. Int. J. Intermit. Relat. 194: 539-53
118. Roberts K. 2000. Toward Competent Communities: Best Practices for Producing Community-Wide Study Circles. Lexington, KY: Topsfield Found.
119. Rokeach M. 1971. Long-range experimental modification of values attitudes and behavior. Am. Psychol. 26: 453-59
120. Rokeach M. 1973. The Nature of Human Values. New York: Free Press
121. Roseth C, Johnson D, Johnson R. 2008. Promoting early adolescents' achievement and peer relationships: the effects of cooperative competitive and individualistic goal structures. Psychol. Bull. 1342: 223-46
122. Rothbart M, John OP. 1985. Social categorization and behavioral episodes: a cognitive analysis of the effects of intergroup contact. J. Soc. Issues 413: 81-104
123. Rudman LA, Ashmore RD, Gary ML. 2001. "Unlearning" automatic biases: the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 815: 856-68
124. Ruiz-Belda MA, Fernandez-Dols JM, Carrera P, Barchard K. 2003. Spontaneous facial expressions of happy bowlers and soccer fans. Cogn. Emot. 17: 315-26
125. Schaller M, Asp CH, Rosell MC, Heim SJ. 1996. Training in statistical reasoning inhibits the formation of erroneous group stereotypes. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 22: 829-44
126. Sears DO. 1986. College sophomores in the laboratory: influences of a narrow data-base on social psychology's view of human nature. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 51: 515-30
127. Sears DO. 1988. Symbolic racism. In Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey, E Aronson, 5: 315-458. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Rev. ed.
128. Selltiz C, Cook S. 1948. Can research in social science be both socially meaningful and scientifically useful? Am. Soc. Rev. 13: 454-59
129. Shadish WR, Cook TD, Campbell DT. 2002. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. 623pp.
130. Sherif M, Harvey OJ, White BJ, Hood WR, Sherif CW. 1961. Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman: Univ. Oklahoma Book Exchange. 263pp.
131. Sidanius J, Pratto F. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 416 pp.
132. Sinclair L, Kunda Z. 1999. Reactions to a Black professional: motivated inhibition and activation of conflicting stereotypes. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 77: 885-904
133. Slavin RE, Leavey MB, Madden NA. 1984. Combining cooperative learning and individualized instruction: effects on student mathematics achievement, attitudes, and behaviors. Element. Sch. J. 84: 409-22
134. Slone M, Tarrasch R, Hallis D. 2000. Ethnic stereotypic attitudes among Israeli children: two intervention programs. Merrill-Palmer Q. 46: 370-89
135. Smith E. 1993. Social identity and social emotions: towards new conceptualizations of prejudice. In Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping, ed. D Mackie, D Hamilton, pp. 297-315. New York: Academic
136. Sniderman PM, Piazza T. 1993. The Scar of Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
137. Son Hing LS, Li W, Zanna MP. 2002. Inducing hypocrisy to reduce prejudicial responses among aversive racists. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 381: 71-78
138. Stangor C, Sechrist GB, Jost JT. 2001. Changing racial beliefs by providing consensus information. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27: 484-94
139. Steele CM. 1998. The psychology of self-affirmation: sustaining the integrity of the self. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 21: Social Psychological Studies of the Self: Perspectives and Programs, ed L Berkowitz, pp. 261-302. San Diego, CA: Academic
140. Stephan WG. 1999. Reducing Prejudice and Stereotyping in Schools. New York: Teachers Coll. Press. 142 pp.
141. Stephan WG, Finlay K. 1999. The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations. J. Soc. Issues 554: 729-44
142. Stephan WG, Stephan CW. 1984. The role of ignorance in intergroup relations. In Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation, ed. NMiller, MB Brewer, pp. 229-57. Orlando, FL: Academic
143. Stephan WG, Stephan CW. 2001. Improving Intergroup Relations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 360 pp.
144. Sternberg RJ. 2003. Aduplex theory of hate: development and application to terrorism massacres and genocide. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 73: 299-328
145. Stevenson MR. 1988. Promoting tolerance for homosexuality: an evaluation of intervention strategies. J. Sex Res. 254: 500-11
146. Stewart TL, LaDuke JR, Bracht C, Sweet BAM, Gamarel KE. 2003. Do the "eyes" have it? A program evaluation of Jane Elliot's "Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes" diversity training exercise. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 339: 1898-921
147. Strange JL. 2002. How fictional tales wag real-world beliefs. In Narrative Impact: Social and Cognitive Foundations, ed. MC Green, J Strange, T Brock, pp. 263-86. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
148. Tajfel H. 1970. Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Sci. Am. 223: 96-102
149. Towles-Schwen T, Fazio RH. 2006. Automatically activated racial attitudes as predictors of the success of interracial roommate relationships. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42: 698-705
150. van Wieringen JCM, Schulpen TWJ, Kuyvenhoven MM. 2001. Intercultural training of medical students. Med. Teach. 23: 80-82
151. Vescio TK, Judd CM, Kwan VSY. 2004. Categorization and intergroup bias in crossed contexts: evidence of reductions in the strength of categorization but not intergroup bias.-. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 40: 478-96
152. Vescio TK, Sechrist GB, Paolucci MP. 2003. Perspective taking and prejudice reduction: the mediational role of empathy arousal and situational attributions European. J. Soc. Psychol. 33455-72
153. Warring DW, Johnson D, Maruyama G, Johnson R. 1985. Impact of different types of cooperative learning on cross-ethnic and cross-sex relationships. J. Educ. Psychol. 77: 53-59
154. Wham MA, Barnhart J, Cook G. 1996. Enhancing multicultural awareness through the storybook reading experience. J. Res. Dev. Educ. 301: 1-9
155. Wikfors EL. 1998. Effects of a disabilities awareness workshop: employees' knowledge attitude and interaction. PhD dissert., Univ. Florida. Dissert. Abstracts Int. 58: 2495
156. Wilder DA. 1986. Social categorization: implications for creation and reduction of intergroup bias. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 19, ed. L Berkowitz, pp. 239-355. New York: Academic
157. Wittenbrink B, Judd CM, Park B. 2001. Spontaneous prejudice in context: variability in automatically activated attitudes. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 81: 815-27
158. Wright SC, Aron A, McLaughlin-Volpe T, Ropp SA. 1997. The extended contact effect: knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 73: 73-90
159. Yawkey TD. 1973. Attitudes toward Black Americans held by rural and urban white early childhood subjects based upon multi-ethnic social studies materials. J. Negro Educ. 42: 164-69
160. Zillmann D. 1991. Empathy: affect from bearing witness to the emotions of others. In Responding to the Screen: Reception and Reaction Processes, ed. J Bryant, D Zillmann, pp. 335-67. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum