Mechanisms of resistance to antibacterial agents

Manual of Clinical Microbiology: Tenth Edition

Volumn 1-2, Issue , 2022, Pages 1082-1114

  Rice, Louis B ^a   Bonomo, Robert A ^b  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Aminoglycosides; Antibacterial agents; Antimicrobial classes; Chloramphenicol; Point mutation

Indexed keywords

EID: 85188873047     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1128/9781555816728.ch66     Document Type: Chapter

References (324)

1. Adams, M. D., G. C. Nickel, S. Bajaksouzian, H. Lavender, A. R. Murthy, M. R. Jacobs, and R. A. Bonomo. 2009. Resistance to colistin in Acinetobacter baumannii associated with mutations in the PmrAB two-component system. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:3628-3634.
2. Adcock, P. M., P. Pastor, F. Medley, J. E. Patterson, and T. V. Murphy. 1998. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in two child care centers. J. Infect. Dis. 178:577-580.
3. Aires, J. R., and H. Nikaido. 2005. Aminoglycosides are captured from both periplasm and cytoplasm by the AcrD multidrug efflux transporter of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 187:1923-1929.
4. Alekshun, M. N., and S. B. Levy. 1997. Regulation of chro- mosomally mediated multiple antibiotic resistance: the mar regulon. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:2067-2075.
5. Alksne, L. E., and B. A. Rasmussen. 1997. Expression of the AsbA1, OXA-12, and AsbM1 b-lactamases in Aeromonas jandaei AER 14 is coordinated by a two-component regulon. J. Bacteriol. 179:2006-2013.
6. Alovero, F. L., X. S. Pan, J. E. Morris, R. H. Manzo, and L. M. Fisher. 2000. Engineering the specificity of antibacterial fluoroquinolones: benzenesulfonamide modifications at C-7 of ciprofloxacin change its primary target in Streptococcus pneumoniae from topoisomerase IV to gyrase. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:320-325.
7. Amoroso, A., D. Demares, M. Mollerach, G. Gutkind, and J. Coyette. 2001. All detectable high-molecular-mass penicillin-binding proteins are modified in a high-level b- lactam-resistant clinical isolate of Streptococcus mitis. Antimi- crob. Agents Chemother. 45:2075-2081.
8. Arbeloa, A., J. E. Hugonnet, A. C. Sentilhes, N. Josseaume, L. Dubost, C. Monsempes, D. Blanot, J. P. Brouard, and M. Arthur. 2004. Synthesis of mosaic peptidoglycan cross-bridges by hybrid peptidoglycan assembly pathways in gram-positive bacteria. J. Biol. Chem. 279:41546-41556.
9. Arbeloa, A., H. Segal, J. E. Hugonnet, N. Josseaume, L. Dubost, J. P. Brouard, L. Gutmann, D. Mengin-Lecreulx, and M. Arthur. 2004. Role of class A penicillinbinding proteins in PBP5-mediated b-lactam resistance in Enterococcus faecalis. J. Bacteriol. 186:1221-1228.
10. Arias, C. A., M. Vallejo, J. Reyes, D. Panesso, J. Moreno, E. Castaneda, M. V. Villegas, B. E. Murray, and J. P. Quinn. 2008. Clinical and microbiological aspects of linezolid resistance mediated by the cfr gene encoding a 23S rRNA methyltransferase. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:892-896.
11. Arthur, M., F. Depardieu, C. Molinas, P. Reynolds, and P. Courvalin. 1995. The vanZ gene of Tn1546 from Enterococcus faecium BM4147 confers resistance to teicoplanin. Gene 154:87-92.
12. Arthur, M., C. Molinas, and P. Courvalin. 1992. Sequence of the vanY gene required for production of a vancomycin-inducible D,D-carboxypeptidase in Enterococcus faecium BM4147. Gene 120:111-114.
13. Arthur, M., C. Molinas, and P. Courvalin. 1992. The VanS- VanR two-component regulatory system controls synthesis of depsipeptide peptidoglycan precursors in Enterococcus faecium 4147. J. Bacteriol. 174:2582-2591.
14. Arthur, M., C. Molinas, F. Depardieu, and P. Courvalin. 1993. Characterization of Tn1546, a Tn3-related transposon conferring glycopeptide resistance by synthesis of depsipeptide peptidoglycan precursors in Enterococcus faecium BM4147. J. Bacteriol. 175:117-127.
15. Arthur, M., P. Reynolds, and P. Courvalin. 1996. Glycopeptide resistance in enterococci. Trends Microbiol. 4:401-407.
16. Aslangul, E., M. Baptista, B. Fantin, F. Depardieu, M. Arthur, P. Courvalin, and C. Carbon. 1997. Selection of glycopeptide-resistant mutants of VanB-type Enterococcus faecalis BM4281 in vitro and in experimental endocarditis. J. Infect. Dis. 175:598-605.
17. Azucena, E., and S. Mobashery. 2001. Aminoglycosidemodifying enzymes: mechanisms of catalytic processes and inhibition. Drug Resist. Updates 4:106-117.
18. Balfour, J. A., and D. P. Figgitt. 2001. Telithromycin. Drugs 61:815-829.
19. Barcus, V. A., K. Ghanekar, M. Yeo, T. J. Coffey, and C. G. Dowson. 1995. Genetics of high level penicillin resistance in clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 126:299-303.
20. Beaman, T. W., M. Sugantino, and S. L. Roderick. 1998. Structure of the hexapeptide xenobiotic acetyltransferase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biochemistry (Moscow) 37:6689-6696.
21. Belcheva, A., and D. Golemi-Kotra. 2008. A close-up view of the VraSR two-component system. A mediator of Staphylococcus aureus response to cell wall damage. J. Biol. Chem. 283:12354-12364.
22. Billot-Klein, D., L. Gutmann, D. Bryant, D. Bell, J. van Heijenoort, J. Grewal, and D. M. Shlaes. 1996. Peptidoglycan synthesis and structure in Staphylococcus haemolyticus expressing increasing levels of resistance to glycopeptide antibiotics. J. Bacteriol. 178:4696-4703.
23. Bissonnette, L., S. Champetier, J. P. Buisson, and P. H. Roy. 1991. Characterization of the nonenzymatic chloramphenicol resistance (cmlA) gene of the In4 integron of Tn1696: similarity of the product to transmembrane transport proteins. J. Bacteriol. 173:4493-4502.
24. Bjorkman, J., I. Nagaev, O. G. Berg, D. Hughes, and D. I. Andersson. 2000. Effects of environment on compensatory mutations to ameliorate costs of antibiotic resistance. Science 287:1479-1482.
25. Blanche, F., B. Cameron, F. X. Bernard, L. Maton, B. Manse, L. Ferrero, N. Ratet, C. Lecoq, A. Goniot, D. Bisch, and J. Crouzet. 1996. Differential behaviors of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli type II DNA topoisomerases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2714-2720.
26. Bolton, L. F., L. C. Kelley, M. D. Lee, P. J. Fedorka-Cray, and J. J. Maurer. 1999. Detection of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium DT104 based on a gene which confers cross-resistance to florfenicol and chloramphenicol. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:1348-1351.
27. Bonnet, R. 2004. Growing group of extended-spectrum b-lactamases: the CTX-M enzymes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:1-14.
28. Bonomo, R. A., C. G. Dawes, J. R. Knox, and D. M. Shlaes. 1995. b-Lactamase mutations far from the active site influence inhibitor binding. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1247:121-125.
29. Bou, G., A. Oliver, and J. Martinez-Beltran. 2000. OXA-24, a novel class D b-lactamase with carbapenemase activity in an Acinetobacter baumannii clinical strain. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:1556-1561.
30. Bradford, P. A. 2001. Extended-spectrum b-lactamases in the 21st century: characterization, epidemiology, and detection of this important resistance threat. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:933-951.
31. Bradford, P. A. 2001. What's new in beta-lactamases? Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 3:13-19.
32. Bradford, P. A., C. Urban, N. Mariano, S. J. Projan, J. J. Rahal, and K. Bush. 1997. Imipenem resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae is associated with the combination of ACT-1, a plasmid-mediated AmpC b-lactamase, and the loss of an outer membrane protein. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:563-569.
33. Bratu, S., M. Mooty, S. Nichani, D. Landman, C. Gullans, B. Pettinato, U. Karumudi, P. Tolaney, and J. Quale. 2005. Emergence of KPC-possessing Klebsiella pneumoniae in Brooklyn, New York: epidemiology and recommendations for detection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:3018-3020.
34. Brown, N. G., S. Shanker, B. V. Venkataram Prasad, and T. Palzkill. 2009. Structural and biochemical evidence that a TEM-1 b-lactamase N170G active site mutant acts via substrate-assisted catalysis. J. Biol. Chem. 284:33703-33712.
35. Bruand, C., L. Chatelier, S. D. Ehrlich, and L. Janniere. 1993. A fourth class of theta-replicating plasmids: the pAMb1 family from Gram-positive bacteria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:11668-11672.
36. Bush, K., and G. A. Jacoby. 2010. Updated functional classification of b-lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54:969-976.
37. Bush, K., G. A. Jacoby, and A. A. Medeiros. 1995. A functional classification scheme for b-lactamases and its correlation with molecular structure. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:1211-1233.
38. Camargo, I. L., H. M. Neoh, L. Cui, and K. Hiramatsu. 2008. Serial daptomycin selection generates daptomycin- nonsusceptible Staphylococcus aureus strains with a heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate phenotype. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52:4289-4299.
39. Campbell, B. D., and R. J. Kadner. 1980. Relation of aerobiosis and ionic strength to the uptake of dihydrostreptomycin in Escherichia coli. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 593:1-10.
40. Carfi, A., S. Pares, E. Duee, M. Galleni, C. Duez, J. M. Frere, and O. Dideberg. 1995. The 3-D structure of a zinc metallo-b-lactamase from Bacillus cereus reveals a new type of protein fold. EMBO J. 14:4914-4921.
41. Carias, L. L., S. D. Rudin, C. J. Donskey, and L. B. Rice. 1998. Genetic linkage and cotransfer of a novel, vanB- containing transposon (Tn5382) and a low-affinity penicillinbinding protein 5 gene in a clinical vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium isolate. J. Bacteriol. 180:4426-4434.
42. Carlier, J. P., N. Sellier, M. N. Rager, and G. Reysset. 1997. Metabolism of a 5-nitroimidazole in susceptible and resistant isogenic strains of Bacteroides fragilis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:1495-1499.
43. Carrër, A., N. Fortineau, and P. Nordmann. 2010. Use of ChromID extended-spectrum b-lactamase medium for detecting carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 48:1913-1914.
44. Carter, A. P., W. M. Clemons, D. E. Brodersen, R. J. Morgan-Warren, B. T. Wimberly, and V. Ramakrishnan. 2000. Functional insights from the structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit and its interactions with antibiotics. Nature 407:340-348.
45. Casadewall, B., P. E. Reynolds, and P. Courvalin. 2001. Regulation of expression of the vanD glycopeptide resistance gene cluster from Enterococcus faecium BM4339. J. Bacteriol. 183:3436-3446.
46. GIM-1, encoding a new subclass of metallo- beta-lactamase. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:4654-4661.
47. Cattoir, V., and P. Nordmann. 2009. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance in gram-negative bacterial species: an update. Curr. Med. Chem. 16:1028-1046.
48. Chambers, H. F. 1997. Methicillin resistance in staphylococci: molecular and biochemical basis and clinical implications. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 10:781-791.
49. Chang, F. Y., J. E. Peacock, Jr., D. M. Musher, P. Triplett, B. B. MacDonald, J. M. Mylotte, A. O'Donnell, M. M. Wagener, and V. L. Yu. 2003. Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: recurrence and the impact of antibiotic treatment in a prospective multicenter study. Medicine (Baltimore) 82:333-339.
50. Chen, Y., J. Delmas, J. Sirot, B. Shoichet, and R. Bonnet. 2005. Atomic resolution structures of CTX-M beta-lactamases: extended spectrum activities from increased mobility and decreased stability. J. Mol. Biol. 348:349-362.
51. Chen, Y., A. McReynolds, and B. K. Shoichet. 2009. Reexamining the role of Lys67 in class C beta-lactamase catalysis. Protein Sci. 18:662-669.
52. Chen, Y., G. Minasov, T. A. Roth, F. Prati, and B. K. Shoichet. 2006. The deacylation mechanism of AmpC beta-lactamase at ultrahigh resolution. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128:2970-2976.
53. Chopra, I., and M. Roberts. 2001. Tetracycline antibiotics: mode of action, applications, molecular biology, and epidemiology of bacterial resistance. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65:232-260.
54. Climo, M. W., R. L. Patron, and G. L. Archer. 1999. Combinations of vancomycin and b-lactams are synergistic against staphylococci with reduced susceptibilities to vancomycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1747-1753.
55. Concha, N. O., C. A. Janson, P. Rowling, S. Pearson, C. A. Cheever, B. P. Clarke, C. Lewis, M. Galleni, J. M. Frere, D. J. Payne, J. H. Bateson, and S. S. Abdel-Meguid. 2000. Crystal structure of the IMP-1 metallo b-lactamase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its complex with a mercaptocarboxylate inhibitor: binding determinants of a potent, broadspectrum inhibitor. Biochemistry (Moscow) 39:4288-4298.
56. Coronado, V. G., J. R. Edwards, D. H. Culver, and R. P. Gaynes. 1995. Ciprofloxacin resistance among nosocomial Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 16:71-75.
57. Couto, I., H. de Lencastre, E. Severina, W. Kloos, J. A. Webster, R. J. Hubner, I. S. Sanches, and A. Tomasz. 1996. Ubiquitous presence of a mecA homologue in natural isolates of Staphylococcus sciuri. Microb. Drug Resist. 2:377-391.
58. Crichlow, G. V., A. P. Kuzin, M. Nukaga, K. Mayama, T. Sawai, and J. R. Knox. 1999. Structure of the extended- spectrum class C beta-lactamase of Enterobacter cloacae GC1, a natural mutant with a tandem tripeptide insertion. Biochemistry (Moscow) 38:10256-10261.
59. Crowder, M. W., J. Spencer, and A. J. Vila. 2006. Metallo- beta-lactamases: novel weaponry for antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Acc. Chem. Res. 39:721-728.
60. Cui, L., A. Iwamoto, J. Q. Lian, H. M. Neoh, T. Maruyama, Y. Horikawa, and K. Hiramatsu. 2006. Novel mechanism of antibiotic resistance originating in vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50:428-438.
61. Dahl, K. H., E. W. Lundblad, T. P. Rokenes, O. Olsvik, and A. Sundsfjord. 2000. Genetic linkage of the vanB2 gene cluster to Tn5382 in vancomycin-resistant enterococci and characterization of two novel insertion sequences. Microbiology 146:1469-1479.
62. Darini, A. L., M. F. Palepou, and N. Woodford. 2000. Effects of the movement of insertion sequences on the structure of VanA glycopeptide resistance elements in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:1362-1364.
63. D'Costa, V. M., K. M. McGrann, D. W. Hughes, and G. D. Wright. 2006. Sampling the antibiotic resistome. Science 311:374-377.
64. de la Campa, A. G., L. Balsalobre, C. Ardanuy, A. Fenoll, E. Perez-Trallero, and J. Linares. 2004. Fluoroquinolone resistance in penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae clones, Spain. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10:1751-1759.
65. Delaire, M., R. Labia, J. P. Samama, and J. M. Masson. 1992. Site-directed mutagenesis at the active site of Escherichia coli TEM-1 beta-lactamase. Suicide inhibitor-resistant mutants reveal the role of arginine 244 and methionine 69 in catalysis. J. Biol. Chem. 267:20600-20606.
66. Deurenberg, R. H., and E. E. Stobberingh. 2008. The evolution of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect. Genet. Evol. 8:747-763.
67. Docquier, J. D., V. Calderone, F. De Luca, M. Benvenuti, F. Giuliani, L. Bellucci, A. Tafi, P. Nordmann, M. Botta, G. M. Rossolini, and S. Mangani. 2009. Crystal structure of the OXA-48 beta-lactamase reveals mechanistic diversity among class D carbapenemases. Chem. Biol. 16:540-547.
68. Doi, Y., B. A. Potoski, J. M. Adams-Haduch, H. E. Sidjabat, A. W. Pasculle, and D. L. Paterson. 2008. Simple disk-based method for detection of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase- type b-lactamase by use of a boronic acid compound. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:4083-4086.
69. Donskey, C. J., J. A. Hanrahan, R. A. Hutton, and L. B. Rice. 2000. Effect of parenteral antibiotic administration on establishment of colonization with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in the mouse gastrointestinal tract. J. Infect. Dis. 181:1830-1833.
70. Douthwaite, S., L. H. Hansen, and P. Mauvais. 2000. Macrolide-ketolide inhibition of MLS-resistant ribosomes is improved by alternative drug interaction with domain II of 23S rRNA. Mol. Microbiol. 36:183-193.
71. Dubois, V., L. Poirel, C. Arpin, L. Coulange, C. Bebear, P. Nordmann, and C. Quentin. 2004. SHV-49, a novel inhibitor-resistant b-lactamase in a clinical isolate of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:4466-4469.
72. Dutka-Malen, S., B. Blaimont, G. Wauters, and P. Courvalin. 1994. Emergence of high-level resistance to glycopeptides in Enterococcus gallinarum and Enterococcus cas- seliflavus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1675-1677.
73. Edwards, D. I. 1993. Nitroimidazole drugs-action and resistance mechanisms. I. Mechanisms of action. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 31:9-20.
74. Edwards, D. I. 1993. Nitroimidazole drugs-action and resistance mechanisms. II. Mechanisms of resistance. J. Anti- microb. Chemother. 31:201-210.
75. Eliopoulos, G. M., B. F. Farber, B. E. Murray, C. Wennersten, and R. Moellering, Jr. 1984. Ribosomal resistance of clinical enterococcal isolates to streptomycin. Anti- microb. Agents Chemother. 25:398-399.
76. Ena, J., M. M. Lopez-Perezagua, C. Martinez-Peinado, M. A. Cia-Barrio, and I. Ruiz-Lopez. 1998. Emergence of ciprofloxacin resistance in Escherichia coli isolates after widespread use of fluoroquinolones. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 30:103-107.
77. Enne, V. I., A. King, D. M. Livermore, and L. M. Hall. 2002. Sulfonamide resistance in Haemophilus influenzae mediated by acquisition of sul2 or a short insertion in chromosomal folP. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46:1934-1939.
78. Evers, S., and P. Courvalin. 1996. Regulation of VanB-type vancomycin resistance gene expression by the VanSB-VanRB two-component regulatory system in Enterococcus faecalis V583. J. Bacteriol. 178:1302-1309.
79. Evers, S., D. F. Sahm, and P. Courvalin. 1993. The vanB gene of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis V583 is structurally- related to genes encoding D-ala:D-ala ligases and glycopeptide- resistance proteins VanA and VanC. Gene 124:143-144.
80. Farzaneh, S., E. B. Chaibi, J. Peduzzi, M. Barthelemy, R. Labia, J. Blazquez, and F. Baquero. 1996. Implication of Ile-69 and Thr-182 residues in kinetic characteristics of IRT-3 (TEM-32) b-lactamase. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2434-2436.
81. Ferber, D. 2000. Antibiotic resistance. Superbugs on the hoof? Science 288:792-794.
82. Ferretti, J. J., K. S. Gilmore, and P. Courvalin. 1986. Nucleotide sequence of the gene specifying the bifunctional 69-aminoglycoside acetyltransferase-20 aminoglycoside phosphotransferase enzyme in Streptococcus faecalis and identification and cloning of the gene regions specifying the two activities. J. Bacteriol. 167:631-638.
83. Ferretti, J. J., W. M. McShan, D. Ajdic, D. J. Savic, G. Savic, K. Lyon, C. Primeaux, S. Sezate, A. N. Suvorov, S. Kenton, H. S. Lai, S. P. Lin, Y. Qian, H. G. Jia, F. Z. Najar, Q. Ren, H. Zhu, L. Song, J. White, X. Yuan, S. W. Clifton, B. A. Roe, and R. McLaughlin. 2001. Complete genome sequence of an M1 strain of Streptococcus pyogenes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:4658-4663.
84. Fey, P. D., B. Said-Salim, M. E. Rupp, S. H. Hinrichs, D. J. Boxrud, C. C. Davis, B. N. Kreiswirth, and P. M. Schlievert. 2003. Comparative molecular analysis of community- or hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:196-203.
85. Fiett, J., A. Palucha, B. Miaczynska, M. Stankiewicz, H. Przondo-Mordarska, W. Hryniewicz, and M. Gniadkowski. 2000. A novel complex mutant b-lactamase, TEM-68, identified in a Klebsiella pneumoniae isolate from an outbreak of extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing klebsiellae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:1499-1505.
86. Filipe, S. R., and A. Tomasz. 2000. Inhibition of the expression of penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae by inactivation of cell wall muropeptide branching genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:4891-4896.
87. Fines, M., B. Perichon, P. Reynolds, D. F. Sahm, and P. Courvalin. 1999. VanE, a new type of acquired glycopeptide resistance in Enterococcus faecalis BM4405. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:2161-2164.
88. Fitton, J. E., and W. V. Shaw. 1979. Comparison of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase variants in staphylococci. Purification, inhibitor studies and N-terminal sequences. Biochem. J. 177:575-582.
89. Fitzgerald, J. R., D. E. Sturdevant, S. M. Mackie, S. R. Gill, and J. M. Musser. 2001. Evolutionary genomics of Staphylococcus aureus: insights into the origin of methicillin- resistant strains and the toxic shock syndrome epidemic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:8821-8826.
90. Flannagan, S. E., J. W. Chow, S. M. Donabedian, W. J. Brown, M. B. Perri, M. J. Zervos, Y. Ozawa, and D. B. Clewell. 2003. Plasmid content of a vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolate from a patient also colonized by Staphylococcus aureus with a VanA phenotype. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:3954-3959.
91. Fontana, R., M. Aldegheri, M. Ligozzi, H. Lopez, A. Sucari, and G. Satta. 1994. Overproduction of a low-affinity penicillin-binding protein and high-level ampicillin resistance in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38:1980-1983.
92. Fowler, V. G., Jr., H. W. Boucher, G. R. Corey, E. Abrutyn, A. W. Karchmer, M. E. Rupp, D. P. Levine, H. F. Chambers, F. P. Tally, G. A. Vigliani, C. H. Cabell, A. S. Link, I. DeMeyer, S. G. Filler, M. Zervos, P. Cook, J. Parsonnet, J. M. Bernstein, C. S. Price, G. N. Forrest, G. Fatkenheuer, M. Gareca, S. J. Rehm, H. R. Brodt, A. Tice, and S. E. Cosgrove. 2006. Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. N. Engl. J. Med. 355:653-665.
93. France, A. M., K. M. Kugeler, A. Freeman, C. A. Zalewski, M. Blahna, L. Zhang, C. F. Marrs, and B. Foxman. 2005. Clonal groups and the spread of resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40:1101-1107.
94. Frase, H., Q. Shi, S. A. Testero, S. Mobashery, and S. B. Vakulenko. 2009. Mechanistic basis for the emergence of catalytic competence against carbapenem antibiotics by the GES family of beta-lactamases. J. Biol. Chem. 284:29509-29513.
95. Galas, D. J., and M. Chandler. 1989. Bacterial insertion sequences, p. 109-162. In D. E. Berg and M. M. Howe (ed.), Mobile DNA. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC.
96. Galimand, M., P. Courvalin, and T. Lambert. 2003. Plasmid-mediated high-level resistance to aminoglycosides in Enterobacteriaceae due to 16S rRNA methylation. Antimi- crob. Agents Chemother. 47:2565-2571.
97. Galimand, M., S. Sabtcheva, P. Courvalin, and T. Lambert. 2005. Worldwide disseminated armA aminoglycoside resistance methylase gene is borne by composite transposon Tn1548. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:2949-2953.
98. Galleni, M., J. Lamotte-Brasseur, G. M. Rossolini, J. Spencer, O. Dideberg, and J. M. Frere. 2001. Standard numbering scheme for class B b-lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:660-663.
99. Garau, G., C. Bebrone, C. Anne, M. Galleni, J. M. Frere, and O. Dideberg. 2005. A metallo-beta-lactamase enzyme in action: crystal structures of the monozinc carbapenemase CphA and its complex with biapenem. J. Mol. Biol. 345:785-795.
100. Garnier, F., S. Taourit, P. Glaser, P. Courvalin, and M. Galimand. 2000. Characterization of transposon Tn1549, conferring VanB-type resistance in Enterococcus spp. Microbiology 146:1481-1489.
101. Gherman, B. F., S. D. Goldberg, V. W. Cornish, and R. A. Friesner. 2004. Mixed quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) study of the deacylation reaction in a penicillin binding protein (PBP) versus in a class C betalactamase. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126:7652-7664.
102. Ghuysen, J. M. 1991. Serine b-lactamases and penicillinbinding proteins. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 45:37-67.
103. Giakkoupi, P., O. Pappa, M. Polemis, A. C. Vatopoulos, V. Miriagou, A. Zioga, C. C. Papagiannitsis, and L. S. Tzouvelekis. 2009. Emerging Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates coproducing KPC-2 and VIM-1 carbapenemases. Antimi- crob. Agents Chemother. 53:4048-4050.
104. Guay, D. R. 2001. An update on the role of nitrofurans in the management of urinary tract infections. Drugs 61:353-364.
105. Haas, W., J. Sublett, D. Kaushal, and E. I. Tuomanen. 2004. Revising the role of the pneumococcal vex-vncRS locus in vancomycin tolerance. J. Bacteriol. 186:8463-8471.
106. Hachmann, A. B., E. R. Angert, and J. D. Helmann. 2009. Genetic analysis of factors affecting susceptibility of Bacillus subtilis to daptomycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:1598-1609.
107. Hackbarth, C. J., and H. F. Chambers. 1993. blaI and blaR1 regulate b-lactamase and PBP 2a production in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:1144-1149.
108. Hackbarth, C. J., T. Kocagoz, S. Kocagoz, and H. F. Chambers. 1995. Point mutations in Staphylococcus aureus PBP 2 gene affect penicillin-binding kinetics and are associated with resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:103-106.
109. Hakenbeck, R., and J. Coyette. 1998. Resistant penicillinbinding proteins. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 54:332-340.
110. Hall, R. M., and C. M. Collis. 1995. Mobile gene cassettes and integrons: capture and spread of genes by site-specific recombination. Mol. Microbiol. 15:593-600.
111. Hamilton-Miller, J. M. 1988. Reversal of activity of trimethoprim against gram-positive cocci by thymidine, thymine and 'folates.' J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 22:35-39.
112. Hayashi, T., K. Makino, M. Ohnishi, K. Kurokawa, K. Ishii, K. Yokoyama, C. G. Han, E. Ohtsubo, K. Nakayama, T. Murata, M. Tanaka, T. Tobe, T. Iida, H. Takami, T. Honda, C. Sasakawa, N. Ogasawara, T. Yasunaga, S. Kuhara, T. Shiba, M. Hattori, and H. Shinagawa. 2001. Complete genome sequence of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 and genomic comparison with a laboratory strain K-12. DNA Res. 8:11-22.
113. Hayden, M. K., G. M. Trenholm, J. E. Schultz, and D. F. Sahm. 1993. In vivo development of teicoplanin resistance in a VanB Enterococcus faecium isolate. J. Infect. Dis. 167:1224-1227.
114. Hayes, J. R., D. D. Wagner, L. L. English, L. E. Carr, and S. W. Joseph. 2005. Distribution of streptogramin resistance determinants among Enterococcus faecium from a poultry production environment of the USA. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 55:123-126.
115. Henriques Normark, B., R. Novak, A. Ortqvist, G. Kallenius, E. Tuomanen, and S. Normark. 2001. Clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae that exhibit tolerance of vancomycin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32:552-558.
116. Henze, U. U., and B. Berger-Bachi. 1995. Staphylococcus aureus penicillin-binding protein 4 and intrinsic b-lactam resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39: 2415-2422.
117. Heritier, C., L. Poirel, P. E. Fournier, J. M. Claverie, D. Raoult, and P. Nordmann. 2005. Characterization of the naturally occurring oxacillinase of Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:4174-4179.
118. Heritier, C., L. Poirel, T. Lambert, and P. Nordmann. 2005. Contribution of acquired carbapenem-hydrolyzing oxacillinases to carbapenem resistance in Acinetobacter bau- mannii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:3198-3202.
119. Hiasa, H., D. O. Yousef, and K. J. Marians. 1996. DNA strand cleavage is required for replication fork arrest by a frozen topoisomerase-quinolone-DNA ternary complex. J. Biol. Chem. 271:26424-26429.
120. Hillen, W., and C. Berens. 1994. Mechanisms underlying expression of Tn10 encoded tetracycline resistance. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 48:345-369.
121. Hooper, D. C. 2001. Emerging mechanisms of fluoroquinolone resistance. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7:337-341.
122. Hossain, A., M. J. Ferraro, R. M. Pino, R. B. Dew III, E. S. Moland, T. J. Lockhart, K. S. Thomson, R. V. Goering, and N. D. Hanson. 2004. Plasmid-mediated carbapenem-hydrolyzing enzyme KPC-2 in an Enterobacter sp. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:4438-4440.
123. Hughes, D. 2003. Exploiting genomics, genetics and chemistry to combat antibiotic resistance. Nat. Rev. Genet. 4:432-441.
124. Huovinen, P. 2001. Resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32:1608-1614.
125. Ibuka, A., A. Taguchi, M. Ishiguro, S. Fushinobu, Y. Ishii, S. Kamitori, K. Okuyama, K. Yamaguchi, M. Konno, and H. Matsuzawa. 1999. Crystal structure of the E166A mutant of extended-spectrum b-lactamase Toho-1 at 1.8 Å resolution. J. Mol. Biol. 285:2079-2087.
126. Ibuka, A. S., Y. Ishii, M. Galleni, M. Ishiguro, K. Yamaguchi, J. M. Frere, H. Matsuzawa, and H. Sakai. 2003. Crystal structure of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase Toho-1: insights into the molecular mechanism for catalytic reaction and substrate specificity expansion. Biochemistry (Moscow) 42:10634-10643.
127. Ito, T., Y. Katayama, K. Asada, N. Mori, K. Tsutsumimoto, C. Tiensasitorn, and K. Hiramatsu. 2001. Structural comparison of three types of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec integrated in the chromosome in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 1323-1336.
128. Jacobs, C., J.-M. Frere, and S. Normark. 1997. Cytosolic intermediates for cell wall biosynthesis and degradation control inducible b-lactam resistance in gram-negative bacteria. Cell 88:823-832.
129. Jacobs, C., B. Joris, M. Jamin, K. Klarsov, J. Van Beeumen, D. Mengin-Lecreuix, J. van Heijenoort, J. T. Park, S. Normark, and J.-M. Frère. 1995. AmpD, essential for both b-lactamase regulation and cell wall recycling, is a novel cytosolic N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine amidase. Mol. Microbiol. 15:553-559.
130. Jacoby, G. A. 2009. AmpC b-lactamases. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 22:161-182.
131. Jacoby, G. A. 2005. Mechanisms of resistance to quinolones. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(Suppl. 2):S120-S126.
132. Jacoby, G. A., and A. A. Medeiros. 1991. More extended- spectrum b-lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35: 1697-1704.
133. Jeannot, K., M. L. Sobel, F. El Garch, K. Poole, and P. Plesiat. 2005. Induction of the MexXY efflux pump in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is dependent on drug-ribosome interaction. J. Bacteriol. 187:5341-5346.
134. Jones, R. N., T. R. Anderegg, and J. M. Swenson. 2005. Quality control guidelines for testing gram-negative control strains with polymyxin B and colistin (polymyxin E) by standardized methods. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:925-927.
135. Jones, R. N., J. E. Ross, M. Castanheira, and R. E. Mendes. 2008. United States resistance surveillance results for linezolid (LEADER Program for 2007). Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 62:416-426.
136. Kaatz, G. W., S. M. Seo, N. J. Dorman, and S. A. Lerner. 1990. Emergence of teicoplanin resistance during therapy of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. J. Infect. Dis. 162:103-108.
137. Kadurugamuwa, J. L., J. S. Lam, and T. J. Beveridge. 1993. Interaction of gentamicin with the A band and B band lipopolysaccharides of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its possible lethal effect. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:715-721.
138. Katayama, Y., H. Murakami-Kuroda, L. Cui, and K. Hiramatsu. 2009. Selection of heterogeneous vancomycinintermediate Staphylococcus aureus by imipenem. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:3190-3196.
139. Katayama, Y., D. A. Robinson, M. C. Enright, and H. F. Chambers. 2005. Genetic background affects stability of mecA in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:2380-2383.
140. Kaye, K. S., H. S. Gold, M. J. Schwaber, L. Venkataraman, Y. Qi, P. C. De Girolami, M. H. Samore, G. Anderson, J. K. Rasheed, and F. C. Tenover. 2004. Variety of b-lactamases produced by amoxicillin-clavulanate-resistant Escherichia coli isolated in the northeastern United States. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:1520-1525.
141. Ke, W., C. R. Bethel, J. M. Thomson, R. A. Bonomo, and F. van den Akker. 2007. Crystal structure of KPC-2: insights into carbapenemase activity in class A beta-lactamases. Biochemistry (Moscow) 46:5732-5740.
142. Kim, J., Y. M. Lim, Y. S. Jeong, and S. Y. Seol. 2005. Occurrence of CTX-M-3, CTX-M-15, CTX-M-14, and CTX- M-9 extended-spectrum b-lactamases in Enterobacteriaceae clinical isolates in Korea. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:1572-1575.
143. Knox, J. R. 1995. Extended-spectrum and inhibitorresistant TEM-type b-lactamases: mutations, specificity, and three-dimensional structure. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:2593-2601.
144. Ko, W. C., D. L. Paterson, A. J. Sagnimeni, D. S. Hansen, A. Von Gottberg, S. Mohapatra, J. M. Casellas, H. Goossens, L. Mulazimoglu, G. Trenholme, K. P. Klugman, J. G. McCormack, and V. L. Yu. 2002. Community- acquired Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: global differences in clinical patterns. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:160-166.
145. Kohler, T., M. Kok, M. Michea-Hamzehpour, P. Plesiat, N. Gotoh, T. Nishino, L. K. Curty, and J. C. Pechere. 1996. Multidrug efflux in intrinsic resistance to trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2288-2290.
146. Kotra, L. P., J. Haddad, and S. Mobashery. 2000. Aminoglycosides: perspectives on mechanisms of action and resistance and strategies to counter resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:3249-3256.
147. Lartigue, M. F., L. Poirel, J. W. Decousser, and P. Nordmann. 2005. Multidrug-resistant Shigella sonnei and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium isolates producing CTX-M beta-lactamases as causes of community-acquired infection in France. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40:1069-1070.
148. Leavis, H., J. Top, N. Shankar, K. Borgen, M. Bonten, J. van Embden, and R. J. Willems. 2004. A novel putative enterococcal pathogenicity island linked to the esp virulence gene of Enterococcus faecium and associated with epidemicity. J. Bacteriol. 186:672-682.
149. Leavis, H. L., R. J. Willems, W. J. van Wamel, F. H. Schuren, M. P. Caspers, and M. J. Bonten. 2007. Insertion sequence- driven diversification creates a globally dispersed emerging multiresistant subspecies of E. faecium. PLoS Pathog. 3:e7.
150. Leclerq, R., S. Dutka-Malen, A. Brisson-Noel, C. Molinas, E. Derlot, M. Arthur, J. Duval, and P. Courvalin. 1992. Resistance of enterococci to aminoglycosides and glycopeptides. Clin. Infect. Dis. 15:495-501.
151. Lee, A., W. Mao, M. S. Warren, A. Mistry, K. Hoshino, R. Okumura, H. Ishida, and O. Lomovskaya. 2000. Interplay between efflux pumps may provide either additive or multiplicative effects on drug resistance. J. Bacteriol. 182:3142-3150.
152. Lee, E. H., M. H. Nicolas, M. D. Kitzis, G. Pialoux, E. Collatz, and L. Gutmann. 1991. Association of two resistance mechanisms in a clinical isolate of Enterobacter cloacae with high-level resistance to imipenem. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35:1093-1098.
153. Leiros, H. K., S. Kozielski-Stuhrmann, U. Kapp, L. Terradot, G. A. Leonard, and S. M. McSweeney. 2004. Structural basis of 5-nitroimidazole antibiotic resistance: the crystal structure of NimA from Deinococcus radiodurans. J. Biol. Chem. 279:55840-55849.
154. Leitsch, D., D. Kolarich, M. Binder, J. Stadlmann, F. Altmann, and M. Duchene. 2009. Trichomonas vaginalis: metronidazole and other nitroimidazole drugs are reduced by the flavin enzyme thioredoxin reductase and disrupt the cellular redox system. Implications for nitroimidazole toxicity and resistance. Mol. Microbiol. 72:518-536.
155. Levine, D. P., B. S. Fromm, and B. R. Reddy. 1991. Slow response to vancomycin or vancomycin plus rifampin in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. Ann. Intern. Med. 115:674-680.
156. Levy, S. B., L. M. McMurry, T. M. Barbosa, V. Burdett, P. Courvalin, W. Hillen, M. C. Roberts, J. I. Rood, and D. E. Taylor. 1999. Nomenclature for new tetracycline resistance determinants. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1523-1524.
157. Linares, J. 2001. The VISA/GISA problem: therapeutic implications. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 7:8-15.
158. Livermore, D. M. 1992. Interplay of impermeability and chromosomal b-lactamase activity in imipenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36: 2046-2048.
159. Livermore, D. M., D. F. Brown, J. P. Quinn, Y. Carmeli, D. L. Paterson, and V. L. Yu. 2004. Should third-generation cephalosporins be avoided against AmpC-inducible Enter- obacteriaceae? Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 10:84-85.
160. Lobkovsky, E., E. M. Billings, P. C. Moews, J. Rahil, R. F. Pratt, and J. R. Knox. 1994. Crystallographic structure of a phosphonate derivative of the Enterobacter cloacae P99 cephalosporinase: mechanistic interpretation of a betalactamase transition-state analog. Biochemistry (Moscow) 33:6762-6772.
161. Lobkovsky, E., P. C. Moews, H. Liu, H. Zhao, J. M. Frere, and J. R. Knox. 1993. Evolution of an enzyme activity: crystallographic structure at 2-Å resolution of ce- phalosporinase from the ampC gene of Enterobacter cloacae P99 and comparison with a class A penicillinase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:11257-11261.
162. Lobritz, M., R. Hutton-Thomas, S. Marshall, and L. B. Rice. 2003. Recombination proficiency influences frequency and locus of mutational resistance to linezolid in Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:3318-3320.
163. Magnet, S., P. Courvalin, and T. Lambert. 2001. Resistance-nodulation-cell division-type efflux pump involved in aminoglycoside resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii strain BM4454. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:3375-3380.
164. Manges, A. R., J. R. Johnson, B. Foxman, T. T. O'Bryan, K. E. Fullerton, and L. W. Riley. 2001. Widespread distribution of urinary tract infections caused by a multidrugresistant Escherichia coli clonal group. N. Engl. J. Med. 345:1007-1013.
165. Mao, W., M. S. Warren, A. Lee, A. Mistry, and O. Lomovskaya. 2001. MexXY-OprM efflux pump is required for antagonism of aminoglycosides by divalent cations in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:2001-2007.
166. Marchand, I., L. Damier-Piolle, P. Courvalin, and T. Lambert. 2004. Expression of the RND-type efflux pump Ad- eABC in Acinetobacter baumannii is regulated by the AdeRS two-component system. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:3298-3304.
167. Marshall, S. H., C. J. Donskey, R. Hutton-Thomas, R. A. Salata, and L. B. Rice. 2002. Gene dosage and linezolid resistance in Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46:3334-3336.
168. Martinez, J. L., A. Alonso, J. M. Gomez-Gomez, and F. Baquero. 1998. Quinolone resistance by mutations in chromosomal gyrase genes. Just the tip of the iceberg? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 42:683-688.
169. Martinez-Martinez, L., S. Hernandez-Alles, S. Alberti, J. M. Tomas, V. J. Benedi, and G. A. Jacoby. 1996. In vivo selection of porin-deficient mutants of Klebsiella pneumoniae with increased resistance to cefoxitin and expanded-spectrum cephalosporins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:342-348.
170. Maseda, H., H. Yoneyama, and T. Nakae. 2000. Assignment of the substrate-selective subunits of the MexEF-OprN multidrug efflux pump of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimi- crob. Agents Chemother. 44:658-664.
171. Matagne, A., J. Lamotte-Brasseur, and J. M. Frere. 1998. Catalytic properties of class A beta-lactamases: efficiency and diversity. Biochem. J. 330:581-598.
172. Maus, C. E., B. B. Plikaytis, and T. M. Shinnick. 2005. Molecular analysis of cross-resistance to capreomycin, kana- mycin, amikacin, and viomycin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:3192-3197.
173. Maveyraud, L., D. Golemi, L. P. Kotra, S. Tranier, S. Vakulenko, S. Mobashery, and J. P. Samama. 2000. Insights into class D beta-lactamases are revealed by the crystal structure of the OXA10 enzyme from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Structure Fold Des. 8:1289-1298.
174. McOsker, C. C., and P. M. Fitzpatrick. 1994. Nitrofurantoin: mechanism of action and implications for resistance development in common uropathogens. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 33(Suppl. A):23-30.
175. Meroueh, S. O., J. F. Fisher, H. B. Schlegel, and S. Mobashery. 2005. Ab initio QM/MM study of class A betalactamase acylation: dual participation of Glu166 and Lys73 in a concerted base promotion of Ser70. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127:15397-15407.
176. Minasov, G., X. Wang, and B. K. Shoichet. 2002. An ultrahigh resolution structure of TEM-1 beta-lactamase suggests a role for Glu166 as the general base in acylation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124:5333-5340.
177. Mingeot-Leclercq, M. P., Y. Glupczynski, and P. M. Tulkens. 1999. Aminoglycosides: activity and resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:727-737.
178. Miriagou, V., L. S. Tzouvelekis, S. Rossiter, E. Tzelepi, F. J. Angulo, and J. M. Whichard. 2003. Imipenem resistance in a Salmonella clinical strain due to plasmid-mediated class A carbap- enemase KPC-2. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:1297-1300.
179. Mishra, N. N., S. J. Yang, A. Sawa, A. Rubio, C. C. Nast, M. R. Yeaman, and A. S. Bayer. 2009. Analysis of cell membrane characteristics of in vitro-selected daptomycin- resistant strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:2312-2318.
180. Moellering, R. C., and A. N. Weinberg. 1971. Studies on antibiotic synergism against enterococci. II. Effect of various antibiotics on the uptake of 14C-labelled streptomycin by enterococci. J. Clin. Investig. 50:2580-2584.
181. Morais Cabral, J. H., A. P. Jackson, C. V. Smith, N. Shikotra, A. Maxwell, and R. C. Liddington. 1997. Crystal structure of the breakage-reunion domain of DNA gyrase. Nature 388:903-906.
182. Murakami, K., and A. Tomasz. 1989. Involvement of multiple genetic determinants in high-level methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 171:874-879.
183. Murakami, S., R. Nakashima, E. Yamashita, and A. Yamaguchi. 2002. Crystal structure of bacterial multidrug efflux transporter AcrB. Nature 419:587-593.
184. Murray, I. A., J. V. Martinez-Suarez, T. J. Close, and W. V. Shaw. 1990. Nucleotide sequences of genes encoding the type II chloramphenicol acetyltransferases of Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae, which are sensitive to inhibition by thiol-reactive reagents. Biochem. J. 272:505-510.
185. Murray, I. A., and W. V. Shaw. 1997. O-Acetyltransferases for chloramphenicol and other natural products. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:1-6.
186. Muthaiyan, A., J. A. Silverman, R. K. Jayaswal, and B. J. Wilkinson. 2008. Transcriptional profiling reveals that daptomycin induces the Staphylococcus aureus cell wall stress stimulon and genes responsive to membrane depolarization. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52:980-990.
187. Naas, T., and P. Nordmann. 1994. Analysis of a carbapenem- hydrolyzing class A beta-lactamase from Enterobacter cloacae and of its LysR-type regulatory protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:7693-7697.
188. Naas, T., and P. Nordmann. 1999. OXA-type betalactamases. Curr. Pharm. Des. 5:865-879.
189. Navia, M. M., J. Ruiz, and J. Vila. 2002. Characterization of an integron carrying a new class D beta-lactamase (OXA-37) in Acinetobacter baumannii. Microb. Drug Resist. 8:261-265.
190. Navia, M. M., J. Ruiz, and J. Vila. 2004. Molecular characterization of the integrons in Shigella strains isolated from patients with traveler's diarrhea. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 48:175-179.
191. Neuwirth, C., S. Madec, E. Siebor, A. Pechinot, J. M. Duez, M. Pruneaux, M. Fouchereau-Peron, A. Kazmierczak, and R. Labia. 2001. TEM-89 b-lactamase produced by a Proteus mirabilis clinical isolate: new complex mutant (CMT 3) with mutations in both TEM-59 (IRT-17) and TEM-3. Antimi- crob. Agents Chemother. 45:3591-3594.
192. Nikaido, H. 1998. Multiple antibiotic resistance and efflux. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 1:516-523.
193. Nikaido, H., and D. G. Thanassi. 1993. Penetration of lipophilic agents with multiple protonation sites into bacterial cells: tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones as examples. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:1393-1399.
194. Noble, W. C., Z. Virani, and R. G. A. Gee. 1992. Cotransfer of vancomycin and other resistance genes from Enterococcus faecalis NCTC 12201 to Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 93:195-198.
195. Nordmann, P., S. Mariotte, T. Naas, R. Labia, and M. H. Nicolas. 1993. Biochemical properties of a carbapenem- hydrolyzing b-lactamase from Enterobacter cloacae and cloning of the gene into Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:939-946.
196. Nordmann, P., and L. Poirel. 2005. Emergence of plasmid- mediated resistance to quinolones in Enterobacteriaceae. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 56:463-469.
197. Nukaga, M., K. Mayama, A. M. Hujer, R. A. Bonomo, and J. R. Knox. 2003. Ultrahigh resolution structure of a class A beta-lactamase: on the mechanism and specificity of the extended-spectrum SHV-2 enzyme. J. Mol. Biol. 328:289-301.
198. Oefner, C., A. D'Arcy, J. J. Daly, K. Gubernator, R. L. Charnas, I. Heinze, C. Hubschwerlen, and F. K. Winkler. 1990. Refined crystal structure of beta-lactamase from Citrobacter freundii indicates a mechanism for beta-lactam hydrolysis. Nature 343:284-288.
199. Oggioni, M. R., C. G. Dowson, J. M. Smith, R. Provvedi, and G. Pozzi. 1996. The tetracycline resistance gene tet(M) exhibits mosaic structure. Plasmid 35:156-163.
200. Olson, A. B., M. Silverman, D. A. Boyd, A. McGeer, B. M. Willey, V. Pong-Porter, N. Daneman, and M. R. Mulvey. 2005. Identification of a progenitor of the CTX- M-9 group of extended-spectrum b-lactamases from Kluyvera georgiana isolated in Guyana. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:2112-2115.
201. Orencia, M. C., J. S. Yoon, J. E. Ness, W. P. Stemmer, and R. C. Stevens. 2001. Predicting the emergence of antibiotic resistance by directed evolution and structural analysis. Nat. Struct. Biol. 8:238-242.
202. Paetzel, M., F. Danel, L. de Castro, S. C. Mosimann, M. G. Page, and N. C. Strynadka. 2000. Crystal structure of the class D beta-lactamase OXA-10. Nat. Struct. Biol. 7:918-925.
203. Pan, X. S., and L. M. Fisher. 1999. Streptococcus pneumoniae DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV: overexpression, purification, and differential inhibition by fluoroquinolones. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1129-1136.
204. Paterson, D. L. 2001. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: the European experience. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 14:697-701.
205. Paterson, D. L., K. M. Hujer, A. M. Hujer, B. Yeiser, M. D. Bonomo, L. B. Rice, and R. A. Bonomo. 2003. Extended-spectrum b-lactamases in Klebsiella pneumoniae bloodstream isolates from seven countries: dominance and widespread prevalence of SHV- and CTX-M-type b- lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:3554-3560.
206. Paterson, D. L., W. C. Ko, A. Von Gottberg, S. Mohapatra, J. M. Casellas, H. Goossens, L. Mulazimoglu, G. Trenholme, K. P. Klugman, R. A. Bonomo, L. B. Rice, M. M. Wagener, J. G. McCormack, and V. L. Yu. 2004. Antibiotic therapy for Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: implications of production of extended-spectrum betalactamases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39:31-37.
207. Paterson, D. L., W. C. Ko, A. Von Gottberg, S. Mohapatra, J. M. Casellas, H. Goossens, L. Mulazimoglu, G. Trenholme, K. P. Klugman, R. A. Bonomo, L. B. Rice, M. M. Wagener, J. G. McCormack, and V. L. Yu. 2004. International prospective study of Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia: implications of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production in nosocomial infections. Ann. Intern. Med. 140:26-32.
208. Paton, R., R. S. Miles, J. Hood, and S. G. B. Amyes. 1993. ARI-1: beta-lactamase-mediated imipenem resistance in Acinetobacter baumanni. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2:81-88.
209. Paulsen, I. T., L. Banerjei, G. S. Myers, K. E. Nelson, R. Seshadri, T. D. Read, D. E. Fouts, J. A. Eisen, S. R. Gill, J. F. Heidelberg, H. Tettelin, R. J. Dodson, L. Umayam, L. Brinkac, M. Beanan, S. Daugherty, R. T. DeBoy, S. Durkin, J. Kolonay, R. Madupu, W. Nelson, J. Vamathevan, B. Tran, J. Upton, T. Hansen, J. Shetty, H. Khouri, T. Utterback, D. Radune, K. A. Ketchum, B. A. Dougherty, and C. M. Fraser. 2003. Role of mobile DNA in the evolution of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis. Science 299:2071-2074.
210. Périchon, B., and P. Courvalin. 2009. VanA-type vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:4580-4587.
211. Perl, T. M., J. J. Cullen, R. P. Wenzel, M. B. Zimmerman, M. A. Pfaller, D. Sheppard, J. Twombley, P. P. French, and L. A. Herwaldt. 2002. Intranasal mupirocin to prevent postoperative Staphylococcus aureus infections. N. Engl. J. Med. 346:1871-1877.
212. Philippon, A., R. Labia, and G. A. Jacoby. 1989. Extended- spectrum b-lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33: 1131-1136.
213. Piddock, L. J. V. 1999. Mechanisms of fluoroquinolone resistance: an update 1994-1998. Drugs 58:11-18.
214. Pinho, M. G., H. de Lencastre, and A. Tomasz. 2001. An acquired and a native penicillin-binding protein cooperate in building the cell wall of drug-resistant staphylococci. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:10886-10891.
215. Podglajen, I., J. Breuil, A. Rohaut, C. Monsempes, and E. Collatz. 2001. Multiple mobile promoter regions for the rare carbapenem resistance gene of Bacteroides fragilis. J. Bacteriol. 183:3531-3535.
216. Poirel, L., L. Collet, and P. Nordmann. 2000. Carbapenem- hydrolyzing metallo-beta-lactamase from a nosocomial isolate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in France. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 6:84-85.
217. Poirel, L., P. Gerome, C. De Champs, J. Stephanazzi, T. Naas, and P. Nordmann. 2002. Integron-located oxa-32 gene cassette encoding an extended-spectrum variant of OXA-2 b-lactamase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimi- crob. Agents Chemother. 46:566-569.
218. Poirel, L., D. Girlich, T. Naas, and P. Nordmann. 2001. OXA-28, an extended-spectrum variant of OXA-10 b-lacta- mase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its plasmid- and inte- gron-located gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:447-453.
219. Poirel, L., H. Mammeri, and P. Nordmann. 2004. TEM- 121, a novel complex mutant of TEM-type b-lactamase from Enterobacter aerogenes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:4528-4531.
220. Poirel, L., T. Naas, M. Guibert, E. B. Chaibi, R. Labia, and P. Nordmann. 1999. Molecular and biochemical characterization of VEB-1, a novel class A extended-spectrum b-lactamase encoded by an Escherichia coli integron gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:573-581.
221. Poirel, L., T. Naas, and P. Nordmann. 2010. Diversity, epidemiology, and genetics of class D b-lactamases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54:24-38.
222. Poirel, L., G. F. Weldhagen, T. Naas, C. De Champs, M. G. Dove, and P. Nordmann. 2001. GES-2, a class A b-lactamase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa with increased hydrolysis of imi- penem. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:2598-2603.
223. Poole, K., K. Krebes, C. McNally, and S. Neshat. 1993. Multiple antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: evidence for involvement of an efflux operon. J. Bacteriol. 175:7363-7372.
224. Prinarakis, E. E., V. Miriagou, E. Tzelepi, M. Gazouli, and L. S. Tzouvelekis. 1997. Emergence of an inhibitor-resistant beta-lactamase (SHV-10) derived from an SHV-5 variant. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:838-840.
225. Prystowsky, J., F. Siddiqui, J. Chosay, D. L. Shinabarger, J. Millichap, L. R. Peterson, and G. A. Noskin. 2001. Resistance to linezolid: characterization of mutations in rRNA and comparison of their occurrences in vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:2154-2156.
226. Qiu, W., R. Shi, M. L. Lu, M. Zhou, P. H. Roy, J. Lapointe, and S. X. Lin. 2004. Crystal structure of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase B2 encoded by the multiresistance transposon Tn2424. Proteins 57:858-861.
227. Queenan, A. M., and K. Bush. 2007. Carbapenemases: the versatile b-lactamases. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 20:440-458.
228. Race, P. R., A. L. Lovering, R. M. Green, A. Ossor, S. A. White, P. F. Searle, C. J. Wrighton, and E. I. Hyde. 2005. Structural and mechanistic studies of Escherichia coli nitroreductase with the antibiotic nitrofurazone. Reversed binding orientations in different redox states of the enzyme. J. Biol. Chem. 280:13256-13264.
229. Raquet, X., J. Lamotte-Brasseur, E. Fonze, S. Goussard, P. Courvalin, and J. M. Frere. 1994. TEM beta-lactamase mutants hydrolysing third-generation cephalosporins. A kinetic and molecular modelling analysis. J. Mol. Biol. 244:625-639.
230. Rasmussen, B. A., K. Bush, D. Keeney, Y. Yang, R. Hare, C. O'Gara, and A. A. Medeiros. 1996. Characterization of IMI-1 b-lactamase, a class A carbapenem-hydrolyzing enzyme from Enterobacter cloacae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2080-2086.
231. Rather, P. N. 1998. Origins of aminoglycoside modifying enzymes. Drug Resist. Updates 1:285-291.
232. Rather, P. N., E. Orosz, K. J. Shaw, R. Hare, and G. Miller. 1993. Characterization and transcriptional regulation of the 29-N-acetyltransferase gene from Providencia stuartii. J. Bacteriol. 175:6492-6498.
233. Rice, L. B. 2000. Bacterial monopolists: the bundling and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes in grampositive bacteria. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31:762-769.
234. Rice, L. B. 1998. Tn916 family conjugative transposons and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance determinants. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42:1871-1877.
235. Rice, L. B., S. Bellais, L. L. Carias, R. Hutton-Thomas, R. A. Bonomo, P. Caspers, M. G. Page, and L. Gutmann. 2004. Impact of specific pbp5 mutations on expression of b-lactam resistance in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:3028-3032.
236. Rice, L. B., S. B. Calderwood, G. M. Eliopoulos, B. F. Farber, and A. W. Karchmer. 1991. Enterococcal endocarditis: a comparison of native and prosthetic valve disease. Rev. Infect. Dis. 13:1-7.
237. Rice, L. B., L. L. Carias, A. M. Hujer, M. Bonafede, R. Hutton, C. Hoyen, and R. A. Bonomo. 2000. High-level expression of chromosomally encoded SHV-1 b-lactamase and an outer membrane protein change confer resistance to ceftazidime and piperacillin-tazobactam in a clinical isolate of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:362-367.
238. Rice, L. B., L. L. Carias, R. Hutton-Thomas, F. Sifaoui, L. Gutmann, and S. D. Rudin. 2001. Penicillin-binding protein 5 and expression of ampicillin resistance in Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:1480-1486.
239. Rice, L. B., L. L. Carias, R. A. Hutton, S. D. Rudin, A. Endimiani, and R. A. Bonomo. 2008. The KQ element, a complex genetic region conferring transferable resistance to carbapenems, aminoglycosides, and fluoroquinolones in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52:3427-3429.
240. Rice, L. B., L. L. Carias, S. Rudin, R. Hutton, S. Marshall, M. Hassan, N. Josseaume, L. Dubost, A. Marie, and M. Arthur. 2009. Role of class A penicillin-binding proteins in the expression of b-lactam resistance in Enterococcus faecium. J. Bacteriol. 191:3649-3656.
241. Rice, L. B., J. D. C. Yao, K. Klimm, G. M. Eliopoulos, and R. C. Moellering, Jr. 1991. Efficacy of different b-lactams against an extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae strain in the rat intra-abdominal abscess model. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35:1243-1244.
242. Roberts, R. B., A. de Lancastre, W. Eisner, E. P. Severina, B. Shopsin, B. N. Kreiswirth, A. Tomasz, and the MRSA Collaborative Study Group. 1998. Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 12 New York hospitals. J. Infect. Dis. 178:164-171.
243. Roca, I., S. Marti, P. Espinal, P. Martínez, I. Gibert, and J. Vila. 2009. CraA, a major facilitator superfamily efflux pump associated with chloramphenicol resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:4013-4014.
244. Rodriguez-Martinez, J. M., P. Nordmann, N. Fortineau, and L. Poirel. 2010. VIM-19, a metallo-b-lactamase with increased carbapenemase activity from Escherichia coli and Kleb- stella.pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54:471-476.
245. Rowe-Magnus, D. A., A. M. Guerout, and D. Mazel. 2002. Bacterial resistance evolution by recruitment of super- integron gene cassettes. Mol. Microbiol. 43:1657-1669.
246. Ruzin, A., D. Keeney, and P. A. Bradford. 2005. AcrAB efflux pump plays a role in decreased susceptibility to tigecycline in Morganella morganii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:791-793.
247. Ruzin, A., M. A. Visalli, D. Keeney, and P. A. Bradford. 2005. Influence of transcriptional activator RamA on expression of multidrug efflux pump AcrAB and tigecycline susceptibility in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:1017-1022.
248. Rybkine, T., J.-L. Mainardi, W. Sougakoff, E. Collatz, and L. Gutmann. 1998. Penicillin-binding protein 5 sequence alterations in clinical isolates of Enterococcus faecium with different levels of b-lactam resistance. J. Infect. Dis. 178:159-163.
249. Sabath, L. D. 1969. Drug resistance of bacteria. N. Engl. J. Med. 280:91-94.
250. Sahm, D. F., M. K. Marsilio, and G. Piazza. 1999. Antimicrobial resistance in key bloodstream bacterial isolates: electronic surveillance with The Surveillance Network Database-USA. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29:259-263.
251. Samra, Z., J. Bahar, L. Madar-Shapiro, N. Aziz, S. Israel, and J. Bishara. 2008. Evaluation of CHROMagar KPC for rapid detection of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:3110-3111.
252. Sanchez-Pescador, R., J. T. Brown, M. Roberts, and M. S. Urdea. 1988. Homology of the TetM with translational elongation factors: implications for potential modes of tetM conferred tetracycline resistance. Nucleic Acids Res. 16:1218.
253. Sandegren, L., A. Lindqvist, G. Kahlmeter, and D. I. Andersson. 2008. Nitrofurantoin resistance mechanism and fitness cost in Escherichia coli. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 62:495-503.
254. Santillana, E., A. Beceiro, G. Bou, and A. Romero. 2007. Crystal structure of the carbapenemase OXA-24 reveals insights into the mechanism of carbapenem hydrolysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:5354-5359.
255. Saves, I., O. Burlet-Schiltz, P. Swaren, F. Lefevre, J. M. Masson, J. C. Prome, and J. P. Samama. 1995. The asparagine to aspartic acid substitution at position 276 of TEM-35 and TEM-36 is involved in the beta-lactamase resistance to clavulanic acid. J. Biol. Chem. 270:18240-18245.
256. Schnappinger, D., and W. Hillen. 1996. Tetracyclines: antibiotic action, uptake, and resistance mechanisms. Arch. Microbiol. 165:359-369.
257. Schwarz, S., C. Kehrenberg, B. Doublet, and A. Cloeckaert. 2004. Molecular basis of bacterial resistance to chloramphenicol and florfenicol. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 28:519-542.
258. Shaw, J. H., and D. B. Clewell. 1985. Complete nucleotide sequence of macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B resistance transposon Tn917 in Streptococcus faecalis. J. Bacteriol. 164:782-796.
259. Shaw, K. J., P. Rather, F. Sabatelli, P. Mann, H. Munayyer, R. Mierzwa, G. Petrikkos, R. S. Hare, G. H. Miller, P. Bennett, and P. Downey. 1992. Characterization of the chromosomal aac(69)-Ic gene from Serratia marcescens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36:1447-1455.
260. Shaw, K. J., P. N. Rather, R. S. Hare, and G. H. Miller. 1993. Molecular genetics of aminoglycoside resistance genes and familial relationships of the aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes. Microbiol. Rev. 57:138-163.
261. Shaw, W. V. 1983. Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase: enzymology and molecular biology. CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem. 14:1-46.
262. Shea, M. E., and H. Hiasa. 1999. Interactions between DNA helicases and frozen topoisomerase IV-quinolone- DNA ternary complexes. J. Biol. Chem. 274:22747-22754.
263. Sherertz, R. J., D. R. Reagan, K. D. Hampton, K. L. Robertson, S. A. Streed, H. M. Hoen, R. Thomas, and J. M. Gwaltney, Jr. 1996. A cloud adult: the Staphylococcus aureus-virus interaction revisited. Ann. Intern. Med. 124:539-547.
264. Shimamura, T., A. Ibuka, S. Fushinobu, T. Wakagi, M. Ishiguro, Y. Ishii, and H. Matsuzawa. 2002. Acyl- intermediate structures of the extended-spectrum class A betalactamase, Toho-1, in complex with cefotaxime, cephalothin, and benzylpenicillin. J. Biol. Chem. 277:46601-46608.
265. Shinabarger, D. L., K. R. Marotti, R. W. Murray, A. H. Lin, E. P. Melchior, S. M. Swaney, D. S. Dunyak, W. F. Demyan, and J. M. Buysse. 1997. Mechanism of action of oxazolidinones: effects of linezolid and eperezolid on translation reactions. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41: 2132-2136.
266. Sieradzki, K., R. B. Roberts, S. W. Haber, and A. Tomasz. 1999. The development of vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:517-523.
267. Sirot, D., C. Recule, E. B. Chaibi, L. Bret, J. Croize, C. Chanal-Claris, R. Labia, and J. Sirot. 1997. A complex mutant of TEM-1 b-lactamase with mutations encountered in both IRT-4 and extended-spectrum TEM-15, produced by an Escherichia coli clinical isolate. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:1322-1325.
268. Skold, O. 2000. Sulfonamide resistance: mechanisms and trends. Drug Resist. Updates 3:155-160.
269. Smith, A. M., R. F. Botha, H. J. Koornhof, and K. P. Klugman. 2001. Emergence of a pneumococcal clone with cephalosporin resistance and penicillin susceptibility. Anti- microb. Agents Chemother. 45:2648-2650.
270. Soki, J., M. Gal, J. S. Brazier, V. O. Rotimi, E. Urban, E. Nagy, and B. I. Duerden. 2005. Molecular investigation of genetic elements contributing to metronidazole resistance in Bacteroides strains. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 57:212-220.
271. Soltani, M., D. Beighton, J. Philpott-Howard, and N. Woodford. 2000. Mechanisms of resistance to quinupristin- dalfopristin among isolates of Enterococcus faecium from animals, raw meat, and hospital patients in Western Europe. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:433-436.
272. Spencer, J., A. R. Clarke, and T. R. Walsh. 2001. Novel mechanism of hydrolysis of therapeutic beta-lactams by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia L1 metallo-beta-lactamase. J. Biol. Chem. 276:33638-33644.
273. Spratt, B. G., Q.-Y. Zhang, D. M. Jones, A. Hutchison, J. A. Brannigan, and C. G. Dowson. 1989. Recruitment of a penicillin-binding protein gene from Neisseria flavescens during the emergence of penicillin resistance in Neisseria meningitidis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:8988-8992.
274. Stapleton, P. D., K. P. Shannon, and G. L. French. 1999. Carbapenem resistance in Escherichia coli associated with plasmid-determined CMY-4 b-lactamase production and loss of an outer membrane protein. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1206-1210.
275. Stokes, H. W., and R. M. Hall. 1989. A novel family of potentially mobile DNA elements encoding site-specific gene integration function integrons. Mol. Microbiol. 3:1669-1683.
276. Su, Y. A., P. He, and D. B. Clewell. 1992. Characterization of the tetM determinant of Tn916: evidence for regulation by transcriptional attenuation. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36:769-778.
277. Sung, J. Y., K. C. Kwon, J. W. Park, Y. S. Kim, J. M. Kim, K. S. Shin, J. W. Kim, C. S. Ko, S. Y. Shin, J. H. Song, and S. H. Koo. 2008. Dissemination of IMP-1 and OXA type beta-lactamase in carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Korean J. Lab. Med. 28:16-23.
278. Swaren, P., D. Golemi, S. Cabantous, A. Bulychev, L. Maveyraud, S. Mobashery, and J. P. Samama. 1999. X-ray structure of the Asn276Asp variant of the Escherichia coli TEM-1 beta-lactamase: direct observation of electrostatic modulation in resistance to inactivation by clavulanic acid. Biochemistry (Moscow) 38:9570-9576.
279. Swedberg, G., S. Ringertz, and O. Skold. 1998. Sulfonamide resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes is associated with differences in the amino acid sequence of its chromosomal dihydropteroate synthase. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42:1062-1067.
280. Tam, V. H., A. N. Schilling, G. Vo, S. Kabbara, A. L. Kwa, N. P. Wiederhold, and R. E. Lewis. 2005. Pharmacodynamics of polymyxin B against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:3624-3630.
281. Then, R. L. 1982. Mechanisms of resistance to trimethoprim, the sulfonamides, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Rev. Infect. Dis. 4:261-269.
282. Then, R. L., and P. Angehrn. 1979. Low trimethoprim susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria due to insensitive dihydrofolate reductases. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 15:1-6.
283. Thomson, C. J., and S. G. Amyes. 1992. TRC-1: emergence of a clavulanic acid-resistant TEM beta-lactamase in a clinical strain. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 70:113-117.
284. Toleman, M. A., P. M. Bennett, and T. R. Walsh. 2006. ISCR elements: novel gene-capturing systems of the 21st century? Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 70:296-316.
285. Tomasz, A. 1983. Murein hydrolases: enzymes in search of a physiologic function, p. 155-172. In R. Hackenbeck, J. Holtje, and H. Labischinski (ed.), The Target of Penicillin. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany.
286. Torres, O. R., R. Z. Korman, S. A. Zahler, and G. M. Dunny. 1991. The conjugative transposon Tn925: enhancement of conjugal transfer by tetracycline in Enterococcus faecalis and mobilization of chromosomal genes in both Bacillus subtilis and E. faecalis. Mol. Gen. Genet. 225:395-400.
287. Tran, J. H., and G. A. Jacoby. 2002. Mechanism of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:5638-5642.
288. Tran, J. H., G. A. Jacoby, and D. C. Hooper. 2005. Interaction of the plasmid-encoded quinolone resistance protein Qnr with Escherichia coli DNA gyrase. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:118-125.
289. Tranier, S., A. T. Bouthors, L. Maveyraud, V. Guillet, W. Sougakoff, and J. P. Samama. 2000. The high resolution crystal structure for class A beta-lactamase PER-1 reveals the bases for its increase in breadth of activity. J. Biol. Chem. 275:28075-28082.
290. Tsakris, A., I. Kristo, A. Poulou, K. Themeli-Digalaki, A. Ikonomidis, D. Petropoulou, S. Pournaras, and D. Sofianou. 2009. Evaluation of boronic acid disk tests for differentiating KPC-possessing Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates in the clinical laboratory. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47:362-367.
291. Tuomanen, E., and A. Tomasz. 1990. Mechanism of phenotypic tolerance of nongrowing pneumococci to beta-lactam antibiotics. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. Suppl. 74: 102-112.
292. Tzeng, Y. L., K. D. Ambrose, S. Zughaier, X. Zhou, Y. K. Miller, W. M. Shafer, and D. S. Stephens. 2005. Cationic antimicrobial peptide resistance in Neisseria meningitidis. J. Bacteriol. 187:5387-5396.
293. Ubukata, K., Y. Shibasaki, K. Yamamoto, N. Chiba, K. Hasegawa, Y. Takeuchi, K. Sunakawa, M. Inoue, and M. Konno. 2001. Association of amino acid substitutions in penicillin-binding protein 3 with b-lactam resistance in b-lactamase-negative ampicillin-resistant Haemophilus influenzae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:1693-1699.
294. Ullah, J. H., T. R. Walsh, I. A. Taylor, D. C. Emery, C. S. Verma, S. J. Gamblin, and J. Spencer. 1998. The crystal structure of the L1 metallo-b-lactamase from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia at 1.7 Å resolution. J. Mol. Biol. 284:125-136.
295. Vakulenko, S. B., B. Geryk, L. P. Kotra, S. Mobashery, and S. A. Lerner. 1998. Selection and characterization of b-lactam-b-lactamase inactivator-resistant mutants following PCR mutagenesis of the TEM-1 b-lactamase gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42:1542-1548.
296. Vakulenko, S. B., and S. Mobashery. 2003. Versatility of aminoglycosides and prospects for their future. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16:430-450.
297. van der Wouden, E. J., J. C. Thijs, J. G. Kusters, A. A. van Zwet, and J. H. Kleibeuker. 2001. Mechanism and clinical significance of metronidazole resistance in Helicobacter pylori. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. Suppl. 2001:10-14.
298. Vedel, G., A. Bellaouaj, L. Gilly, R. Labia, A. Phillipon, P. Nevot, and G. Paul. 1992. Clinical isolates of Escherichia coli producing TRI b-lactamases: novel TEM enzymes conferring resistance to b-lactamase inhibitors. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 30:449-462.
299. Vila, J., M. Navia, J. Ruiz, and C. Casals. 1997. Cloning and nucleotide sequence analysis of a gene encoding an OXA-derived b-lactamase in Acinetobacter baumannii. Anti- microb. Agents Chemother. 41:2757-2759.
300. Vincent, S., P. Minkler, B. Bincziewski, L. Etter, and D. M. Shlaes. 1992. Vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus gallinarum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36:1392-1399.
301. Walsh, T. R., M. A. Toleman, L. Poirel, and P. Nordmann. 2005. Metallo-b-lactamases: the quiet before the storm? Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 18:306-325.
302. Wang, X., G. Minasov, and B. K. Shoichet. 2002. Evolution of an antibiotic resistance enzyme constrained by stability and activity trade-offs. J. Mol. Biol. 320:85-95.
303. Weber, B., K. Ehlert, A. Diehl, P. Reichmann, H. Labischinski, and R. Hakenbeck. 2000. The fib locus in Streptococcus pneumoniae is required for peptidoglycan crosslinking and PBP-mediated beta-lactam resistance. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 188:81-85.
304. Wegener, H. C., F. M. Aarestrup, L. B. Jensen, A. M. Hammerum, and F. Bager. 1999. Use of antimicrobial growth promoters in food animals and Enterococcus faecium resistance to therapeutic antimicrobial drugs in Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5:329-335.
305. Wehrli, W. 1983. Rifampin: mechanisms of action and resistance. Rev. Infect. Dis. 5(Suppl. 3):S407-S411.
306. Weigel, L. M., D. B. Clewell, S. R. Gill, N. C. Clark, L. K. McDougal, S. E. Flannagan, J. F. Kolonay, J. Shetty, G. E. Killgore, and F. C. Tenover. 2003. Genetic analysis of a high-level vancomycin-resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Science 302:1569-1571.
307. Weisblum, B. 1995. Erythromycin resistance by ribosome modification. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:577-585.
308. Welch, R. A., V. Burland, G. Plunkett III, P. Redford, P. Roesch, D. Rasko, E. L. Buckles, S. R. Liou, A. Boutin, J. Hackett, D. Stroud, G. F. Mayhew, D. J. Rose, S. Zhou, D. C. Schwartz, N. T. Perna, H. L. Mobley, M. S. Donnenberg, and F. R. Blattner. 2002. Extensive mosaic structure revealed by the complete genome sequence of uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:17020-17024.
309. Weldhagen, G. F. 2004. Integrons and beta-lactamases-a novel perspective on resistance. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 23:556-562.
310. White, D. G., C. Hudson, J. J. Maurer, S. Ayers, S. Zhao, M. D. Lee, L. Bolton, T. Foley, and J. Sherwood. 2000. Characterization of chloramphenicol and florfenicol resistance in Escherichia coli associated with bovine diarrhea. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:4593-4598.
311. White, P. A., C. J. McIver, and W. D. Rawlinson. 2001. Integrons and gene cassettes in the Enterobacteriaceae. Anti- microb. Agents Chemother. 45:2658-2661.
312. Wiener, J., J. P. Quinn, P. A. Bradford, R. V. Goering, C. Nathan, K. Bush, and R. A. Weinstein. 1999. Multiple antibiotic-resistant Klebsiella and Escherichia coli in nursing homes. JAMA 281:517-523.
313. Williamson, R., C. LaBouguenec, L. Gutmann, and T. Horaud. 1985. One or two low affinity penicillin-binding proteins may be responsible for the range of susceptibility of Enterococcus faecium to penicillin. J. Gen. Microbiol.. 131:1933-1940.
314. Willmott, C. J., S. E. Critchlow, I. C. Eperon, and A. Maxwell. 1994. The complex of DNA gyrase and quinolone drugs with DNA forms a barrier to transcription by RNA polymerase. J. Mol. Biol. 242:351-363.
315. Wolter, N., A. M. Smith, D. J. Farrell, W. Schaffner, M. Moore, C. G. Whitney, J. H. Jorgensen, and K. P. Klugman. 2005. Novel mechanism of resistance to oxazolidinones, macrolides, and chloramphenicol in ribosomal protein L4 of the pneumococcus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49:3554-3557.
316. Woodford, N., P. M. Tierno, Jr., K. Young, L. Tysall, M. F. Palepou, E. Ward, R. E. Painter, D. F. Suber, D. Shungu, L. L. Silver, K. Inglima, J. Kornblum, and D. M. Livermore. 2004. Outbreak of Klebsiella pneumoniae producing a new carbapenem-hydrolyzing class A beta-lactamase, KPC-3, in a New York medical center. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:4793-4799.
317. Wu, S. W., H. de Lencastre, and A. Tomasz. 2001. Recruitment of the mecA gene homologue of Staphylococcus sciuri into a resistance determinant and expression of the resistant phenotype in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 183:2417-2424.
318. Yamane, K., J. Wachino, Y. Doi, H. Kurokawa, and Y. Arakawa. 2005. Global spread of multiple aminoglycoside resistance genes. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11:951-953.
319. Yigit, H., A. M. Queenan, G. J. Anderson, A. Domenech-Sanchez, J. W. Biddle, C. D. Steward, S. Alberti, K. Bush, and F. C. Tenover. 2001. Novel carbapenem-hydrolyzing b-lactamase, KPC-1, from a carbapenem-resistant strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:1151-1161.
320. Yigit, H., A. M. Queenan, J. K. Rasheed, J. W. Biddle, A. Domenech-Sanchez, S. Alberti, K. Bush, and F. C. Tenover. 2003. Carbapenem-resistant strain of Klebsiella oxytoca harboring carbapenem-hydrolyzing b-lactamase KPC-2. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:3881-3889.
321. Zervos, M. J., and D. R. Schaberg. 1985. Reversal of in vitro susceptibility of enterococci to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole by folinic acid. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 28:446-448.
322. Zhang, K., J. A. McClure, S. Elsayed, and J. M. Conly. 2009. Novel staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type, tentatively designated type VIII, harboring class A mec and type 4 ccr gene complexes in a Canadian epidemic strain of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53:531-540.
323. Zhong, P., and V. D. Shortridge. 2000. The role of efflux in macrolide resistance. Drug Resist. Updates 3:325-329.
324. Ziha-Zarifi, I., C. Llanes, T. Kohler, J. C. Pechere, and P. Plesiat. 1999. In vivo emergence of multidrug-resistant mutants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa overexpressing the active efflux system MexA-MexB-OprM. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:287-291.