Dislocations and their reduction in GaN

Materials Science and Technology

Volumn 26, Issue 9, 2010, Pages 1017-1028

  Bennett, S E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

efficiency; Gallium nitride; light emitting diodes; threading dislocations

Indexed keywords

CHARGE CARRIER RECOMBINATION; COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS; CRYSTALLINE FILMS; DISLOCATION CORE; GAN FILM; GAN ISLANDS; GAN-BASED DEVICES; GLOBAL ENERGY DEMAND; GROWTH CONDITIONS; HIGH DISLOCATION DENSITY; HIGH EFFICIENCY; HIGH EFFICIENCY DEVICES; INITIAL STAGES; NITRIDE-BASED DEVICES; NON-RADIATIVE; THREADING DISLOCATION; TO EFFECT;

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY; CHARGE CARRIERS; COALESCENCE; CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS; DIODES; FILM GROWTH; GALLIUM ALLOYS; LIGHT EMISSION; LIGHT EMITTING DIODES; SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES; SEMICONDUCTOR GROWTH; TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY;

GALLIUM NITRIDE;

EID: 77957000047     PISSN: 02670836     EISSN: 17432847     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/026708310X12668415533685     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. S. Nakamura, T. Mukai and M. Senoh: 'High-power GaN P-Njunction blue-light-emitting diodes', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., 1991, 30, (12A), L1998-L2001.
2. 'Millenium Technology Prize winner Professor Shuji Nakamura and his work', 2006, http://www.energy-enviro.fi/index.php? PAGE5241&LANG51
3. P. Gibart: 'Metal organic vapour phase epitaxy of GaN and lateral overgrowth', Rep. Prog. Phys., 2004, 67, 667-715.
4. J. C. Moore, V. Kasliwal, A. A. Baski, X. Ni, U. Ozgur and H. Morkoc: 'Local electronic and optical behaviors of a-plane GaN grown via epitaxial lateral overgrowth', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2007, 90, 011913-1-011913-11923
5. F. A. Ponce, S. P. Bour, W. Gotz and P. J. Wright: 'Spatial distribution of the luminescence in GaN thin films', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1996, 68, (1), 57-59.
6. C. G. van de Walle and J. Neugebauer: 'First-principles calculations for defects and impurities: Applications to III-nitrides', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2004, 95, (8), 3851-3879.
7. R. A. Oliver: 'Growth and characterisation of nitride nanostructures', Mater. Sci. Technol., 2002, 18, 1257-1271.
8. M. Feneberg and K. Thonke: 'Polarization fields of III-nitrides grown in different crystal orientations', J. Phys., Condens. Matter, 2007, 19, 403201-1-403201-403226
9. M. Sumiya and S. Fuke: 'Review of polarity determination and control of GaN', MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res., 2004, 9, 1.
10. I. Vurgaftman and J. R. Meyer: 'Band parameters for nitrogencontaining semiconductors', J. Appl. Phys., 2003, 94, 3675.
11. 'TopGaN Blue Laser Technologies', 2008, http://www.topgan.fr.pl/ ?what5text&id55
12. S. Nakamura and S. F. Chichibu: 'Introduction to nitride semiconductor blue lasers and light emitting diodes'; 2000, London and New York, Taylor and Francis.
13. O. Ambacher: 'Growth and applications of group III nitrides', J. Phys. D, 1998, 31D, (20), 2653-2710.
14. P. Ruterana and G. Nouet: 'Atomic structure of extended defects in wurtzite GaN epitaxial layers', Phys. Status Solidi B, 2001, 227B, (1), 177-228.
15. V. Narayanan, K. Lorenz, W. Kim and S. Mahajan: 'Gallium nitride epitaxy on (0001) sapphire', Philos. Mag. A, 2002, 82A, (5), 885-912.
16. H. M. Kim, Y. H. Cho, H. Lee, S. I. Kim, S. R. Ryu, D. Y. Kim, T. W. Kang and K. S. Chung: 'High-brightness light emitting diodes using dislocation-free indium gallium nitride/gallium nitride multiquantum-well nanorod arrays', Nano Lett., 2004, 4, (6), 1059-1062.
17. S. Nakamura: 'The roles of structural imperfections in InGaNbased blue light emitting diodes and laser diodes', Science, 1998, 281, 956-961.
18. X. J. Ning, F. R. Chien, P. Pirouz, J. W. Yang and M. A. Khan: 'Growth defects in GaN films on sapphire: the probable origin of threading dislocations', J. Mater. Res., 1995, 11, (3), 580-592.
19. X. H. Wu, P. Fini, E. J. Tarsa, B. Heying, S. Keller, U. K. Mishra, S. P. Denbaars and J. S. Speck: 'Dislocation generation in GaN heteroepitaxy', J. Cryst. Growth, 1998, 189/190, 231-243.
20. P. Fini, X. Wu, E. J. Tarsa, Y. Golan, V. Srikant, S. P. Denbaars and J. S. Speck: 'The effect of growth environment on the morphological and extended defect evolution in GaN grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., 1998, 37, 4460-4466.
21. V. Narayanan, K. Lorenz, W. Kim and S. Mahajan: 'Origins of threading dislocations in GaN epitaxial layers grown on sapphire by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2001, 78, (11), 1544-1546. (Pubitemid 33616947)
22. R. A. Oliver, M. J. Kappers, J. Sumner, R. Datta and C. J. Humphreys: 'Highlighting threading dislocations in MOVPEgrown GaN using an in situ treatment with SiH4 and NH3', J. Cryst. Growth, 2006, 289, 506-514.
23. R. A. Oliver, M. J. Kappers and C. J. Humphreys: 'Insights into the origin of threading dislocations in GaN/Al2O3 from atomic force microscopy', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2006, 89, 011914-1-011914-11923
24. A. H. Herzog, D. L. Keune and M. G. Craford: 'High-efficiency Zn-diffused GaAs electroluminescent diodes', J. Appl. Phys., 1972, 43, 600-608.
25. W. A. Brantley, O. G. Lorimor, P. D. Dapkus, S. E. Haszko and R. H. Saul: 'Effect of dislocations on green electroluminescence efficiency in GaP grown by liquid phase epitaxy', J. Appl. Phys., 1975, 46, (6), 2629-2637.
26. S. D. Lester, F. A. Ponce, M. G. Craford and D. A. Steigerwald: 'High dislocation densities in high-efficiency GaN-based lightemitting- diodes', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1995, 66, (10), 1249-1251.
27. A. A. Efremov, N. I. Bochkareva, R. I. Gorbunov, D. A. Lavrinovich, Y. T. Rebane, D. V. Tarkhin and Y. G. Shreter: 'Effect of the joule heating on the quantum efficiency and choice of thermal conditions for high-power blue InGaN/GaN LEDs', Phys. Semicond. Devices, 2005, 40, (5), 621-627.
28. T. Sugahara, H. Sato, M. Hao, Y. Naoi, S. Kurai, S. Tottori, K. Yamashita, K. Nishino, L. T. Romano and S. Sakai: 'Direct Evidence that Dislocations are Non-Radiative Recombination Centers in GaN', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., 1998, 37, L 398-L 400.
29. S. J. Rosner, E. C. Carr, M. J. Ludowise, G. Girolami and H. I. Erikson: 'Correlation of cathodoluminescence inhomogeneity with microstructural defects in epitaxial GaN grown by metalorganic chemical-vapor deposition', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1997, 70, (4), 420-422.
30. T. Sugahara, M. Hao, T. Wang, D. Nakagawa, Y. Naoi, K. Nishino and S. Sakai: 'Role of dislocation in InGaN phase separation', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., 1998, 37, L1195-L1198.
31. R. J. Roedel, K. Rowley, J. L. Edwards and S. Myhajlenko: 'Comparison of etch pit distributions and cathodoluminescence images in semi-insulating GaAs', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1991, 138, (10), 3120-3124.
32. J. F. Knott: 'Semi-conductors: dislocations', Personal communication.
33. D. Cherns, C. G. Jiao, H. Mokhtari, J. Cai and F. A. Ponce: 'Electron holography studies of the charge on dislocations in GaN', Phys. Status Solidi B, 2002, 234B, (3), 924-930.
34. D. Cherns and C. G. Jiao: 'Electron holography studies of the charge on dislocations in GaN', Phys. Rev. Lett., 2001, 87, (20), 205504-1-205504-205514
35. J. Cai and F. A. Ponce: 'Determination by electron holography of the electronic charge distribution at threading dislocations in epitaxial GaN', Phys. Status Solidi A, 2002, 192A, (2), 407-411.
36. P. J. Hansen, Y. E. Strausser, A. N. Erickson, E. J. Tarsa, P. Kozodoy, E. G. Brazel, J. P. Ibbetson, U. Mishra, V. Narayanamurti, S. P. Denbaars and J. S. Speck: 'Scanning capacitance microscopy imaging of threading dislocations in GaN films grown on (0001) sapphire by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1998, 72, (18), 2247-2249.
37. M. Fox: 'Optical properties of solids'; 2007, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
38. S. Y. Karpov and Y. N. Makarova: 'Dislocation effect on light emission efficiency in gallium nitride', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2002, 81, 4721-4723.
39. S. K. Mathis, A. E. Romanov, L. F. Chen, G. E. Beltz, W. Pompe and J. S. Speck: 'Modeling of threading dislocation reduction in growing GaN layers', J. Cryst. Growth, 2001, 231, 371-390.
40. K. Lee and K. Auh: 'Dislocation density of GaN grown by hydride vapor phase epitaxy', MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res., 2001, 6, (9), 1-6.
41. H. Morkoç: 'Comprehensive characterization of hydride VPE grown GaN layers and templates', Mater. Sci. Eng. R, 2001, R33, 135-207. (Pubitemid 32534128)
42. I. Akasaki, H. Amano, Y. Koide, K. Hiramatsu and N. Sawaki: 'Effects of AlN buffer layer on crystallographic structure and on electrical and optical-properties of GaN and Ga12xAlxN (0,x(0-4) films grown on sapphire substrate by MOVPE', J. Crystal Growth, 1989, 98, (1-2), 209-219.
43. S. Keller, B. P. Keller, Y.-.F Wu, B. Heying, D. Kapolnek, J. S. Speck, U. K. Mishra and S. P. Denbaars: 'Influence of sapphire nitridation on properties of gallium nitride grown by metalorganic chemical vapor phase deposition', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1996, 68, (11), 1525-1527.
44. K. Uchida, A. Watanabe, F. Yano, M. Kouguchi, T. Tanaka and S. Minagawa: 'Nitridation process of sapphire substrate surface and its effect on the growth of GaN', J. Appl. Phys., 1995, 79, (5), 3487-3491.
45. S. Nakamura: 'GaN growth using GaN buffer layer', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., Part 2, 1991, 30, (10A), L1705-L1707.
46. P. Vennegues, B. Beaumont, M. Vaille and P. Gibart: 'Microstructure of GaN epitaxial films at different stages of the growth process on sapphire (0001)', J. Cryst. Growth, 1997, 173, (3-4), 249-259.
47. S. Figge, T. Böttcher, S. Einfeldt and D. Hommel: 'In situ and ex situ evaluation of the film coalescence for GaN growth on GaN nucleation layers', J. Cryst. Growth, 2000, 221, 262-266.
48. H. Amano, N. Sawaki, I. Akasaki and Y. Toyoda: 'Metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxial-growth of a high-quality GaN film using an AlN buffer layer', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1986, 48, (5), 353-355.
49. K. Hiramatsu, S. Itoh, H. Amano, I. Akasaki, N. Kuwano, T. Shiraishi and K. Oki: 'Growth mechanism of GaN grown on sapphire with AlN buffer layer by MOVPE', J. Cryst. Growth, 1991, 115, (1-4), 628-633.
50. D. Morita, A. Fujioka, T. Mukai and M. Fukui: 'Dislocation reduction mechanism in low-nucleation-density GaN growth using AlN templates', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., Part 1, 2007, 46, (5A), 2895-2900.
51. O. Ambacher, R. Dimitrov, D. Lentz, T. Metzger, W. Rieger and M. Stutzmann: 'Growth of GaN/AlN and AlGaN by MOCVD using triethylgallium and tritertiarybutylaluminium', J. Cryst. Growth, 1997, 170, 335-339.
52. J. Hertkorn, P. Brückner, S. B. Thapa, T. Wunderer, F. Scholz, M. Feneberg, K. Thonke, R. Sauer, M. Beer and J. Zweck: 'Optimization of nucleation and buffer layer growth for improved GaN quality', J. Cryst. Growth, 2007, 308, 30-36.
53. R. Datta and C. J. Humphreys: 'Mechanisms of bending of threading dislocations in MOVPE- grown GaN on (0001) sapphire', Phys. Status Solidi C, 2006, 3C, (6), 1750-1753.
54. M. J. Kappers, M. A. Moram, Y. Zhang, M. E. Vickers, Z. H. Barber and C. J. Humphreys: 'Interlayer methods for reducing the dislocation density in gallium nitride', Physica B, 2007, 401B-402B, 296-301.
55. S.-.E. Park, S.-M. Lim, C.-R. Lee, C. S. Kim and O. Byungsung: 'Influence of SiN buffer layer in GaN epilayers', J. Cryst. Growth, 2003, 249, 487-491.
56. E. Frayssinet, B. Beaumont, J. P. Faurie, P. Gibart, Z. Makkai, B. Pecz, P. Lefebvre and P. Valvin: 'Micro epitaxial lateral overgrowth of GaN/sapphire by metal organic vapour phase epitaxy', MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res., 2002, 7, (8), A8.
57. T. Lang,M. Odnoblyudov, V. Bougrov, S. Suihkonen, M. Sopanen and H. Lipsanen: 'Morphology optimization of MOCVD-grown GaN nucleation layers by the multistep technique', J. Cryst. Growth, 2006, 292, 26-32.
58. D. D. Koleske, A. J. Fischer, A. A. Allerman, C. C. Mitchell, K. C. Cross, S. R. Kurtz, J. J. Figiel, K. W. Fullmer and W. G. Breiland: 'Improved brightness of 380 nm GaN light emitting diodes through intentional delay of the nucleation island coalescence', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2002, 81, (11), 1940-1942.
59. H. Lahrèche, P. Vennegues, B. Beaumont and P. Gibart: 'Growth of high-quality GaN by low-pressure metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy (LP-MOVPE) from 3D islands and lateral overgrowth', J. Cryst. Growth, 1999, 205, (3), 245-252.
60. M. J. Kappers, R. Datta, R. A. Oliver, F. D. G. Rayment, M. E. Vickers and C. J. Humphreys: 'Threading dislocation reduction in (0001) GaN thin films using SiNx interlayers', J. Cryst. Growth, 2007, 300, 70-74.
61. S. Tanaka, M. Takeuchi and Y. Aoyagi: 'Anti-surfactant in IIInitride epitaxy-Quantum dot formation and dislocation termination', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., Part 2, 2000, 39, (8B), L831-L834.
62. K. Pakula, R. Bozek, J. M. Baranowski, J. Jasinski and Z. Liliental-Weber: 'Reduction of dislocation density in heteroepitaxial GaN: role of SiH4 treatment', J. Cryst. Growth, 2004, 267, 1-7.
63. M. A. Moram, M. J. Kappers, Z. H. Barber and C. J. Humphreys: 'Growth of low dislocation density GaN using transition metal nitride masking layers', J. Cryst. Growth, 2007, 298, 268-271.
64. M. A. Moram, Y. Zhang, M. J. Kappers, Z. H. Barber and C. J. Humphreys: 'Dislocation reduction in gallium nitride films using scandium nitride interlayers', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2007, 91, 152101-1- 152101-152103
65. B. Beaumont, S. Haffouz and P. Gibart: 'Magnesium induced changes in the selective growth of GaN by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1998, 72, 921-923.
66. A. Usui, H. Sunakawa, A. Sakai and A. A. Yamaguchi: 'Thick GaN epitaxial growth with low dislocation density by hydride vapor phase epitaxy', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., Part 2., 1997, 36, (7B), L899-L902.
67. H. Marchand, J. P. Ibbetson, P. T. Fini, X. H. Wu, S. Keller, S. P. Denbaars, J. S. Speck and U. K. Mishra: 'Fast lateral epitaxial overgrowth of gallium nitride by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition using a two-step process', MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res., 1999, 4S1, G4-5.
68. S. Nagahama, N. Iwasa, M. Senoh, T. Matsushita, Y. Sugimoto, H. Kiyoku, T. Kozaki, M. Sano, H. Matsumura, H. Umemoto, K. Chocho and T. Mukai: 'High-power and long-lifetime InGaN multi-quantum-well laser diodes grown on low-dislocation-density GaN substrates', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., Part 2, 2000, 39, L647-L650.
69. T. Detchprohm, M. Yano, S. Sano, R. Nakamura, S. Mochiduki, T. Nakamura, H. Amano and I. Akasaki: 'Heteroepitaxial lateral overgrowth of GaN on periodically grooved substrates: A new approach for growing low-dislocation- density GaN single crystals', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., Part 2, 2001, 40, (1AB), L16-L19.
70. S. Sano, T. Detchprohm, S. Mochizuki, S. Kamiyama, H. Amano and I. Akasaki: 'Low-dislocation-density GaN and AlxGa12xN (x(0-13) grown on grooved substrates', J. Cryst. Growth, 2002, 235, (1-4), 129-134.
71. C. I. H. Ashby, C. C. Mitchell, J. Han, N. A. Missert, P. P. Provencio, D. M. Follstaedt, G. M. Peake and L. Griego: 'Lowdislocation- density GaN from a single growth on a textured substrate', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2000, 77, (20), 3233-3235.
72. D. M. Follstaedt, P. P. Provencio, N. A. Missert, C. C. Mitchell, D. D. Koleske, A. A. Allerman and C. I. H. Ashby: 'Minimizing threading dislocations by redirection during cantilever epitaxial growth of GaN', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2002, 81, (15), 2758-2760.
73. T. S. Zheleva, S. A. Smith, D. B. Thomson, T. Gehrke, K. J. Linthicum, P. Rajagopal, E. Carlson, W. M. Ashmawi and R. F. Davis: 'Pendeo-epitaxy-a new approach for lateral growth of gallium nitride structures', MRS Internet J. Nitride Semicond. Res., 1999, 4S1, G3-38.