Regulatory T cells, inflammation and the allergic response-The role of glucocorticoids and Vitamin D

Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

Volumn 120, Issue 2-3, 2010, Pages 86-95

  Dimeloe, Sarah ^a   Nanzer, Alexandra ^a   Ryanna, Kimuli ^a   Hawrylowicz, Catherine ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Allergy; Asthma; Glucocorticoids; Regulatory T cells (TRegs); Tolerance; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

ALLERGEN; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; CALCITRIOL; DEXAMETHASONE; GLUCOCORTICOID; INTERLEUKIN 10; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR FOXP3; VITAMIN D;

AIRWAY; ALLERGIC DISEASE; ALLERGIC REACTION; ALLERGY; ARTICLE; ASTHMA; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; IMMUNOREGULATION; INFLAMMATION; NONHUMAN; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

EID: 77952953783     PISSN: 09600760     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.02.029     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. Holgate S.T., Polosa R. Treatment strategies for allergy and asthma. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2008, 8(3):218-230.
2. Masoli M., et al. The global burden of asthma: executive summary of the GINA Dissemination Committee report. Allergy 2004, 59(5):469-478.
3. Ait-Khaled N., et al. Global map of the prevalence of symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis in children: The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Phase Three. Allergy 2009, 64(1):123-148.
4. Kay A.B. Allergy and allergic diseases. First of two parts. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001, 344(1):30-37.
5. Galli S.J., Tsai M., Piliponsky A.M. The development of allergic inflammation. Nature 2008, 454(7203):445-454.
6. Busse W.W., Lemanske R.F. Asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001, 344(5):350-362.
7. Larche M., Robinson D.S., Kay A.B. The role of T lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2003, 111(3):450-463. quiz 464.
8. Barrett N.A., Austen K.F. Innate cells and T helper 2 cell immunity in airway inflammation. Immunity 2009, 31(3):425-437.
9. Barnes P.J. Immunology of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2008, 8(3):183-192.
10. Sakaguchi S. Naturally arising CD4+ regulatory t cells for immunologic self-tolerance and negative control of immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2004, 22:531-562.
11. Hori S., Nomura T., Sakaguchi S. Control of regulatory T cell development by the transcription factor Foxp3. Science 2003, 299(5609):1057-1061.
12. Baecher-Allan C., et al. CD4+CD25 high regulatory cells in human peripheral blood. J. Immunol. 2001, 167(3):1245-1253.
13. Takahashi T., et al. Immunologic self-tolerance maintained by CD25(+)CD4(+) regulatory T cells constitutively expressing cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4. J. Exp. Med. 2000, 192(2):303-310.
14. Read S., Malmstrom V., Powrie F. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 plays an essential role in the function of CD25(+)CD4(+) regulatory cells that control intestinal inflammation. J. Exp. Med. 2000, 192(2):295-302.
15. Shimizu J., et al. Stimulation of CD25(+)CD4(+) regulatory T cells through GITR breaks immunological self-tolerance. Nat. Immunol. 2002, 3(2):135-142.
16. Hawrylowicz C.M. Regulatory T cells and IL-10 in allergic inflammation. J. Exp. Med. 2005, 202(11):1459-1463.
17. Vukmanovic-Stejic M., et al. Human CD4+ CD25hi Foxp3+ regulatory T cells are derived by rapid turnover of memory populations in vivo. J. Clin. Invest. 2006, 116(9):2423-2433.
18. Cobbold S.P., et al. Induction of foxP3+ regulatory T cells in the periphery of T cell receptor transgenic mice tolerized to transplants. J. Immunol. 2004, 172(10):6003-6010.
19. Curotto de Lafaille M.A., et al. Adaptive Foxp3+ regulatory T cell-dependent and -independent control of allergic inflammation. Immunity 2008, 29(1):114-126.
20. Knoechel B., et al. Sequential development of interleukin 2-dependent effector and regulatory T cells in response to endogenous systemic antigen. J. Exp. Med. 2005, 202(10):1375-1386.
21. Coombes J.L., et al. A functionally specialized population of mucosal CD103+ DCs induces Foxp3+ regulatory T cells via a TGF-beta and retinoic acid-dependent mechanism. J. Exp. Med. 2007, 204(8):1757-1764.
22. Mucida D., et al. Oral tolerance in the absence of naturally occurring Tregs. J. Clin. Invest. 2005, 115(7):1923-1933.
23. Chen W., et al. Conversion of peripheral CD4+CD25- naive T cells to CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells by TGF-beta induction of transcription factor Foxp3. J. Exp. Med. 2003, 198(12):1875-1886.
24. Fantini M.C., et al. Cutting edge: TGF-beta induces a regulatory phenotype in CD4+CD25- T cells through Foxp3 induction and down-regulation of Smad7. J. Immunol. 2004, 172(9):5149-5153.
25. Josefowicz S.Z., Rudensky A. Control of regulatory T cell lineage commitment and maintenance. Immunity 2009, 30(5):616-625.
26. Gabrysova L., et al. Negative feedback control of the autoimmune response through antigen-induced differentiation of IL-10-secreting Th1 cells. J. Exp. Med. 2009, 206(8):1755-1767.
27. Alexander C., et al. Fel d 1-derived T cell peptide therapy induces recruitment of CD4+ CD25+; CD4+ interferon-gamma+ T helper type 1 cells to sites of allergen-induced late-phase skin reactions in cat-allergic subjects. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2005, 35(1):52-58.
28. Tarzi M., et al. Induction of interleukin-10 and suppressor of cytokine signalling-3 gene expression following peptide immunotherapy. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2006, 36(4):465-474.
29. Meiler F., et al. In vivo switch to IL-10-secreting T regulatory cells in high dose allergen exposure. J. Exp. Med. 2008, 205(12):2887-2898.
30. Sundstedt A., et al. Role for IL-10 in suppression mediated by peptide-induced regulatory T cells in vivo. J. Immunol. 2003, 170(3):1240-1248.
31. Jutel M., et al. IL-10 and TGF-beta cooperate in the regulatory T cell response to mucosal allergens in normal immunity and specific immunotherapy. Eur. J. Immunol. 2003, 33(5):1205-1214.
32. O'Garra A., et al. Strategies for use of IL-10 or its antagonists in human disease. Immunol. Rev. 2008, 223:114-131.
33. Rubtsov Y.P., et al. Regulatory T cell-derived interleukin-10 limits inflammation at environmental interfaces. Immunity 2008, 28(4):546-558.
34. Marie J.C., et al. TGF-beta1 maintains suppressor function and Foxp3 expression in CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. J. Exp. Med. 2005, 201(7):1061-1067.
35. Collison L.W., et al. The inhibitory cytokine IL-35 contributes to regulatory T-cell function. Nature 2007, 450(7169):566-569.
36. Pandiyan P., et al. CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells induce cytokine deprivation-mediated apoptosis of effector CD4+ T cells. Nat. Immunol. 2007, 8(12):1353-1362.
37. Grossman W.J., et al. Human T regulatory cells can use the perforin pathway to cause autologous target cell death. Immunity 2004, 21(4):589-601.
38. Gondek D.C., et al. Cutting edge: contact-mediated suppression by CD4+CD25+ regulatory cells involves a granzyme B-dependent, perforin-independent mechanism. J. Immunol. 2005, 174(4):1783-1786.
39. Wing K., et al. CTLA-4 control over Foxp3+ regulatory T cell function. Science 2008, 322(5899):271-275.
40. Qureshi O.S., Zheng Y., Manzotti C.N., Walker L.S., Samson D.M. Regulatory T cells use CTLA-4 to remove CD86 from the surface of dendritic cells. Immunology 2008, 125(Suppl.):99.
41. Ring S., et al. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells suppress contact hypersensitivity reactions through a CD39, adenosine-dependent mechanism. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2009, 123(6):1287-1296. e2.
42. Lund J.M., et al. Coordination of early protective immunity to viral infection by regulatory T cells. Science 2008, 320(5880):1220-1224.
43. Ryanna K., et al. Regulatory T cells in bronchial asthma. Allergy 2009, 64(3):335-347.
44. Lloyd C.M., Hawrylowicz C.M. Regulatory T cells in asthma. Immunity 2009, 31(3):438-449.
45. Li B., et al. FOXP3 is a homo-oligomer and a component of a supramolecular regulatory complex disabled in the human XLAAD/IPEX autoimmune disease. Int. Immunol. 2007, 19(7):825-835.
46. Ling E.M., et al. Relation of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T-cell suppression of allergen-driven T-cell activation to atopic status and expression of allergic disease. Lancet 2004, 363(9409):608-615.
47. Hartl D., et al. Quantitative and functional impairment of pulmonary CD4+CD25hi regulatory T cells in pediatric asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2007, 119(5):1258-1266.
48. Moore K.W., et al. Interleukin-10 and the interleukin-10 receptor. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2001, 19:683-765.
49. Asadullah K., Sterry W., Volk H.D. Interleukin-10 therapy-review of a new approach. Pharmacol. Rev. 2003, 55(2):241-269.
50. Hawrylowicz C.M., O'Garra A. Potential role of interleukin-10-secreting regulatory T cells in allergy and asthma. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2005, 5(4):271-283.
51. Borish L., et al. Interleukin-10 regulation in normal subjects and patients with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1996, 97(6):1288-1296.
52. Lim S., et al. Haplotype associated with low interleukin-10 production in patients with severe asthma. Lancet 1998, 352(9122):113.
53. Heaton T., et al. An immunoepidemiological approach to asthma: identification of in-vitro T cell response patterns associated with different wheezing phenotypes in children. The Lancet 2005, 365(9454):142-149.
54. Akdis M., et al. Immune responses in healthy and allergic individuals are characterized by a fine balance between allergen-specific T regulatory 1 and T helper 2 cells. J. Exp. Med. 2004, 199(11):1567-1575.
55. Hanania N.A. Targeting airway inflammation in asthma: current and future therapies. Chest 2008, 133(4):989-998.
56. James L.K., Durham S.R. Update on mechanisms of allergen injection immunotherapy. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2008, 38(7):1074-1088.
57. Bernstein D.I., et al. Twelve-year survey of fatal reactions to allergen injections and skin testing: 1990-2001. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2004, 113(6):1129-1136.
58. Scadding G., Durham S. Mechanisms of sublingual immunotherapy. J. Asthma 2009, 46(4):322-334.
59. Akdis M., Akdis C.A. Therapeutic manipulation of immune tolerance in allergic disease. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2009, 8(8):645-660.
60. De Bosscher K., et al. Glucocorticoid-mediated repression of nuclear factor-kappaB-dependent transcription involves direct interference with transactivation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1997, 94(25):13504-13509.
61. Karagiannidis C., et al. Glucocorticoids upregulate FOXP3 expression and regulatory T cells in asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2004, 114(6):1425-1433.
62. Brinkmann V., Kristofic C. Regulation by corticosteroids of Th1 and Th2 cytokine production in human CD4+ effector T cells generated from CD45RO- and CD45RO+ subsets. J. Immunol. 1995, 155(7):3322-3328.
63. Richards D.F., et al. Glucocorticoids drive human CD8(+) T cell differentiation towards a phenotype with high IL-10 and reduced IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 production. Eur. J. Immunol. 2000, 30(8):2344-2354.
64. John M., et al. Inhaled corticosteroids increase interleukin-10 but reduce macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and interferon-gamma release from alveolar macrophages in asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998, 157(1):256-262.
65. Peek E.J., et al. Interleukin-10-secreting " regulatory" T cells induced by glucocorticoids and beta2-agonists. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2005, 33(1):105-111.
66. Barrat F.J., et al. In vitro generation of interleukin 10-producing regulatory CD4(+) T cells is induced by immunosuppressive drugs and inhibited by T helper type 1 (Th1)- and Th2-inducing cytokines. J. Exp. Med. 2002, 195(5):603-616.
67. Hawrylowicz C., et al. A defect in corticosteroid-induced IL-10 production in T lymphocytes from corticosteroid-resistant asthmatic patients. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2002, 109(2):369-370.
68. Xystrakis E., et al. Reversing the defective induction of IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells in glucocorticoid-resistant asthma patients. J. Clin. Invest. 2006, 116(1):146-155.
69. Franchimont D., et al. Tumor necrosis factor alpha decreases, and interleukin-10 increases, the sensitivity of human monocytes to dexamethasone: potential regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1999, 84(8):2834-2839.
70. Cantorna M.T., et al. Vitamin D status, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and the immune system. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80(6 Suppl.):1717S-1720S.
71. Adorini L., et al. Dendritic cells as key targets for immunomodulation by Vitamin D receptor ligands. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2004, 89-90(1-5):437-441.
72. Holick M.F., Chen T.C. Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87(4):1080S-1086S.
73. Brehm J.M., et al. Serum vitamin D levels and markers of severity of childhood asthma in Costa Rica. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2009, 179(9):765-771.
74. Taha S.A., Dost S.M., Sedrani S.H. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and total calcium: extraordinarily low plasma concentrations in Saudi mothers and their neonates. Pediatr. Res. 1984, 18(8):739-741.
75. Marwaha R.K., et al. Vitamin D and bone mineral density status of healthy schoolchildren in northern India. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 82(2):477-482.
76. Bhattacharyya A.K. Nutritional rickets in the tropics. World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 1992, 67:140-197.
77. Ginde A.A., Liu M.C., Camargo C.A. Demographic differences and trends of vitamin D insufficiency in the US population, 1988-2004. Arch. Intern. Med. 2009, 169(6):626-632.
78. Webb A.R., Kline L., Holick M.F. Influence of season and latitude on the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D3: exposure to winter sunlight in Boston and Edmonton will not promote vitamin D3 synthesis in human skin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1988, 67(2):373-378.
79. Bischoff-Ferrari H.A., et al. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 84(1):18-28.
80. Hypponen E., Power C. Hypovitaminosis D in British adults at age 45y: nationwide cohort study of dietary and lifestyle predictors. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85(3):860-868.
81. Oliveri M.B., et al. Winter serum levels of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D in Ushuaia and Buenos Aires. Medicina (B Aires) 1990, 50(4):310-314.
82. Jones G., et al. Vitamin D levels in prepubertal children in Southern Tasmania: prevalence and determinants. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999, 53(10):824-829.
83. Docio S., et al. Seasonal deficiency of vitamin D in children: a potential target for osteoporosis-preventing strategies?. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1998, 13(4):544-548.
84. Gordon C.M., et al. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among healthy adolescents. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2004, 158(6):531-537.
85. Hayes C.E., Cantorna M.T., DeLuca H.F. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1997, 216(1):21-27.
86. Adorini L., Penna G. Control of autoimmune diseases by the vitamin D endocrine system. Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol. 2008, 4(8):404-412.
87. Cantorna M.T. Vitamin D and its role in immunology: multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 2006, 92(1):60-64.
88. Mohr S.B., et al. The association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwide. Diabetologia 2008, 51(8):1391-1398.
89. Grant W.B., Garland C.F. Evidence supporting the role of vitamin D in reducing the risk of cancer. J. Intern. Med. 2002, 252(2):178-179. author reply 179-80.
90. Giovannucci E., et al. Prospective study of predictors of vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality in men. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2006, 98(7):451-459.
91. Gorham E.D., et al. Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal cancer. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2005, 97(1-2):179-194.
92. Abbas S., et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of post-menopausal breast cancer-results of a large case-control study. Carcinogenesis 2008, 29(1):93-99.
93. Black P.N., Scragg R. Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and pulmonary function in the Third National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey. Chest 2005, 128(6):3792-3798.
94. Devereux G., et al. Maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy and early childhood wheezing. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85(3):853-859.
95. Camargo C.A., et al. Maternal intake of vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of recurrent wheeze in children at 3y of age. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85(3):788-795.
96. Janssens W., et al. Vitamin D beyond bones in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: time to act. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2009, 179(8):630-636.
97. Hughes D.A., Norton R. Vitamin D and respiratory health. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2009, 158(1):20-25.
98. Raby B.A., et al. Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms with childhood and adult asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2004, 170(10):1057-1065.
99. Poon A.H., et al. Association of vitamin D receptor genetic variants with susceptibility to asthma and atopy. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2004, 170(9):967-973.
100. Chocano-Bedoya P., Ronnenberg A.G. Vitamin D and tuberculosis. Nutr. Rev. 2009, 67(5):289-293.
101. Ginde A.A., Mansbach J.M., Camargo C.A. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and upper respiratory tract infection in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch. Intern. Med. 2009, 169(4):384-390.
102. Karatekin G., et al. Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency in newborns with acute lower respiratory infection and their mothers. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 63(4):473-477.
103. McNally J.D., et al. Vitamin D deficiency in young children with severe acute lower respiratory infection. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 2009, 44(10):981-988.
104. Erkkola M., et al. Maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy is inversely associated with asthma and allergic rhinitis in 5-year-old children. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2009, 39(6):875-882.
105. Hypponen E., et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and IgE-a significant but nonlinear relationship. Allergy 2009, 64(4):613-620.
106. Mahon B.D., et al. The targets of vitamin D depend on the differentiation and activation status of CD4 positive T cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 2003, 89(5):922-932.
107. Sadeghi K., et al. Vitamin D3 down-regulates monocyte TLR expression and triggers hyporesponsiveness to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Eur. J. Immunol. 2006, 36(2):361-370.
108. Scherberich J.E., et al. 1-alpha-Calcidol modulates major human monocyte antigens and toll-like receptors TLR 2 and TLR4 in vitro. Eur. J. Med. Res. 2005, 10(4):179-182.
109. Do J.E., et al. Effects of vitamin D on expression of Toll-like receptors of monocytes from patients with Behcet's disease. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2008, 47(6):840-848.
110. Du T., et al. Modulation of monocyte hyperresponsiveness to TLR ligands by 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 from LADA and T2DM. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2009, 83(2):208-214.
111. Martineau A.R., et al. IFN-gamma- and TNF-independent vitamin D-inducible human suppression of mycobacteria: the role of cathelicidin LL-37. J. Immunol. 2007, 178(11):7190-7198.
112. Sorensen O.E., et al. Human cathelicidin, hCAP-18, is processed to the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 by extracellular cleavage with proteinase 3. Blood 2001, 97(12):3951-3959.
113. Wah J., et al. Antimicrobial peptides are present in immune and host defense cells of the human respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Cell Tissue Res. 2006, 324(3):449-456.
114. Peric M., et al. IL-17A enhances vitamin D3-induced expression of cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide in human keratinocytes. J. Immunol. 2008, 181(12):8504-8512.
115. Yim S., et al. Induction of cathelicidin in normal and CF bronchial epithelial cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). J. Cyst. Fibros. 2007, 6(6):403-410.
116. Weber G., et al. Vitamin D induces the antimicrobial protein hCAP18 in human skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2005, 124(5):1080-1082.
117. Wang T.T., et al. Cutting edge: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a direct inducer of antimicrobial peptide gene expression. J. Immunol. 2004, 173(5):2909-2912.
118. Gombart A.F., Borregaard N., Koeffler H.P. Human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) gene is a direct target of the vitamin D receptor and is strongly up-regulated in myeloid cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. FASEB J. 2005, 19(9):1067-1077.
119. Hansdottir S., et al. Respiratory epithelial cells convert inactive vitamin D to its active form: potential effects on host defense. J. Immunol. 2008, 181(10):7090-7099.
120. Liu P.T., et al. Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science 2006, 311(5768):1770-1773.
121. Liu P.T., et al. Convergence of IL-1beta and VDR activation pathways in human TLR2/1-induced antimicrobial responses. PLoS One 2009, 4(6):e5810.
122. Jeng L., et al. Alterations in vitamin D status and anti-microbial peptide levels in patients in the intensive care unit with sepsis. J. Transl. Med. 2009, 7:28.
123. Adams J.S., et al. Vitamin d-directed rheostatic regulation of monocyte antibacterial responses. J. Immunol. 2009, 182(7):4289-4295.
124. Liu P.T., et al. Cutting edge: vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis is dependent on the induction of cathelicidin. J. Immunol. 2007, 179(4):2060-2063.
125. Correale J., Ysrraelit M.C., Gaitan M.I. Immunomodulatory effects of Vitamin D in multiple sclerosis. Brain 2009, 132(Pt 5):1146-1160.
126. Iho S., et al. The role of monocytes in the suppression of PHA-induced proliferation and IL 2 production of human mononuclear cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Immunol. Lett. 1985, 11(5-6):331-336.
127. Boonstra A., et al. 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin d3 has a direct effect on naive CD4(+) T cells to enhance the development of Th2 cells. J. Immunol. 2001, 167(9):4974-4980.
128. Reichel H., et al. 1 alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits gamma-interferon synthesis by normal human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1987, 84(10):3385-3389.
129. Staeva-Vieira T.P., Freedman L.P. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits IFN-gamma and IL-4 levels during in vitro polarization of primary murine CD4+ T cells. J. Immunol. 2002, 168(3):1181-1189.
130. Pichler J., et al. 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3 inhibits not only Th1 but also Th2 differentiation in human cord blood T cells. Pediatr. Res. 2002, 52(1):12-18.
131. Ardizzone S., et al. Immunomodulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on TH1/TH2 cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease: an in vitro study. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 2009, 22(1):63-71.
132. Lemire J.M., et al. Immunosuppressive actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: preferential inhibition of Th1 functions. J. Nutr. 1995, 125(6 Suppl.):1704S-1708S.
133. Cippitelli M., Santoni A. Vitamin D3: a transcriptional modulator of the interferon-gamma gene. Eur. J. Immunol. 1998, 28(10):3017-3030.
134. Jirapongsananuruk O., Melamed I., Leung D.Y. Additive immunosuppressive effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and corticosteroids on TH1, but not TH2, responses. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2000, 106(5):981-985.
135. Urry Z., Mahfiche N., Ozegbe P., Boswell S., Xystrakis E., Hawrylowicz C. Vitamin D3 in inflammatory airway disease and immunosuppression. Drug Discov. Today: Dis. Mech. 2006, (163):1-7.
136. Mahon B.D., et al. Cytokine profile in patients with multiple sclerosis following vitamin D supplementation. J. Neuroimmunol. 2003, 134(1-2):128-132.
137. Urry Z., et al. Ligation of TLR9 induced on human IL-10-secreting Tregs by 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 abrogates regulatory function. J. Clin. Invest. 2009, 119(2):387-398.
138. Wittke A., et al. Vitamin D receptor-deficient mice fail to develop experimental allergic asthma. J. Immunol. 2004, 173(5):3432-3436.
139. Topilski I., et al. The anti-inflammatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on Th2 cells in vivo are due in part to the control of integrin-mediated T lymphocyte homing. Eur. J. Immunol. 2004, 34(4):1068-1076.
140. McGlade J.P., et al. Suppression of the asthmatic phenotype by ultraviolet B-induced, antigen-specific regulatory cells. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2007, 37(9):1267-1276.
141. Matheu V., et al. Dual effects of vitamin D-induced alteration of TH1/TH2 cytokine expression: enhancing IgE production and decreasing airway eosinophilia in murine allergic airway disease. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2003, 112(3):585-592.
142. Mattner F., et al. Inhibition of Th1 development and treatment of chronic-relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by a non-hypercalcemic analogue of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Eur. J. Immunol. 2000, 30(2):498-508.
143. Overbergh L., et al. 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces an autoantigen-specific T-helper 1/T-helper 2 immune shift in NOD mice immunized with GAD65 (p524-543). Diabetes 2000, 49(8):1301-1307.
144. Tang J., et al. Calcitriol suppresses antiretinal autoimmunity through inhibitory effects on the Th17 effector response. J. Immunol. 2009, 182(8):4624-4632.
145. Daniel C., et al. Immune modulatory treatment of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis with calcitriol is associated with a change of a T helper (Th) 1/Th17 to a Th2 and regulatory T cell profile. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2008, 324(1):23-33.
146. Bullens D.M., et al. IL-17 mRNA in sputum of asthmatic patients: linking T cell driven inflammation and granulocytic influx?. Respir. Res. 2006, 7:135.
147. Molet S., et al. IL-17 is increased in asthmatic airways and induces human bronchial fibroblasts to produce cytokines. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2001, 108(3):430-438.
148. Al-Ramli W., et al. T(H)17-associated cytokines (IL-17A and IL-17F) in severe asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2009, 123(5):1185-1187.
149. Laan M., et al. Neutrophil recruitment by human IL-17 via C-X-C chemokine release in the airways. J. Immunol. 1999, 162(4):2347-2352.
150. Wakashin H., et al. IL-23 and Th17 cells enhance Th2-cell-mediated eosinophilic airway inflammation in mice. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 178(10):1023-1032.
151. Pavord I.D., et al. Non-eosinophilic corticosteroid unresponsive asthma. Lancet 1999, 353(9171):2213-2214.
152. Green R.H., et al. Analysis of induced sputum in adults with asthma: identification of subgroup with isolated sputum neutrophilia and poor response to inhaled corticosteroids. Thorax 2002, 57(10):875-879.
153. Meijer R.J., et al. Accuracy of eosinophils and eosinophil cationic protein to predict steroid improvement in asthma. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2002, 32(7):1096-1103.
154. Bacci E., et al. Low sputum eosinophils predict the lack of response to beclomethasone in symptomatic asthmatic patients. Chest 2006, 129(3):565-572.
155. Pavord I.D. Non-eosinophilic asthma and the innate immune response. Thorax 2007, 62(3):193-194.
156. McKinley L., et al. TH17 cells mediate steroid-resistant airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness in mice. J. Immunol. 2008, 181(6):4089-4097.
157. Adorini L., Penna G. Induction of tolerogenic dendritic cells by vitamin D receptor agonists. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 2009, 188:251-273.
158. Penna G., et al. Expression of the inhibitory receptor ILT3 on dendritic cells is dispensable for induction of CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Blood 2005, 106(10):3490-3497.
159. Unger W.W., et al. Induction of regulatory T cells by monocyte-derived dendritic cells modulated by VitaminD(3) or dexamethasone: differential role for PD-L1. Eur. J. Immunol. 2009, 11:3147-3159.
160. Schleithoff S.S., et al. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83(4):754-759.
161. Li M.O., et al. Transforming growth factor-β regulation of immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2006, 24(1):99-146.
162. Gregori S., et al. A 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) analog enhances regulatory T-cells and arrests autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. Diabetes 2002, 51(5):1367-1374.
163. Spach K.M., et al. IL-10 signaling is essential for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-mediated inhibition of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Immunol. 2006, 177(9):6030-6037.
164. Royal W., et al. Peripheral blood regulatory T cell measurements correlate with serum vitamin D levels in patients with multiple sclerosis. J. Neuroimmunol. 2009, 213(1-2):135-141.
165. Smolders J., et al. Vitamin D status is positively correlated with regulatory T cell function in patients with multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2009, 4(8):e6635.
166. McGlade J.P., et al. Effect of both ultraviolet B irradiation and histamine receptor function on allergic responses to an inhaled antigen. J. Immunol. 2007, 178(5):2794-2802.
167. Gorman S., et al. Topically applied 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances the suppressive activity of CD4+CD25+ cells in the draining lymph nodes. J. Immunol. 2007, 179(9):6273-6283.
168. Ghoreishi M., et al. Expansion of antigen-specific regulatory T cells with the topical vitamin d analog calcipotriol. J. Immunol. 2009, 182(10):6071-6078.
169. Taher Y.A., et al. 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 potentiates the beneficial effects of allergen immunotherapy in a mouse model of allergic asthma: role for IL-10 and TGF-beta. J. Immunol. 2008, 180(8):5211-5221.
170. Gale, et al. Maternal Vitamin D status during pregnancy and child outcomes. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 62(1):68-77.
171. Back, et al. Does vitamin D intake during infancy promote the development of atopic allergy?. Acta. Derm. Venereol. 2009, 89(1):28-32.
172. Hypponen, et al. Infant vitamin d supplementation and allergic conditions in adulthood: northern Finland birth cohort 1966. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1037:84-95.
173. Pinto, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are lower in urban African American subjects with chronic rhinosinusitis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2008, 122(2):415-417.