Chronic immune activation associated with chronic helminthic and human immunodeficiency virus infections: Role of hyporesponsiveness and anergy

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 17, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 1012-1030

  Borkow, Gadi ^a   Bentwich, Zvi ^b,c  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

^b HEBREW UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^c ROSETTA GENOMICS LTD   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE ANTIGEN 4; INTERLEUKIN 10; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLONAL ANERGY; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HELMINTHIASIS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; INFECTION; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; T LYMPHOCYTE SUBPOPULATION; TH1 CELL; TH2 CELL; VACCINATION;

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AIDS-RELATED OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS; ANIMALS; CHEMOKINES, CC; CLONAL ANERGY; HELMINTHIASIS; HUMANS; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST; INTESTINAL DISEASES, PARASITIC; TH1 CELLS; TH2 CELLS;

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; VERMES;

EID: 5644290600     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.17.4.1012-1030.2004     Document Type: Review

References (278)

1. Abbas, A. K., K. M. Murphy, and A. Sher. 1996. Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes. Nature 383:787-793.
2. + cytotoxic T-cell and Th1 cytokine responses as well as delayed virus clearance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:948-952.
3. Adams, J. F., E. H. Scholvinck, R. P. Gie, P. C. Potter, N. Beyers, and A. D. Beyers. 1999. Decline in total serum IgE after treatment for tuberculosis. Lancet 353:2030-2033.
4. Ahmad, R., S. T. Sindhu, E. Toma, R. Morisset, and A. Ahmad. 2002. Elevated levels of circulating interleukin-18 in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals: role of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and implications for AIDS pathogenesis. J. Virol. 76:12448-12456.
5. Alberola-Ila, J., and G. Hernandez-Hoyos. 2003. The Ras/MAPK cascade and the control of positive selection. Immunol. Rev. 191:79-96.
6. Almeida, C. A., M. A. Romano-Silva, and A. M. Goes. 1998. Inhibition of protein kinases prevents lymphocyte activation by Schistosoma mansoni antigens and reduces in vitro [correction of in vivo] granuloma reaction. Immunol. Lett. 62:137-143.
7. Anderson, R. W., M. S. Ascher, and H. W. Sheppard. 1998. Direct HIV cytopathicity cannot account for CD4 decline in AIDS in the presence of homeostasis: a worst-case dynamic analysis. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 17:245-252.
8. Andreassen, J. 1997. Interactions between intestinal tapeworms and their hosts: present knowledge and problems. Parassitologia 39:259-267.
9. Ascher, M. S., and H. W. Sheppard. 1988. AIDS as immune system activation: a model for pathogenesis. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 73:165-167.
10. + T cell proliferation via an IFN-gamma and nitric oxide-dependent mechanism. J. Immunol. 167:4293-4302.
11. Ayash-Rashkovsky, M., Z. Weisman, J. Diveley, R. B. Moss, Z. Bentwich, and G. Borkow. 2002. Generation of Th1 immune responses to inactivated, gp120-depleted HIV-1 in mice with a dominant Th2 biased immune profile via immunostimulatory oligonucleotides-relevance to AIDS vaccines in developing countries. Vaccine 20:2684-2692.
12. Ayash-Rashkovsky, M., Z. Weisman, S. Zlotnikov, E. Raz, Z. Bentwich, and G. Borkow. 2001. Induction of antigen-specific Th1-biased immune responses by plasmid DNA in Schistosoma-infected mice with a preexistent dominant Th2 immune profile. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 282: 1169-1176.
13. Azuma, M., and L. L. Lanier. 1995. The role of CD28 costimulation in the generation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 198:59-74.
14. Azuma, M., J. H. Phillips, and L. L. Lanier. 1993. CD28-T lymphocytes. Antigenic and functional properties. J. Immunol. 150:1147-1159.
15. Beasley, N. M., A. M. Tomkins, A. Hall, C. M. Kihamia, W. Lorri, B. Nduma, W. Issae, C. Nokes, and D. A. Bundy. 1999. The impact of population level deworming on the haemoglobin levels of schoolchildren in Tanga, Tanzania. Trop. Med. Int. Health 4:744-750.
16. Beattie, T., S. Rowland-Jones, and R. Kaul. 2002. HIV-1 and AIDS: what are protective immune responses? J. HIV Ther. 7:35-39.
17. + regulatory T cells control Leishmania major persistence and immunity. Nature 420:502-507.
18. Bentwich Z., Z. Weisman, Z. Grossman, Galai N, and Kalinkovich A. 1997. Pathogenesis of AIDS in Africa: lessons from the Ethiopian immigrants in Israel. Immunologist 5:21-26.
19. Bentwich, Z., A. Kalinkovich, and Z. Weisman. 1995. Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS. Immunol. Today 16:187-191.
20. Bentwich, Z., A. Kalinkovich, Z. Weisman, G. Borkow, N. Beyers, and A. D. Beyers. 1999. Can eradication of helminthic infections change the face of AIDS and tuberculosis? Immunol. Today 20:485-487.
21. Bentwich, Z., A. Kalinkovich, Z. Weisman, and Z. Grossman. 1998. Immune activation in the context of HIV infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 111:1-2.
22. Bentwich, Z., G. Maartens, D. Torten, A. A. Lal, and R. B. Lal. 2000. Concurrent infections and HIV pathogenesis. AIDS 14:2071-2081.
23. Bentwich, Z., Z. Weisman, Z. Grossman, N. Galai, and A. Kalinkovich. 1997. Pathogenesis of AIDS in Africa-lessons from the Ethiopian immigrants in Israel. Immunologist 5:211-226.
24. Bentwich, Z., Z. Weisman, C. Moroz, S. Bar-Yehuda, and A. Kalinkovich. 1996. Immune dysregulation in Ethiopian immigrants in Israel: relevance to helminth infections? Clin. Exp. Immunol. 103:239-243.
25. + T-cell responses: relationship to viral load in untreated HIV infection. J. Virol. 75:11983-11991.
26. Beyers, A. D., A. van Rie, J. Adams, G. Fenhalls, R. Gie, and N. Beyers. 1998. Signals that regulate the host response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Novartis Found. Symp. 217:145-157.
27. + T cells. J. Immunol. 151:2355-2367.
28. Biard-Piechaczyk, M., V. Robert-Hebmann, V. Richard, J. Roland, R. A. Hipskind, and C. Devaux. 2000. Caspase-dependent apoptosis of cells expressing the chemokine receptor CXCR4 is induced by cell membrane-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycoprotein (gp120). Virology 268:329-344.
29. Bleed, D., C. Dye, and M. C. Raviglione. 2000. Dynamics and control of the global tuberculosis epidemic. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 6:174-179.
30. Bluestone, J. A., and A. K. Abbas. 2003. Natural versus adaptive regulatory T cells. Nat. Rev. Immunol 3:253-257.
31. Borkow, G., and Z. Bentwich. 2000. Eradication of helminthic infections may be essential for successful vaccination against HIV and tuberculosis. Bull. W. H. O. 78:1368-1369.
32. Borkow, G., and Z. Bentwich. 2002. Host background immunity and human immunodeficiency virus protective vaccines: a major consideration for vaccine efficacy in Africa and in developing countries. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9:505-507.
33. Borkow, G., Q. Leng, Z. Weisman, M. Stein, N. Galai, A. Kalinkovich, and Z. Bentwich. 2000. Chronic immune activation associated with intestinal helminth infections results in impaired signal transduction and anergy. J. Clin. Investig. 106:1053-1060.
34. Borkow, G., Z. Weisman, Q. Leng, M. Stein, A. Kalinkovich, D. Wolday, and Z. Bentwich. 2001. Helminths, human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 33:568-571.
35. Borrow, P., H. Lewicki, X. Wei, M. S. Horwitz, N. Peffer, H. Meyers, J. A. Nelson, J. E. Gairin, B. H. Hahn, M. B. Oldstone, and G. M. Shaw. 1997. Antiviral pressure exerted by HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) during primary infection demonstrated by rapid selection of CTL escape virus. Nat. Med. 3:205-211.
36. Boucher, N., T. Dufeu-Duchesne, E. Vicaut, D. Farge, R. B. Effros, and F. Schachter. 1998. CD28 expression in T cell aging and human longevity. Exp. Gerontol. 33:267-282.
37. Boussiotis, V. A., G. J. Freeman, A. Berezovskaya, D. L. Barber, and L. M. Nadler. 1997. Maintenance of human T cell anergy: blocking of IL-2 gene transcription by activated Rap1. Science 278:124-128.
38. Boussiotis, V. A., G. J. Freeman, J. G. Gribben, and L. M. Nadler. 1996. The role of B7-1/B7-2:CD28/CLTA-4 pathways in the prevention of anergy, induction of productive immunity and down-regulation of the immune response. Immunol. Rev. 153:5-26.
39. Boyer, J. D., B. Wang, K. E. Ugen, M. Agadjanyan, A. Javadian, P. Frost, K. Dang, R. A. Carrano, R. Ciccarelli, L. Coney, W. V. Williams, and D. B. Weiner. 1996. In vivo protective anti-HIV immune responses in non-human primates through DNA immunization. J. Med. Primatol. 25:242-250.
40. Brooker, S., M. Rowlands, L. Haller, L. Savioli, and D. A. Bundy. 2000. Towards an atlas of human helminth infection in sub-Saharan Africa: the use of geographical information systems (GIS). Parasitol. Today 16:303-307.
41. Brown, H. A., and F. A. Neva. 1983. Basic clinical parasitology. Appleton-Century-Crofts, East Norwalk, Conn.
42. Brunner, M. C., C. A. Chambers, F. K. Chan, J. Hanke, A. Winoto, and J. P. Allison. 1999. CTLA-4-mediated inhibition of early events of T cell proliferation. J. Immunol. 162:5813-5820.
43. Bundy, D., A. Sher, and E. Michael. 2000. Good worms or bad worms: do worm infections affect the epidemiological patterns of other diseases? Parasitol. Today 16:273-274.
44. Bundy, D. A., and N. R. de Silva. 1998. Can we deworm this wormy world? Br. Med. Bull. 54:421-432.
45. Bundy, D. A., and G. F. Medley. 1992. Immuno-epidemiology of human geohelminthiasis: ecological and immunological determinants of worm burden. Parasitology. 104(Suppl):S105-S119.
46. Capobianchi, M. R. 1996. Induction of lymphomonocyte activation by HIV-1 glycoprotein gp120. Possible role in AIDS pathogenesis. J. Biol. Regul. Homeostatic Agents 10:83-91.
47. Casella, C. R., and T. H. Finkel. 1997. Mechanisms of lymphocyte killing by HIV. Curr. Opin. Hematol. 4:24-31.
48. + T cells. Immunity 7:885-895.
49. Chan, M. S. 1997. The global burden of intestinal nematode infections-fifty years on. Parasitol. Today 13:438-443.
50. Reference deleted.
51. Chan, M. S., G. F. Medley, D. Jamison, and D. A. Bundy. 1994. The evaluation of potential global morbidity attributable to intestinal nematode infections. Parasitology 109:373-387.
52. Chatenoud, L., B. Salomon, and J. A. Bluestone. 2001. Suppressor T cells-they're back and critical for regulation of autoimmunity! Immunol. Rev. 182:149-163.
53. + T cells. J. Exp. Med. 188:1849-1857.
54. Chirmule, N., T. W. McCloskey, R. Hu, V. S. Kalyanaraman, and S. Panwa. 1995. HIV gp120 inhibits T cell activation by interfering with expression of costimulatory molecules CD40 ligand and CD80 (B71). J. Immunol. 155: 917-924.
55. Clerici, M., and G. M. Shearer. 2001. The TH1-TH2 hypothesis of HIV infection: new insights. Immunol. Today 12:575-581.
56. Clerici, M., C. Balotta, L. Meroni, E. Ferrario, C. Riva, D. Trabattoni, A. Ridolfo, M. Villa, G. M. Shearer, M. Moroni, and M. Galli. 1996. Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term nonprogression in HIV infection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12:1053-1061.
57. Clerici, M., J. V. Giorgi, C. C. Chou, V. K. Gudeman, J. A. Zack, P. Gupta, H. N. Ho, P. G. Nishanian, J. A. Berzofsky, and G. M. Shearer. 1992. Cell-mediated immune response to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 in seronegative homosexual men with recent sexual exposure to HIV-1. J. Infect. Dis. 165:1012-1019.
58. Clerici, M., J. M. Levin, H. A. Kessler, A. Harris, J. A. Berzofsky, A. L. Landay, and G. M. Shearer. 1994. HIV-specific T-helper activity in sero-negative health care workers exposed to contaminated blood. JAMA 271: 42-46.
59. Clerici, M., and G. M. Shearer. 1993. A TH1→TH2 switch is a critical step in the etiology of HIV infection. Immunol. Today 14:107-111.
60. Coovadia, H. M., P. Jeena, and D. Wilkinson. 1998. Childhood human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis co-infections: reconciling conflicting data. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2:844-851.
61. Correa-Oliveira, R., L. C. Malaquias, P. L. Falcao, I. R. Viana, L. M. Bahia-Oliveira, A. M. Silveira, L. A. Fraga, A. Prata, R. L. Coffman, J. R. Lambertucci, J. R. Cunha-Melo, O. A. Martins-Filho, R. A. Wilson, and G. Gazzinelli. 1998. Cytokines as determinants of resistance and pathology in human Schistosoma mansoni infection. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res 31:171-177.
62. Cupp, C., J. P. Taylor, K. Khalili, and S. Amini. 1993. Evidence for stimulation of the transforming growth factor beta 1 promoter by HIV-1 Tat in cells derived from CNS. Oncogene 8:2231-2236.
63. Dalgleish, A. G., and K. J. O'Byrne. 2002. Chronic immune activation and inflammation in the pathogenesis of AIDS and cancer. Adv. Cancer Res. 84:231-276.
64. + T cells of HIV-seropositive patients. Eur. J. Immunol. 29:38-44.
65. De Maria, A., C. Cirillo, and L. Moretta. 1994. Occurrence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-specific cytolytic T cell activity in apparently uninfected children born to HIV-1-infected mothers. J. Infect. Dis. 170:1296-1299.
66. 2-terminal kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. J. Exp. Med. 183:2017-2023.
67. DeSilva, D. R., E. A. Jones, W. S. Feeser, E. J. Manos, and P. A. Scherle. 1997. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in activated and anergic Th1 cells. Cell. Immunol. 180:116-123.
68. de Silva, N. R., M. S. Chan, and D. A. Bundy. 1997. Morbidity and mortality due to ascariasis: re-estimation and sensitivity analysis of global numbers at risk. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2:519-528.
69. Despommier, D. D., R. W. Gwadz, and P. J. Hotez. 1995. Parasitic diseases. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y.
70. Despommier, D. D., and J. W. Karapelou. 1988. Parasite life cycles. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y.
71. Doetze, A., J. Satoguina, G. Burchard, T. Rau, C. Loliger, B. Fleischer, and A. Hoerauf. 2000. Antigen-specific cellular hyporesponsiveness in a chronic human helminth infection is mediated by T(h)3;T(r)1-type cytokines IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta but not by a T(h)1 to T(h)2 shift. Int. Immunol. 12:623-630.
72. Douek, D. C., L. J. Picker, and R. A. Koup. 2003. T cell dynamics in HIV-1 infection. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 21:265-304.
73. Dye, C., S. Scheele, P. Dolin, V. Pathania, and M. C. Raviglione. 1999. Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project. JAMA 282:677-686.
74. Ekkens, M. J., Z. Liu, Q. Liu, A. Foster, J. Whitmire, J. Pesce, A. H. Sharpe, J. F. Urban, and W. C. Gause. 2002. Memory Th2 effector cells can develop in the absence of B7-1/B7-2, CD28 interactions, and effector Th cells after priming with an intestinal nematode parasite. J. Immunol. 168:6344-6351.
75. El Garem, A. A. 1998. Schistosomiasis. Digestion 59:589-605.
76. Elias, D., D. Wolday, H. Akuffo, B. Petros, U. Bronner, and S. Britton. 2001. Effect of deworming on human T cell responses to mycobacterial antigens in helminth-exposed individuals before and after bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 123:219-225.
77. Elliott, A. M., J. Kyosiimire, M. A. Quigley, J. Nakiyingi, C. Watera, M. Brown, S. Joseph, N. French, C. F. Gilks, and J. A. G. Withworth. 2003. Eosinophilia and progression to active tuberculosis in HIV-1-infected Ugandans. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 97:477-480.
78. + T cell count, viral load and cytokine responses in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 97:103-108.
79. Else, K. J., and R. K. Grencis. 1991. Cellular immune responses to the murine nematode parasite Trichuris muris. I. Differential cytokine production during acute or chronic infection. Immunology 72:508-513.
80. Elson, L. H., S. Shaw, R. A. Van Lier, and T. B. Nutman. 1994. T cell subpopulation phenotypes in filarial infections: CD27 negativity defines a population greatly enriched for Th2 cells. Int. Immunol. 6:1003-1009.
81. Evans, D. T., D. H. O'Connor, P. Jing, J. L. Dzuris, J. Sidney, J. da Silva, T. M. Allen, H. Horton, J. E. Venham, R. A. Rudersdorf, T. Vogel, C. D. Pauza, R. E. Bontrop, R. DeMars, A. Sette, A. L. Hughes, and D. I. Watkins. 1999. Virus-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses select for amino-acid variation in simian immunodeficiency virus Env and Nef. Nat. Med. 5:1270-1276.
82. Fadok, V. A., D. L. Bratton, D. M. Rose, A. Pearson, R. A. Ezekewitz, and P. M. Henson. 2000. A receptor for phosphatidylserine-specific clearance of apoptotic cells. Nature 405:85-90.
83. Fagnoni, F. F., R. Vescovini, G. Passeri, G. Bologna, M. Pedrazzoni, G. Lavagetto, A. Casti, C. Franceschi, M. Passeri, and P. Sansoni. 2000. Shortage of circulating naive CD8(+) T cells provides new insights on immunodeficiency in aging. Blood 95:2860-2868.
84. Fahey, J. L., J. M. Taylor, B. Manna, P. Nishanian, N. Aziz, J. V. Giorgi, and R. Detels. 1998. Prognostic significance of plasma markers of immune activation, HIV viral load and CD4 T-cell measurements. AIDS 12:1581-1590.
85. Falcao, P. L., L. C. Malaquias, O. A. Martins-Filho, A. M. Silveira, V. M. Passos, A. Prata, G. Gazzinelli, R. L. Coffman, and R. Correa-Oliveira. 1998. Human schistosomiasis mansoni: IL-10 modulates the in vitro granuloma formation. Parasite Immunol. 20:447-454.
86. Farah, I. O., P. W. Mola, T. M. Kariuki, M. Nyindo, R. E. Blanton, and C. L. King. 2000. Repeated exposure induces periportal fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni-infected baboons: role of TGF-beta and IL-4. J. Immunol. 164:5337-5343.
87. + T cells. Science 271:1276-1278.
88. + regulatory T cells. Nat. Immunol. 4:330-336.
89. Fowke, K. R., N. J. Nagelkerke, J. Kimani, J. N. Simonsen, A. O. Anzala, J. J. Bwayo, K. S. MacDonald, E. N. Ngugi, and F. A. Plummer. 1996. Resistance to HIV-1 infection among persistently seronegative prostitutes in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 348:1347-1351.
90. Francois, B. J. 2003. Regulatory T cells under scrutiny. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3:189-198.
91. Frauwirth, K. A., M. L. Alegre, and C. B. Thompson. 2000. Induction of T cell anergy in the absence of CTLA-4/B7 interaction. J. Immunol. 164: 2987-2993.
92. Gallin, M., K. Edmonds, J. J. Ellner, K. D. Erttmann, A. T. White, H. S. Newland, H. R. Taylor, and B. M. Greene. 1988. Cell-mediated immune responses in human infection with Onchocerca volvulus. J. Immunol. 140: 1999-2007.
93. + T cells by a Fas-independent mechanism. J. Exp. Med. 187:1113-1122.
94. Ghosh, M. K., A. K. Ghosh, M. Addy, A. Nandy, and A. C. Ghose. 1996. Subpopulations of T lymphocytes in the peripheral blood and lymph nodes of Indian kala-azar patients. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 185:183-187.
95. Giorgi, J. V., L. E. Hultin, J. A. McKeating, T. D. Johnson, B. Owens, L. P. Jacobson, R. Shih, J. Lewis, D. J. Wiley, J. P. Phair, S. M. Wolinsky, and R. Detels. 1999. Shorter survival in advanced human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection is more closely associated with T lymphocyte activation than with plasma virus burden or virus chemokine coreceptor usage. J. Infect. Dis. 179:859-870.
96. Goletti, D., D. Weissman, R. W. Jackson, N. M. Graham, D. Vlahov, R. S. Klein, S. S. Munsiff, L. Ortona, R. Cauda, and A. S. Fauci. 1996. Effect of Mycobacterium tuberculosis on HIV replication. Role of immune activation. J. Immunol. 157:1271-1278.
97. Gopinath, R., M. Ostrowski, S. J. Justement, A. S. Fauci, and T. B. Nutman. 2000. Filarial infections increase susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus infection in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. J. Infect. Dis. 182:1804-1808.
98. Gorelik, L., and R. A. Flavell. 2002. Transforming growth factor-beta in T-cell biology. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2:46-53.
99. Goulder, P. J., and B. D. Walker. 1999. The great escape-AIDS viruses and immune control. Nat. Med. 5:1233-1235.
100. Graziosi, C., G. Pantaleo, K. R. Gantt, J. P. Fortin, J. F. Demarest, O. J. Cohen, R. P. Sekaly, and A. S. Fauci. 1994. Lack of evidence for the dichotomy of TH1 and TH2 predominance in HIV-infected individuals. Science 265:248-252.
101. Graziosi, C., H. Soudeyns, G. P. Rizzardi, P. A. Bart, A. Chapuis, and G. Pantaleo. 1998. Immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 14(Suppl. 2):S135-S142.
102. Grossman, Z., Z. Bentwich, and R. B. Herberman. 1993. From HIV infection to AIDS: are the manifestations of effective immune resistance misinterpreted? Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 69:123-135.
103. + T-cell depletion in HIV infection: are we closer to understanding the cause? Nat. Med. 8:319-323.
104. Grubeck-Loebenstein, B. 1997. Changes in the aging immune system. Biologicals 25:205-208.
105. Gupta, M., K. L. Arora, S. Mithal, and B. N. Tandon. 1977. Effect of periodic deworming on nutritional status of Ascaris-infested preschool children receiving supplementary food. Lancet 2:108-110.
106. Harnett, M. M., M. R. Deehan, D. M. Williams, and W. Harnett. 1998. Induction of signalling anergy via the T-cell receptor in cultured Jurkat T cells by pre-exposure to a filarial nematode secreted product. Parasite Immunol. 20:551-563.
107. Harnett, W. and M. M. Harnett. 2001. Modulation of the host immune system by phosphorylcholine-containing glycoproteins secreted by parasitic filarial nematodes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1539:7-15.
108. Havlir, D. V. and P. F. Barnes. 1999. Tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:367-373.
109. Hay, C. M., D. J. Ruhl, N. O. Basgoz, C. C. Wilson, J. M. Billingsley, M. P. DePasquale, R. T. D'Aquila, S. M. Wolinsky, J. M. Crawford, D. C. Montefiori, and B. D. Walker. 1999. Lack of viral escape and defective in vivo activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in rapidly progressive infection. J. Virol. 73:5509-5519.
110. Hazenberg, M. D., S. A. Otto, B. H. van Benthem, M. T. Roos, R. A. Coutinho, J. M. Lange, D. Hamann, M. Prins, and F. Miedema. 2003. Persistent immune activation in HIV-1 infection is associated with progression to AIDS. AIDS 17:1881-1888.
111. Hazenberg, M. D., J. W. Stuart, S. A. Otto, J. C. Borleffs, C. A. Boucher, R. J. de Boer, F. Miedema, and D. Hamann, 2000. T-cell division in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infection is mainly due to immune activation: a longitudinal analysis in patients before and during highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Blood 95:249-255.
112. Helbert, M. R., J. L'age-Stehr, and N. A. Mitchison. 1993. Antigen presentation, loss of immunological memory and AIDS. Immunol. Today 14:340-344.
113. Hoerauf, A., and N. Brattig. 2002. Resistance and susceptibility in human onchocerciasis-beyond Th1 vs. Th2. Trends Parasitol. 18:25-31.
114. Hoffman, I. F., C. S. Jere, T. E. Taylor, P. Munthali, J. R. Dyer, J. J. Wirima, S. J. Rogerson, N. Kumwenda, J. J. Eron, S. A. Fiscus, H. Chakraborty, T. E. Taha, M. S. Cohen, and M. E. Molyneux. 1999. The effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria on HIV-1 RNA blood plasma concentration. AIDS 13:487-494.
115. Hofmann, B., P. Nishanian, T. Nguyen, P. Insixiengmay, and J. L. Fahey. 1993. Human immunodeficiency virus proteins induce the inhibitory cAMP/ protein kinase A pathway in normal lymphocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:6676-6680.
116. Hogan, C. M., and S. M. Hammer. 2001. Host determinants in HIV infection and disease. 1. Cellular and humoral immune responses. Ann. Intern. Med. 134:761-776.
117. Hu, R., N. Oyaizu, S. Than, V. S. Kalyanaraman, X. P. Wang, and S. Pahwa. 1996. HIV-1 gp160 induces transforming growth factor-beta production in human PBMC. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 80:283-289.
118. Infante-Duarte, C., and T. Kamradt. 1999. Th1/Th2 balance in infection. Springer Semin. Immunopathol. 21:317-338.
119. Ishikawa, N., P. K. Goyal, Y. R. Mahida, K. F. Li, and D. Wakelin. 1998. Early cytokine responses during intestinal parasitic infections. Immunology 93:257-263.
120. Jabado, N., A. Pallier, F. Le Deist, F. Bernard, A. Fischer, and C. Hivroz. 1997. CD4 ligands inhibit the formation of multifunctional transduction complexes involved in T cell activation. J. Immunol. 158:94-103. 121.
121. Reference deleted.
122. John, T. J., and P. Jayabal. 1972. Oral polio vaccination of children in the tropics. 1. The poor seroconversion rates and the absence of viral interference. Am. J. Epidemiol. 96:263-269.
123. June, C. H., J. A. Bluestone, L. M. Nadler, and C. B. Thompson. 1994. The B7 and CD28 receptor families. Immunol. Today 15:321-331.
124. Jusot, J. F., P. Simarro, and A. De Muynck. 1996. Historical aspects of the risk factors of Schistosoma intercalatum schistosomiasis. Sante 6:165-172. (in French.)
125. Kalinkovich, A., G. Borkow, Z. Weisman, A. Tsimanis, M. Stein, and Z. Bentwich. 2001. Increased CCR5 and CXCR4 expression in Ethiopians living in israel: environmental and constitutive factors. Clin. Immunol. 100:107-117.
126. Kalinkovich, A., S. Maayan, Z. Weisman, N. Harpaz, and Z. Bentwich. 1994. Immune activation, a co-factor for HIV transmission in Thailand? Lancet 343:1506-1507.
127. Kalinkovich, A., Z. Weisman, R. Burstein, and Z. Bentwich. 1998. Standard values of T-lymphocyte subsets in Africa. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 17:183-185.
128. Kalinkovich, A., Z. Weisman, Z. Greenberg, J. Nahmias, S. Eitan, M. Stein, and Z. Bentwich. 1998. Decreased CD4 and increased CDS counts with T cell activation is associated with chronic helminth infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 114:414-421.
129. Karin, M., and Y. Ben Neriah. 2000. Phosphorylation meets ubiquitination: the control of NF-κB activity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 18:621-663.
130. Kaufmann, G. R., C. Duncombe, J. Zaunders, P. Cunningham, and D. Cooper. 1998. Primary HIV-1 infection: a review of clinical manifestations, immunologie and virologic changes. AIDS Patient Care STDs 12:759-767.
131. Kekow, J., W. Wachsman, J. A. McCutchan, W. L. Gross, M. Zachariah, D. A. Carson, and M. Lotz. 1991. Transforming growth factor-beta and suppression of humoral immune responses in HIV infection. J. Clin. Investig. 87:1010-1016.
132. Khalife, J., J. M. Grzych, R. Pierce, J. C. Ameisen, A. M. Schacht, H. Gras-Masse, A. Tartar, J. P. Lecocq, and A. Capron. 1990. Immunological crossreactivity between the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 virion infectivity factor and a 170-kD surface antigen of Schistosoma mansoni. J. Exp. Med. 172:1001-1004.
133. Khalife, J., R. J. Pierce, C. Godin, and A. Capron. 1994. Molecular characterization of two Schistosoma mansoni proteins sharing common motifs with the vif protein of HIV-1. Parasitology 108:533-542.
134. + T regulatory cells. Nat. Immunol. 4:337-342.
135. King, C. L., M. Connelly, M. P. Alpers, M. Bockarie, and J. W. Kazura. 2001. Transmission intensity determines lymphocyte responsiveness and cytokine bias in human lymphatic filariasis. J. Immunol. 166:7427-7436.
136. King, C. L., S. Mahanty, V. Kumaraswami, J. S. Abrams, J. Regunathan, K. Jayaraman, E. A. Ottesen, and T. B. Nutman. 1993. Cytokine control of parasite-specific anergy in human lymphatic filariasis. Preferential induction of a regulatory T helper type 2 lymphocyte subset. J. Clin. Investig. 92:1667-1673.
137. King, C. L., A. Medhat, I. Malhotra, M. Nafeh, A. Helmy, J. Khaudarj, S. Ibrahim, M. El Sherbiny, S. Zaky, R. J. Stupi, K. Brustoski, M. Shehata, and M. T. Shata. 1996. Cytokine control of parasite-specific anergy in human urinary schistosomiasis. IL-10 modulates lymphocyte reactivity. J. Immunol. 156:4715-4721.
138. King, C. L., J. Xianli, C. H. June, R. Abe, and K. P. Lee. 1996. CD28-deficient mice generate an impaired Th2 response to Schistosoma mansoni infection. Eur. J. Immunol. 26:2448-2455.
139. Klein, M. R., C. A. van Baalen, A. M. Holwerda, G. Kerkhof, R. J. Bende, I. P. Keet, J. K. Eeftinck-Scnattenkerk, A. D. Osterhaus, H. Schuitemaker, and F. Miedema. 1995. Kinetics of Gag-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses during the clinical course of HIV-1 infection: a longitudinal analysis of rapid progressors and long-term asymptomatics. J. Exp. Med. 181:1365-1372.
140. Kornbluth, R. S. 2002. An expanding role for CD40L and other tumor necrosis factor superfamily ligands in HIV infection. J. Hematother. Stem Cell Res. 11:787-801.
141. Kulkarni, P. S., S. T. Butera, and A. C. Duerr. 2003. Resistance to HIV-1 infection: lessons learned from studies of highly exposed persistently sero-negative (HEPS) individuals. AIDS Rev. 5:87-103.
142. Langlade-Demoyen, P., N. Ngo-Giang-Huong, F. Ferchal, and E. Oksenhendler. 1994. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) nef-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in noninfected heterosexual contact of HIV-infected patients. J. Clin. Investig. 93:1293-1297.
143. Lawn, S. D., S. T. Butera, and T. M. Folks. 2001. Contribution of immune activation to the pathogenesis and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:753-777.
144. Lawn, S. D., D. M. Karanja, P. Mwinzia, J. Andove, D. G. Colley, T. M. Folks, and W. E. Secor. 2000. The effect of treatment of schistosomiasis on blood plasma HlV-1 RNA concentration in coinfected individuals. AIDS 14:2437-2443.
145. Leach, D. R., M. F. Krummel, and J. P. Allison. 1996. Enhancement of antitumor immunity by CTLA-4 blockade. Science 271:1734-1736.
146. Lechler, R., J. G. Chai, F. Marelli-Berg, and G. Lombardi. 2001. T-cell anergy and peripheral T-cell tolerance. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 356:625-637.
147. Lee, K. M., E. Chuang, M. Griffin, R. Khattri, D. K. Hong, W. Zhang, D. Straus, L. E. Samelson, C. B. Thompson, and J. A. Bluestone. 1998. Molecular basis of T cell inactivation by CTLA-4. Science 282:2263-2266.
148. + patients. Int. Immunol. 10:1847-1851.
149. Leng, Q., Z. Bentwich, and G. Borkow. 2002. CTLA-4 upregulation during aging. Mech. Ageing Dev. 123:1419-1421.
150. Leng, Q., Z. Bentwich, E. Magen, A. Kalinkovich, and G. Borkow. 2002. CTLA-4 upregulation during HIV infection: association with anergy and possible target for therapeutic intervention. AIDS 16:519-529.
151. Leng, Q., G. Borkow, and Z. Bentwich. 2002. Attenuated signaling associated with immune activation in HIV-1-infected individuals. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 298:464-467.
152. Leng, Q., G. Borkow, Z. Weisman, M. Stein, A. Kalinkovich, and Z. Bentwich. 2001. Immune activation correlates better than HIV plasma viral load with CD4 T-cell decline during HIV infection. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 27:389-397.
153. Leroy, E., S. Baize, G. Wahl, T. G. Egwang, and A. J. Georges. 1997. Experimental infection of a nonhuman primate with Loa loa induces transient strong immune activation followed by peripheral unresponsiveness of helper T cells. Infect. Immun. 65:1876-1882.
154. Levy, J. A. 1993. Pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Microbiol. Rev. 57:183-289.
155. + T cells. Science 271:1272-1276.
156. Lieberman, J., P. Shankar, N. Manjunath, and J. Andersson. 2001. Dressed to kill? A review of why antiviral CDS T lymphocytes fail to prevent progressive immunodeficiency in HIV-1 infection. Blood 98:1667-1677.
157. Linsley, P. S., J. L. Greene, W. Brady, J. Bajorath, J. A. Ledbetter, and R. Peach. 1994. Human B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86) bind with similar avidities but distinct kinetics to CD28 and CTLA-4 receptors. Immunity 1:793-801.
158. Linsley, P. S., and J. A. Ledbetter. 1993. The role of the CD28 receptor during T cell responses to antigen. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 11:191-212.
159. Liu, Y. C., and H. Gu. 2002. Cbl and Cbl-b in T-cell regulation. Trends Immunol. 23:140-143.
160. Looney, D. J. 1994. Immune responses to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in exposed but uninfected individuals: protection or chance? J. Clin. Investig. 93:920.
161. Lotz, M., and P. Seth. 1993. TGF beta and HIV infection. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 685:501-511.
162. Loukas, A., and P. Prociv. 2001. Immune responses in hookworm infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:689-703.
163. Lyszkiewicz, M., and E. Pajtasz-Piasecka. 2002. Contribution of
164. Maggi, E., M. Mazzetti, A. Ravina, F. Annunziato, M. de Carli, M. P. Piccinni, R. Manetti, M. Carbonari, A. M. Pesce, and G. Del Prete. 1994. Ability of HIV to promote a THl to TH0 shift and to replicate preferentially in TH2 and TH0 cells. Science 265:244-248.
165. Mahanty, S., S. N. Mollis, M. Ravichandran, J. S. Abrams, V. Kumaraswami, K. Jayaraman, E. A. Ottesen, and T. B. Nutman. 1996. High levels of spontaneous and parasite antigen-driven interleukin-10 production are associated with antigen-specific hyporesponsiveness in human lymphatic filariasis. J. Infect. Dis. 173:769-773.
166. Maizels, R. M., D. A. Bundy, M. E. Selkirk, D. F. Smith, and R. M. Andersen. 1993. Immunological modulation and evasion by helminth parasites in human populations. Nature 365:797-805.
167. Maizels, R. M., and M. J. Holland. 1998. Parasite immunology: pathways for expelling intestinal helminths. Curr. Biol. 8:R711-R714.
168. Makarov, S. S. 2000. NF-κB as a therapeutic target in chronic inflammation: recent advances. Mol. Med. Today 6:441-448.
169. Malaquias, L. C., P. L. Falcao, A. M. Silveira, G. Gazzinelli, A. Praia, R. L. Coffman, V. Pizziolo, C. P. Souza, D. G. Colley, and R. Correa-Oliveira. 1997. Cytokine regulation of human immune response to Schistosoma mansoni: analysis of the role of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 on peripheral blood mononuclear cell responses. Scand. J. Immunol. 46:393-398.
170. Malhotra, I., J. Ouma, A. Wamachi, J. Kioko, P. Mungai, A. Omollo, L. Elson, D. Kocch, J. W. Kazura, and C. L. King. 1997. In utero exposure to helminth and mycobacterial antigens generates cytokine responses similar to that observed in adults. J. Clin. Investig. 99:1759-1766.
171. Malinowski, K., and F. T. Rapaport. 1995. Effects of aging upon the expression of differentiation and class II MHC antigens on the surface of T lymphocytes from normal human subjects. Cell. Immunol. 162:68-73.
172. Manson-Bahr, P. E. C., and D. R. Bell. 1987. Manson's tropical diseases. Ballière Tindall, London, United Kingdom.
173. Martins-Filho, O. A., J. R. Cunha-Melo, J. R. Lambertucci, A. M. Silveira, D. G. Colley, G. Gazzinelli, and R. Correa-Oliveira. 1999. Clinical forms of human Schistosoma mansoni infection are associated with differential activation of T-cell subsets and costimulatory molecules. Dig. Dis. Sci. 44:570-577.
174. McCoy, K., M. Camberis, and G. L. Gros. 1997. Protective immunity to nematode infection is induced by CTLA-4 blockade. J. Exp. Med. 186:183-187.
175. McMichael, A. J., and S. L. Rowland-Jones. 2001. Cellular immune responses to HIV. Nature 410:980-987.
176. Messele, T., M. Abdulkadir, A. L. Fontanet, B. Petros, D. Hamann, M. Koot, M. T. Roos, P. T. Schellekens, F. Miedema, and T. F. Rinke de Wit. 1999. Reduced naive and increased activated CD4 and CDS cells in healthy adult Ethiopians compared with their Dutch counterparts. Clinn. Exp. Immunol. 115:443-450.
177. Metz, D. P., D. L. Farber, T. Taylor, and K. Bottomly. 1998. Differential role of CTLA-4 in regulation of resting memory versus naive CD4 T cell activation. J. Immunol. 161:5855-5861.
178. Meyaard, L., and F. Miedema. 1995. Programmed death of T cells in HIV infection: result of immune activation? Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 200:213-221.
179. Michael, E., D. A. Bundy, and B. T. Grenfell. 1996. Re-assessing the global prevalence and distribution of lymphatic filariasis. Parasitology 112:409-428.
180. Miedema, F. 1992. Immunological abnormalities in the natural history of HIV infection: mechanisms and clinical relevance. Immunodefic. Rev. 3:173-193.
181. Milman, G., and M. P. D'Souza. 1994. HIV-mediated defects in immune regulation. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 10:421-430.
182. Miyamoto, Y. J., B. F. Andruss, J. S. Mitchell, M. J. Billard, and B. W. McIntyre. 2003. Diverse roles of integrins in human T lymphocyte biology. Immunol. Res. 27:71-84.
183. Mola, P. W., I. O. Farah, T. M. Kariuki, M. Nyindo, R. E. Blanton, and C. L. King. 1999. Cytokine control of the granulomatous response in Schistosoma mansoni-infected baboons: role of exposure and treatment. Infect. Immun. 67:6565-6571.
184. Mondino, A., C. D. Whaley, D. R. DeSilva, W. Li, M. K. Jenkins, and D. L. Mueller. 1996. Defective transcription of the IL-2 gene is associated with impaired expression of c-Fos, FosB, and JunB in anergic T helper 1 cells. J. Immunol. 157:2048-2057.
185. Morford, L. A., L. H. Elliott, S. L. Carlson, W. H. Brooks, and T. L. Roszman. 1997. T cell receptor-mediated signaling is defective in T cells obtained from patients with primary intracranial tumors. J. Immunol. 159: 4415-4425.
186. Morgan, J. A., R. J. Dejong, S. D. Snyder, G. M. Mkoji, and E. S. Loker. 2001. Schistosoma mansoni and Biomphalaria: past history and future trends. Parasitology 123(Suppl.):S211-S228.
187. Morio, T., T. Chatila, and R. S. Geha. 1997. HIV glycoprotein gp120 inhibits TCR-CD3-mediated activation of fyn and lck. Int. Immunol. 9:53-64.
188. Mosmann, T. R., and S. Sad. 1996. The expanding universe of T-cell subsets: Th1, Th2 and more. Immunol. Today 17:138-146.
189. + T cells. Ciba Found. Symp. 195:42-50.
190. Muller, R., and J. R. Baker. 1990. Medical parasitology. JB Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
191. Muro, A., C. Genchi, M. Cordero, and F. Simon. 1999. Human dirofilariasis in the European Union. Parasitol. Today 15:386-389.
192. Nakanishi, K., T. Yoshimoto, H. Tsutsui, and H. Okamura. 2001. Interleukin-18 regulates both Th1 and Th2 responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 19: 423-474.
193. Navikas, V., J. Link, B. Wahren, C. Persson, and H. Link. 1994. Increased levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), IL-4 and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) mRNA expressing blood mononuclear cells in human HIV infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 96:59-63.
194. Ng, T. T., S. B. Kanner, M. J. Humphries, R. G. Wickremasinghe, K. E. Nye, J. Anderson, S. H. Khoo, and W. J. Morrow. 1997. The integrin-triggered rescue of T lymphocyte apoptosis is blocked in HIV-1-infected individuals. J. Immunol. 158:2984-2999.
195. Niehues, T., J. Ndaggimana, G. Horneff, and V. Wahn. 1998. CD28 expression in pediatric human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr. Res. 44:265-268.
196. Nutman, T. B., and V. Kumaraswami. 2001. Regulation of the immune response in lymphatic filariasis; perspectives on acute and chronic infection with Wuchereria bancrofti in South India. Parasite Immunol. 23:389-399.
197. Oh, S. K., W. W. Cruikshank, J. Raina, G. C. Blanchard, W. H. Adler, J. Walker, and H. Kornfeld. 1992. Identification of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein in the serum of AIDS and ARC patients. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 5:251-256.
198. Olsen, A., L. Mubila, and A. L. Willingham III. 2001. Human helminth infections-future research foci. Trends Parasitol. 17:303-305.
199. Pantaleo, G., and A. S. Fauci. 1996. Immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 50:825-854.
200. Pantaleo, G., C. Graziosi, and A. S. Fauci. 1993. The role of lymphoid organs in the immunopathogenesis of HIV infection. AIDS 7(Suppl. 1): S19-S23.
201. Patriarca, P. A., P. F. Wright, and T. J. John. 1991. Factors affecting the immunogenicity of oral poliovirus vaccine in developing countries: review. Rev. Infect. Dis. 13:926-939.
202. Pearce, E. J., P. Caspar, J. M. Grzych, F. A. Lewis, and A. Sher. 1991. Downregulation of Th1 cytokine production accompanies induction of Th2 responses by a parasitic helminth, Schistosoma mansoni. J. Exp. Med. 173: 159-166.
203. Pearce, E. J., A. La Flamme, E. Sabin, and L. R. Brunet. 1998. The initiation and function of Th2 responses during infection with Schistosoma mansoni. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 452:67-73.
204. Pearlman, E., J. W. Kazura, F. E. Hazlett, and W. H. Boom. 1993. Modulation of murine cytokine responses to mycobacterial antigens by helminth-induced T helper 2 cell responses. J. Immunol. 151:4857-4864.
205. + lymphocytes in vivo. AIDS 11(Suppl. A):S17-S24.
206. Perelson, A. S., A. U. Neumann, M. Markowitz, J. M. Leonard, and D. D. Ho. 1996. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span, and viral generation time. Science 271:1582-1586.
207. Ferez, V. L., L. van Parijs, A. Biuckians, X. X. Zheng, T. B. Strom, and A. K. Abbas. 1997. Induction of peripheral T cell tolerance in vivo requires CTLA-4 engagement. Immunity 6:411-417.
208. Peters, W, and H. M. Gilles. 1989. A colour atlas of tropical medicine and parasitology. Wolfe Medical Publications, London, United Kingdom.
209. Pinto, L. A., J. Sullivan, J. A. Berzofsky, M. Clerici, H. A. Kessler, A. L. Landay, and G. M. Shearer. 1995. ENV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in HIV seronegative health care workers occupationally exposed to HIV-contaminated body fluids. J. Clin. Investig. 96:867-876.
210. Plummer, F. A., T. B. Ball, J. Kimani, and K. H. Fowke. 1999. Resistance to HIV-1 infection among highly exposed sex workers in Nairobi: what mediates protection and why does it develop? Immunol. Lett. 66:27-34.
211. Poli, G., and A. S. Fauci. 1992. The effect of cytokines and pharmacologic agents on chronic HIV infection. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 8:191-197.
212. Powell, J. D., J. A. Ragheb, S. Kitagawa-Sakakida, and R. H. Schwartz. 1998. Molecular regulation of interleukin-2 expression by CD28 co-stimulation and anergy. Immunol. Rev. 165:287-300.
213. Prociv, P. 2001. Gastrointestinal worm infections. The prevalence and treatment in Australia. Aust. Fam. Physician 30:755-761.
214. + T-cell repertoire in long-term nonprogressors and its role in the control of viral load and disease activity. Hum. Immunol. 62: 561-576.
215. Putkonen, P, B. Makitalo, D. Bottiger, G. Biberfeld, and R. Thorstensson. 1997. Protection of human immunodeficiency virus type 2-exposed sero-negative macaques from mucosal simian immunodeficiency virus transmission. J. Virol. 71:4981-4984.
216. + lymphocytes and relationship to serum TNF-α, IFN-γ, and sIL-2R levels in aging. Exp. Gerontol. 34:79-93.
217. Reinherz, E. L., and S. F. Schlossman. 1980. Current concepts in immunology: regulation of the immune response-inducer and suppressor T-lymphocyte subsets in human beings. N. Engl. J. Med. 303:370-373.
218. Remoue, F., D. Van To, A. M. Schacht, M. Picquet, O. Garraud, J. Vercruysse, A. Ly, A. Capron, and G. Riveau. 2001. Gender-dependent specific immune response during chronic human Schistosomiasis haematobia. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 124:62-68.
219. Riley, J. L., K. Schlienger, P. J. Blair, B. Carreno, N. Craighead, D. Kim, R. G. Carroll, and C. H. June. 2000. Modulation of susceptibility to HIV-1 infection by the cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 costimulatory molecule. J. Exp. Med. 191:1987-1997.
220. Rinaldo, C., X. L. Huang, Z. F. Fan, M. Ding, L. Beltz, A. Logar, D. Panicali, G. Mazzara, J. Liebmann, and M. Cottrill. 1995. High levels of anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) memory cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity and low viral load are associated with lack of disease in HIV-1-infected long-term nonprogressors. J. Virol. 69:5838-5842.
221. Rizzardini, G., S. Piconi, S. Ruzzante, M. L. Fusi, M. Lukwiya, S. Declich, M. Tamburini, M. L. Villa, M. Fabiani, F. Milazzo, and M. Clerici. 1996. Immunological activation markers in the serum of African and European HIV-seropositive and seronegative individuals. AIDS 10:1535-1542.
222. Romagnani, S., and E. Maggi. 1994. Th1 versus Th2 responses in AIDS. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 6:616-622.
223. + T-cell clones producing TH2-type cytokines. Res. Immunol. 145:611-617.
224. Rowland-Jones, S. L., T. Dong, K. R. Fowke, J. Kimani, P. Krausa, H. Newell, T. Blanchard, K. Ariyoshi, J. Oyugi, E. Ngugi, J. Bwayo, K. S. MacDonald, A. J. McMichael, and F. A. Plummer. 1998. Cytotoxic T cell responses to multiple conserved HIV epitopes in HIV-resistant prostitutes in Nairobi. J. Clin. Investig. 102:1758-1765.
225. Rowland-Jones, S. L., S. Pinheiro, R. Kaul, P. Hansasuta, G. Gillespie, T. Dong, F. A. Plummer, J. B. Bwayo, S. Fidler, J. Weber, A. McMichael, and V. Appay. 2001. How important is the 'quality' of the cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response in protection against HIV infection? Immunol. Lett. 79: 15-20.
226. Rudd, C. E., and H. Schneider. 2000. Lymphocyte signaling: Cbl sets the threshold for autoimmunity. Curr. Biol. 10:R344-R347.
227. Sabin, E. A., M. I. Araujo, E. M. Carvalho, and E. J. Pearce. 1996. Impairment of tetanus toxoid-specific Th1-like immune responses in humans infected with Schistosoma mansoni. J. Infect. Dis. 173:269-272.
228. + regulatory T cells: their common role in controlling autoimmunity, tumor immunity, and transplantation tolerance. Immunol. Rev. 182:18-32.
229. Seger, R., and E. G. Krebs. 1995. The MAPK signaling cascade. FASEB J. 9:726-735.
230. Selliah, N., and T. H. Kinkel. 1998. Cutting edge: JAK3 activation and rescue of T cells from HIV gp120-induced unresponsiveness. J. Immunol. 160:5697-5701.
231. Sercarz, E., and U. Krzych. 1991. The distinctive specificity of antigen-specific suppressor T cells. Immunol. Today 12:111-118.
232. Shapira-Nahor, O., A. Kalinkovlch, Z. Weisman, Z. Greenberg, J. Nahmias, M. Shapiro, A. Panet, and Z. Bentwich. 1998. Increased susceptibility to HIV-1 infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from chronically immune-activated individuals. AIDS 12:1731-1733.
233. Shearer, G. M., and M. Clerici. 1993. Abnormalities of immune regulation in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr. Res. 33:S71-S74.
234. + T lymphocytes correlates with down-regulation of Th1 cytokine synthesis in helminth infection. J. Immunol. 147:2713-2716.
235. Sher, A., R. T. Gazzinelli, I. P. Oswald, M. Clerici, M. Kullberg, E. J. Pearce, J. A. Berzofsky, T. R. Mosmann, S. L. James, and H. C. Morse III. 1992. Role of T-cell derived cytokines in the downregulation of immune responses in parasitic and retroviral infection. Immunol. Rev. 127:183-204.
236. + suppressor T cells. J. Exp. Med. 193:F41-F46.
237. + suppressor T cells: more questions than answers. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2:389-400.
238. + T cell- and IL-2-dependent mechanism. Immunity 11:483-493.
239. Silvestri, G., and M. B. Feinberg. 2003. Turnover of lymphocytes and conceptual paradigms in HIV infection. J. Clin. Investig. 112:821-824.
240. Silvestri, G., D. L. Sodora, R. A. Koup, M. Paiardini, S. P. O'Neil, H. M. McClure, S. I. Staprans, and M. B. Feinberg. 2003. Nonpathogenic SIV infection of sooty mangabeys is characterized by limited bystander immunopathology despite chronic high-level viremia. Immunity 18:441-452.
241. Singleton, L., M. Turner, R. Haskal, S. Etkind, M. Tricarico, and E. Nardell. 1997. Long-term hospitalization for tuberculosis control. Experience with a medical-psychosocial inpatient unit. JAMA 278:838-842.
242. Soboslay, P. T., S. M. Geiger, N. Weiss, M. Banla, C. G. Luder, C. M. Dreweck, E. Batchassi, B. A. Boatin, A. Stadler, and H. Schulz-Key. 1997. The diverse expression of immunity in humans at distinct states of Onchocerca volvulus infection. Immunology 90:592-599.
243. Soltys, J., P. K. Goyal, and D. Wakelin. 1999. Cellular immune responses in mice infected with the intestinal nematode Trichuris muris. Exp. Parasitol. 92:40-47.
244. Sousa, A. E., J. Carneiro, M. Meier-Schellersheim, Z. Grossman, and R. M. Victorino. 2002. CD4 T cell depletion is linked directly to immune activation in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 and HIV-2 but only indirectly to the viral load. J. Immunol. 169:3400-3406.
245. + T cells among HIV-infected individuals in south India. Int. J STD AIDS 11:49-51.
246. Stadecker, M. J., and H. J. Hernandez. 1998. The immune response and immunopathology in infection with Schistosoma mansoni: a key role of major egg antigen Sm-p40. Parasite Immunol. 20:217-221.
247. Steel, C., and T. B. Nutman. 2003. CTLA-4 in filarial infections: implications for a role in diminished T cell reactivity. J. Immunol. 170:1930-1938.
248. + T cells in HIV infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 115:451-457.
249. Stylianou, E., P. Aukrust, D. Kvale, F. Muller, and S. S. Froland. 1999. IL-10 in HIV infection: increasing serum IL-10 levels with disease progression-down-regulatory effect of potent anti-retroviral therapy. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 116:115-120.
250. Stylianou, E., P. Aukrust, I. Nordoy, F. Muller, and S. S. Froland. 2000. Enhancement of lymphocyte proliferation induced by interleukin-12 and anti-interleukin-10 in HIV-infected patients during highly active antiretroviral therapy. APMIS 108:601-607.
251. Tamma, S. M., N. Chirmule, T. W. McCloskey, N. Oyaizu, V. S. Kalyanaraman, and S. Pahwa. 1997. Signals transduced through the CD4 molecule interfere with TCR/CD3-mediated ras activation leading to T cell anergy/ apoptosis. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 85:195-201.
252. + cells: a potential mechanism for immune polarization in helminth infections. J. Immunol. 167:5294-5303.
253. Thomis, D. C., and L. J. Berg. 1997. The role of Jak3 in lymphoid development, activation, and signaling. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 9:541-547.
254. Thompson, C. B., and J. P. Allison. 1997. The emerging role of CTLA-4 as an immune attenuator. Immunity 7:445-450.
255. + T cell mediated non-cytolytic inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Front. Biosci. 6:D575-D598.
256. Torres, M., T. Herrera, H. Villareal, E. A. Rich, and E. Sada. 1998. Cytokine profiles for peripheral blood lymphocytes from patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis and healthy household contacts in response to the 30-kilodalton antigen of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 66: 176-180.
257. UNAIDS. 2001. Report on global HIV-AIDS epidemic. United Nations, Geneva Switzerland.
258. UNAIDS. 2002. AIDS epidemic update. United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.
259. Urassa, W. K., E. M. Mbena, A. B. Swai, H. Gaines, F. S. Mhalu, and G. Biberfeld. 2003. Lymphocyte subset enumeration in HIV seronegative and HIV-1 seropositive adults in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: determination of reference values in males and females and comparison of two flow cytometric methods. J. Immunol. Methods 277:65-74.
260. Valdez, H., and M. M. Lederman. 1997. Cytokines and cytokine therapies in HIV infection. AIDS Clin. Rev. 1997-1998:187-228.
261. van Dam, G. J., F. F. Stelma, B. Gryseels, S. T. Falcao Ferreira, I. Talla, M. Niang, J. P. Rotmans, and A. M. Deelder. 1996. Antibody response patterns against Schistosoma mansoni in a recently exposed community in Senegal. J. Infect. Dis. 173:1232-1241.
262. van Den Biggelaar, A. H., J. L. Grogan, Y. Filie, R. Jordens, P. G. Kremsner, F. Koning, and M. Yazdanbakhsh. 2000. Chronic schistosomiasis: dendritic cells generated from patients can overcome antigen-specific T cell hyporesponsiveness. J. Infect. Dis. 182:260-265.
263. Villa, O. F., and R. E. Kuhn. 1996. Mice infected with the larvae of Taenia crassiceps exhibit a Th2-like immune response with concomitant anergy and downregulation of Th1-associated phenomena. Parasitology 112:561-570.
264. + T cells from HIV-infected subjects: role of costimulatory molecules and antigen-presenting cells (APC). Clin. Exp. Immunol. 111: 12-19.
265. von Herrath, M. G., and L. C. Harrison. 2003. Antigen-induced regulatory T cells in autoimmunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3:223-232.
266. Wakikawa, A., M. Utsuyama, and K. Hirokawa. 1997. Altered expression of various receptors on T cells in young and old mice after mitogenic stimulation: a flow cytometric analysis. Mech. Ageing Dev. 94:113-122.
267. Walunas, T. L., C. Y. Bakker, and J. A. Bluestone. 1996. CTLA-4 ligation blocks CD28-dependent T cell activation. J. Exp. Med. 183:2541-2550.
268. Weisman, Z., A. Kalinkovich, G. Borkow, M. Stein, Z. Greenberg, and Z. Bentwich. 1999. Infection by different HIV-1 subtypes (B and C) results in a similar immune activation profile despite distinct immune backgrounds. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 21:157-163.
269. White, A. C., Jr., P. Robinson, and R. Kuhn. 1997. Taenia solium cysticercosis: host-parasite interactions and the immune response. Chem. Immunol. 66:209-230.
270. Williams, M. E., P. Caspar, I. Oswald, H. K. Sharma, O. Pankewycz, A. Sher, and S. L. James. 1995. Vaccination routes that fail to elicit protective immunity against Schistosoma mansoni induce the production of TGF-β, which down-regulates macrophage antiparasitic activity. J. Immunol. 154: 4693-4700.
271. Wolday, D., N. Berhe, H. Akuffo, and S. Britton. 1999. Leishmania-HIV interaction: immunopathogenic mechanisms. Parasitol. Today 15:182-187.
272. Reference deleted.
273. Wood, K. J., and S. Sakaguchi. 2003. Regulatory T cells in transplantation tolerance. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3:199-210.
274. World Health Organization. 2003. WHO Mapping Initiative. Africa geohelminths and Schistosoma. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
275. Wulfing, C, and M. M. Davis. 1998. A receptor/cytoskeletal movement triggered by costimulation during T cell activation. Science 282:2266-2269.
276. Yazdanbakhsh, M. 1999. Common features of T cell reactivity in persistent helminth infections: lymphatic filariasis and schistosomiasis. Immunol. Lett. 65:109-115.
277. Yazdanbakhsh, M., A. van den Biggelaar, and R. M. Maizels. 2001. Th2 responses without atopy: immunoregulation in chronic helminth infections and reduced allergic disease. Trends Immunol. 22:372-377.
278. + lymphocyte phenotype and cytokine production in long-term non-progressor and in progressor patients with HIV-1 infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 105:220-224.