Anodic bonding

International Materials Reviews

Volumn 51, Issue 5, 2006, Pages 273-311

  Knowles, K M ^a   Van Helvoort, A T J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Norway)

Author keywords

Anodic bonding; Electrostatic bonding; Microelectromechanical systems; Microfluidic devices; Pyrex glass; Sensors; Silicon

Indexed keywords

BONDING; GLASS; INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS; MICROELECTROMECHANICAL DEVICES; REACTION KINETICS; SILICON SENSORS;

ANODIC BONDING; ELECTROSTATIC BONDING; MICROFLUIDIC DEVICES; PYREX GLASSES;

ANODES;

EID: 33750918314     PISSN: 09506608     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/174328006X102501     Document Type: Review

References (227)

1. D. I. Pomerantz: 'Anodic bonding', US Patent 3,397,278, 1968.
2. G. Wallis and D. I. Pomerantz: 'Field assisted glass-metal sealing', J. Appl. Phys., 1969, 40, 3946-3949.
3. G. McKibben: 'Cutting edge: Gillette's journey to global leadership', 281-299; 1998, Boston, MA, Harvard Business School Press.
4. J. Doran: 'The Proctor and Gamble merger', The Times, 29 January 2005, No. 68297, 62.
5. G. Wallis: 'Field assisted glass sealing', Electrocomp. Sci. Technol., 1975, 2, 45-53.
6. M. A. Schmidt: 'Wafer-to-wafer bonding for microstructure formation', Proc. IEEE, 1998, 86, 1575-1585.
7. Q.-Y. Tong and U. Gösele: 'Semiconductor wafer bonding: science and technology'; 1999, New York, NY, The Electrochemical Society.
8. P. Lindner, V. Dragoi, S. Farrens, T. Glinsner and P. Hangweier: 'Advanced techniques for 3D devices in wafer-bonding processes', Solid State Technol., 2004, 47, (6), 55-58.
9. T. Rogers and J. Kowal: 'Selection of glass, anodic bonding conditions and material compatibility for silicon-glass capacitative sensors', Sensors Actuators A, 1995, 46-47, 113-120.
10. E. Obermeier: 'Anodic wafer bonding', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 95-7, 212-219; 1995, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
11. A. Plößl and G. Kräuter: 'Wafer direct bonding: tailoring adhesion between brittle materials', Mater. Sci. Eng. Rep., 1999, 25, 1-88.
12. H. Baumann, S. Mack and H. Münzel: 'Bonding of structured wafers', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 95-7, 471-487; 1995, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
13. A. R. Mirza and A. A. Ayon: 'Silicon wafer bonding: key to MEMS high-volume manufacturing', Sensors, December 1998, 24-33.
14. A. T. J. van Helvoort, K. M. Knowles and J. A. Fernie: 'Characterization of cation depletion in Pyrex during electrostatic bonding', J. Electrochem. Soc., 2003, 150, G624-G629.
15. A. T. J. van Helvoort, K. M. Knowles, R. Holmestad and J. A. Fernie: 'Anodic oxidation during electrostatic bonding', Philos. Mag., 2004, 84, 505-519.
16. G. Wallis, J. Dorsey and J. Beckett: 'Field assisted seals of glass to Fe-Ni-Co alloy', Ceram. Bull., 1971, 50, 958-961.
17. N. P. Bansal and R. H. Doremus: 'Handbook of glass properties'; 1986, Orlando, FL, Academic Press.
18. C. T. Moynihan: 'Correlation between the width of the glass transition region and the temperature dependence of the viscosity of high-Tg glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1993, 76, 1081-1087.
19. 18a. A. Cozma, H. Jakobsen and R. Puers: 'Electrical characterization of anodically bonded wafers', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1998, 8, 69-73.
20. A. Cozma and B. Puers: 'Characterization of the electrostatic bonding of silicon and Pyrex glass' J. Micromech. Microeng., 1995, 5, 98-102.
21. D.-J. Lee, B.-K. Ju, J. Jang, K.-B. Lee and M.-H. Oh: 'Effects of a hydrophilic surface in anodic bonding', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1999, 9, 313-318.
22. D. S. Hurd, R. Caretta and W. W. Gerberich: 'An experimental fracture mechanics study of a strong interface: the silicon/glass anodic bond', J. Mater. Res., 1995, 10, 387-400.
23. M. L. Dunn, S. J. Cunningham and P. E W. Labossiere: 'Initiation toughness of silicon/glass anodic bonds', Acta Mater., 2000, 48, 735-744.
24. D. I. Pomerantz, G. Wallis and J. J. Dorsey: 'Bonding electrically conductive metals to insulators', US Patent 3,417,459, 1968.
25. P. M. Sutton: 'Space charge and electrode polarization in glass, II', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1964, 47, 219-230.
26. P. B. DeNee: 'Low energy metal-glass bonding', J. Appl. Phys., 1969, 40, 5396-5397.
27. M. Toyoda, Y. Fujiya, M. Nayama and T. Yamada: 'Study on glass-metal bonding by anodic bonding', IIW Doc. I-955-92, Takasago R & D Center, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, Japan, 1992.
28. T. T. Veenstra, J. W. Berenschot, J. G. E. Gardeniers, R. G. P. Sanders, M. C. Elwenspoek and A. van den Berg: 'Use of selective anodic bonding to create micropump chambers with virtually no dead volume', J. Electrochem. Soc., 2001, 148, G68-G72.
29. Q. F. Xing, G. Sasaki and H. Fukunaga: 'Interfacial microstructure of anodic-bonded Al/glass', J. Mater. Sci: Mater. Electron., 2002, 13, 83-88.
30. Q. F. Xing, M. Yoshida and G. Sasaki: 'TEM study of the interface of anodic-bonded Si/glass', Scr. Mater., 2002, 47, 577-582.
31. A. T. J. van Helvoort, K. M. Knowles and J. A. Fernie: 'Nanostructures at electrostatic bond interfaces', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 2003, 86, 1773-1776.
32. M. P. Borom: 'Electron-microprobe study of field-assisted bonding of glasses to metals', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1973, 56, 254-257.
33. D. Briand, P. Weber and N. F. de Rooij: 'Bonding properties of metals anodically bonded to glass', Sensors Actuators A, 2004, 114, 543-549.
34. B. Hök, C. Dubon and C. Ovrén: 'Anodic bonding of gallium arsenide to glass', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1983, 43, 267-269.
35. C. Tudryn, S. Schweizer, R. Hopkins, L. Hobbs and A. J. Garrett-Reed: 'Characterization of Si and CVD SiC to glass anodic bonding using TEM and STEM analysis', J. Electrochem. Soc., 2005, 152, E131-E134.
36. R. G. Gossink: 'SIMS analysis of a field-assisted glass-to-metal seal', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1978, 61, 539-540.
37. D. Y. Sim, T. Kurabayashi and M. Esashi: 'A bakable microvalve with a Kovar-glass-silicon-glass structure', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1996, 6, 266-271.
38. M. A. Morsy, K. Ikeuchi, M. Ushio and H. Abe: 'Mechanism of enlargement of intimately contacted area in anodic bonding of Kovar alloy to borosilicate glass', Mater. Trans. JIM, 1996, 37, 1511-1517.
39. K. Ikeuchi, A. Morsy, K. Ishizaki and M. Ushio: 'Interfacial phenomena in field-assisted bonding and debonding processes of glass-Kovar alloy joint', Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on 'Joining - ceramics, glass and metal', Jena, Germany, May 1997, DVS-Berichte Band 184, 88-92; 1997, Düsseldorf, DVS-Verlag GmbH.
40. M. T. Blom, E. Chmela, J. G. E. Gardeniers, J. W. Berenschot, M. Elwenspoek, R. Tijssen and A. van den Berg: 'Local anodic bonding of Kovar to Pyrex aimed at high-pressure, solvent-resistant microfluidic connections', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2001, 11, 382-385.
41. M. Takahashi, H. Yasuda and K. Ikeuchi: 'Interfacial reaction in anodically bonded joints during receiving reverse voltage', Solid State Ionics, 2004, 172, 335-340.
42. E. Makino, T. Mitsuya and T. Shibata: 'Micromachining of TiNi shape memory thin film for fabrication of micropump', Sensors Actuators A, 2000, 79, 251-259.
43. D. E. Carlson, K. W. Hang and G. F. Stockdale: 'Electrode "polarization" in alkali-containing glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1972, 55, 337-341.
44. G. Wallis: 'Direct-current polarization during field-assisted glass-metal sealing', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1970, 53, 563-567.
45. D. R. Lide (ed.): 'CRC handbook of chemistry and physics', 74th edn, 10-205-10-207, 12-8-12-9; 1993, Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press.
46. R. H. Doremus: 'Glass science', 2nd edn; 1994, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
47. P. T. Baine, L. J. Quinn, B. Lee, S. J. N. Mitchell, B. M. Armstrong and H. S. Gamble: 'Single crystal silicon on glass', Thin Solid Films, 1997, 296, 141-144.
48. P. T. Baine, L. J. Quinn, B. Lee, S. J. N. Mitchell, H. S. Gamble and B. M. Armstrong: 'Electrostatic bonding for silicon on glass applications', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 97-36, 214-221; 1997, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
49. T. M. H. Lee, D. H. Y. Lee, C. Y. N. Liaw, A. I. K. Lao and I.-M. Hsing: 'Detailed characterization of anodic bonding process between glass and thin-film coated silicon substrates', Sensors Actuators A, 2000, 86, 103-107.
50. P. R. Younger: 'Hermetic glass sealing by electrostatic bonding', J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 1980, 38-39, 909-914.
51. T. Rogers: 'Considerations of anodic bonding for capacitative type silicon/glass sensor fabrication', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1992, 2, 164-166.
52. K. B. Albaugh: 'Electrode phenomena during anodic bonding of silicon to sodium borosilicate glass', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1991, 138, 3089-3094.
53. J. A. Plaza, E. González, J. Esteve, M. M. Visser, D. T. Wang and A. Hanneborg: 'Cathodic debond of anodically bonded silicon to glass wafers', Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 2000, 3, 392-394.
54. M. M. Visser, J. A. Plaza, D. T. Wang and A. B. Hanneborg: 'Chemical analysis of bonded and debonded silicon-glass interfaces', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2001, 11, N1-N6.
55. J. van Elp, P. T. M. Giesen and J. J. van der Velde: 'Anodic bonding using the low expansion glass ceramic Zerodur®', J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 2005, 23, 96-98.
56. J. A. Plaza, J. Esteve and E. Lora-Tamayo: 'Non-destructive in situ test for anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 1997, 60, 176-180.
57. A. Górecka-Drzazga, J. Dziuban and W. Drzazga: 'Mold-type SiC field emitters with heavily boron-doped gates', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2004, 14, 907-913.
58. P. Mao and J. Han: 'Fabrication and characterization of 20 nm planar nanofluidic channels by glass-glass and glass-silicon bonding', Lab Chip, 2005, 5, 837-844.
59. S. Weichel, R. de Reus and S. Bouwstra: 'Wafer curvature and residual stress in thin-film anodic bonding', Proc. 13th Eur. Conf. on 'Solid-state transducers' (Eurosensors XIII), The Hague, The Netherlands, September 1999, 813-816.
60. M. Harz and H. Engelke: 'Curvature changing or flattening of anodically bonded silicon and borosilicate glass', Sensors Actuators A, 1996, 55, 201-209.
61. S. Mack, H. Baumann, U. Gösele, H. Werner and R. Schlögl: 'Analysis of bonding-related gas enclosure in micromachined cavities sealed by silicon wafer bonding', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1997, 144, 1106-1111.
62. P. Nitzsche, K. Lange, B. Schmidt, S. Grigull, U. Kreissig, B. Thomas and K. Herzog: 'Ion drift processes in Pyrex-type alkali-borosilicate glass during anodic bonding', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1998, 145, 1755-1762.
63. H. Doweidar: 'The density of sodium borosilicate glasses in relation to their microstructure', J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1992, 53, 807-814.
64. H. Rawson: 'Glasses and their applications'; 1991, London, The Institute of Metals.
65. I. W. Donald: 'Preparation, properties and chemistry of glass and glass-ceramic-to-metal seals and coatings', J. Mater. Sci., 1993, 28, 2841-2886.
66. M. Harz and W. Brückner: 'Thermally induced bend change of anodically bonded silicon and Pyrex wafers', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 95-7, 315-325; 1995, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
67. K. Sooriakumar, A. H. Meitzler, R. J. Haeberle, B. E. Artz, L. W. Cathey and I. I. Taher: 'Thermal mismatch strain in anodically bonded silicon and glass', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 93-29, 225-229; 1993, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
68. J. Wei, H. Xie, M. L. Nai, C. K. Wong and L. C. Lee: 'Low temperature wafer anodic bonding', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2003, 13, 217-222.
69. J. Wei, C. K. Wong and L. C. Lee: 'Improvement of anodic bond quality with the assistance of sputtered amorphous film', Sensors Actuators A, 2004, 113, 218-225.
70. W. Y. Lee, F. Sequeda, J. Salem and D. Chapman: 'Field-assisted bonding below 200°C using metal and glass thin-film interlayers', Appl. Phys. Lett., 1987, 50, 522-524.
71. V. Baier, K. Schmidt, B. Straube and H.-J. Horst: 'Anodic bonding at low temperatures using laser-microstructurable Lidoped glass', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 97-36, 222-228; 1997, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
72. S. Miyazaki: 'Glass for anodic bonding', US Patent 6,537,938, 2003.
73. C. S. Watson: 'Modification of glass properties using ion exchange techniques', Master's dissertation, New Mexico, Institute of Mining and Technology, NM, USA, 2001.
74. 2 caused by anodic bonding', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2003, 13, 845-852.
75. K. Schjølberg-Henriksen, G. U. Jensen, A. Hanneborg and H. Jakobsen: 'Anodic bonding for monolithically integrated MEMS', Sensors Actuators A, 2004, 114, 332-339.
76. B. S. Dunn: 'Method of bonding a metallic element to a solid ion-conductive electrolyte material element', US Patent 4,142,946, 1979.
77. B. Dunn: 'Field-assisted bonding of beta-alumina to metals', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1979, 62, 545-547.
78. A. J. Moulson and J. M. Herbert: 'Electroceramics: materials, properties, applications', 2nd edn, 185-187; 2003, Chichester, New York, NY, John Wiley & Sons.
79. B. Fritsche, A. Satir-Kolorz and H. K. Feichtinger: 'Joining of zirconia to metal by applying an electric potential', Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on 'Joining - ceramics, glass and metal', Jena, Germany, May 1997, DVS-Berichte Band 184, 92-94; 1997, Düsseldorf, DVS-Verlag GmbH.
80. Y. Arata, A. Ohmori and S. Sano: 'Interfacial phenomena during field assisted bonding of zirconia to metals', Trans. JWRI, 1986, 15, 387-390.
81. K. Nogi, H. Takeda and K. Ogino: 'Effect of applied dc voltage on the wettability of zirconia by liquid iron and strengthening of sprayed zirconia to iron', ISIJ Int., 1990, 30, 1092-1100.
82. A. Shimpo, T. Nakano and H. Kubo: 'An electrical resistance heating technique for joining electroconductive ceramics', ISIJ Int., 1990, 30, 1101-1107.
83. T. Minegishi, T. Sakurai and S. Morozumi: 'Electric field-assisted and field-depressed segregation of reactive metals to the bonding interface in braze alloy joining', J. Mater. Sci., 1991, 26, 5473-5480.
84. 2 coatings', Thin Solid Films, 1992, 207, 153-157.
85. S. C. Byeon and K. S. Hong: 'Electric field assisted bonding of ceramics', Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2000, 287, 159-170.
86. J. R. Groza, M. Garcia and J. A. Schneider: 'Surface effects in field-assisted sintering', J. Mater. Res., 2001, 16, 286-292.
87. T. M. H. Lee, I.-M. Hsing and C. Y. N. Liaw: 'An improved anodic bonding process using pulsed voltage technique', J. Microelectromech. Syst., 2000, 9, 469-473.
88. T. Rogers, N. Aitken, K. Stribley and J. Boyd: 'Improvements in MEMS gyroscope production as a result of using in situ, aligned, current-limited anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 2005, 123-124, 106-110.
89. T. Rogers, N. Aitken, K. Stribley, J. Boyd and J. Law: 'Improved throughput and process stability for glass and silicon wafer bonding in the production of MEMS devices', Adv. Electron. Manuf. Technol., 2004, V-EMT 1:13.
90. K. B. Albaugh: 'Irreversibility of anodic bonding', Mater. Lett., 1986, 4, 465-469.
91. M. Despont, H. Gross, F. Arrouy, C. Stebler and U. Staufer: 'Fabrication of a silicon-Pyrex-silicon stack by a.c. anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 1996, 55, 219-224.
92. S. Weichel, R. de Reus, S. Bouaidat, P. A. Rasmussen, O. Hansen, K. Birkelund and H. Dirac: 'Low-temperature anodic bonding to silicon nitride', Sensors Actuators A, 2000, 82, 249-253.
93. G.-W. Hsieh, C.-H. Tsai and W.-C. Lin: 'Anodic bonding of glass and silicon wafers with an intermediate silicon nitride film and its application to batch fabrication of SPM tip arrays', Microelectron. J., 2005, 36, 678-682.
94. J. A. Plaza, J. Esteve and E. Lora-Tamayo: 'Effect of silicon oxide, silicon nitride and polysilicon layers on the electrostatic pressure during anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 1998, 67, 181-184.
95. M. Esashi, A. Nakano, S. Shoji and H. Hebiguchi: 'Low-temperature silicon-to-silicon anodic bonding with intermediate low melting point glass', Sensors Actuators A, 1990, 21-23, 931-934.
96. A. D. Brooks, R. P. Donovan and C. A. Hardesty: 'Low-temperature electrostatic silicon-to-silicon seals using sputtered borosilicate glasses', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1972, 119, 545-546.
97. M. Nese and A. Hanneborg: 'Anodic bonding of silicon to silicon wafers coated with aluminium, silicon oxide, polysilicon or silicon nitride', Sensors Actuators A, 1993, 37-38, 61-67.
98. W.-B. Choi, B.-K. Ju, Y.-H. Lee, J.-W. Jeong, M. R. Haskard, N.-Y. Lee, M.-Y. Sung and M.-H. Oh: 'Experimental analysis on the anodic bonding with an evaporated glass layer', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1997, 7, 316-322.
99. A. Hanneborg, M. Nese, H. Jakobsen and R. Holm: 'Silicon-to-thin film anodic bonding', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1992, 2, 117-121.
100. S. Sassen, W. Kupke and K. Bauer: 'Anodic bonding of evaporated glass structured with lift-off technology for hermetical sealing' Sensors Actuators A, 2000, 83, 150-155.
101. T. R. Anthony: 'Dielectric isolation of silicon by anodic bonding', J. Appl. Phys., 1985, 58, 1240-1247.
102. R. C. Frye, J. E. Griffith and Y. H. Wong: 'A field-assisted bonding process for silicon dielectric isolation', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1986, 133, 1673-1677.
103. D.-J. Lee, Y.-H. Lee, J. Jang and B.-K. Ju: 'Glass-to-glass electrostatic bonding with intermediate amorphous silicon film for vacuum packaging of microelectronics and its application', Sensors Actuators A, 2001, 89, 43-48.
104. D.-J. Lee, J.-W. Jeong, Y.-C. Kim, Y.-H. Lee, B.-K. Ju, T.-S. Cho, E.-H. Choi and J. Jang: 'New plasma display panel packaging technology using electrostatic bonding method', J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 2001, 19, 1381-1384.
105. A. Berthold, L. Nicola, P. M. Sarro and M. J. Vellekoop: 'Glass-to-glass anodic bonding with standard IC technology thin films as intermediate layers', Sensors Actuators A, 2000, 82, 224-228.
106. M. G. Nicholas and R. M. Crispin: 'Diffusion bonding of stainless steel to alumina using aluminium interlayers' J. Mater. Sci., 1982, 17, 3347-3360.
107. 4 to type 405 steel with soft metal interlayers', Mater. Sci. Technol., 1986, 2, 1156-1161.
108. 3-AISI 304 steel joints', Mater. Sci. Technol., 2000, 16, 687-691.
109. D. Travessa, M. Ferrante and G. den Ouden: 'Diffusion bonding of aluminium oxide to stainless steel using stress relief interlayers', Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2002, 337, 287-296.
110. M. Harz: 'Anodic bonding for the third dimension', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1992, 2, 161-163.
111. E. Peeters, S. Vergrote, B. Puers and W. Sansen: 'A combined silicon fusion and glass/silicon anodic bonding process for a uniaxial capacitative accelerometer', J. Micromech. Microeng., 1992, 2, 167-169.
112. M. Esashi: 'Complex micromechanical structures by low temperature bonding', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 93-29, 348-362; 1993, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
113. J. A. Plaza, A. Collado, E. Cabruja and J. Esteve: 'Piezoresistive accelerometers for MCM package', J. Microelectromech. Syst., 2002, 11, 794-801.
114. Y. Zhang and S. Tadigadapa: 'Calorimetric biosensors with integrated microfluidic channels', Biosensor. Bioelectron., 2004, 19, 1733-1743.
115. I. Erill, S. Campoy, J. Rus, L. Fonseca, A. Ivorra, Z. Navarro, J. A. Plaza, J. Aguiló and J. Barbé: 'Development of a CMOS-compatible PCR chip: comparison of design and system strategies', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2004, 14, 1558-1568.
116. W. B. Choi, B. K. Ju, Y. H. Lee, S. J. Jeong, N. Y. Lee, M. Y. Sung and M. H. Oh: 'Glass-to-glass bonding for vacuum packaging of field emission display in an ultra-high-vacuum chamber using silicon thin film', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1999, 146, 400-404.
117. W. B. Choi, B. K. Ju, Y. H. Lee, M. H. Oh, N. Y. Lee and M. Y. Sung: 'Silicon-to-indium tin oxide coated glass bonding for packaging of field emission arrays fabricated on silicon wafer', J. Mater. Sci., 1999, 34, 4711-4717.
118. K. Higa and T. Asano: 'Fabrication of single-crystal silicon field emitter array on glass substrate', Jpn J. Appl. Phys., 2002, 41, 4307-4310.
119. J. J. Hofmann, J. B. Elledge, Z.-Y. Xia and D. A. Cathey: 'Anodically-bonded elements for flat panel displays', US Patent 5,980,349, 1999.
120. J. J. Hofmann, J. B. Elledge, Z.-Y. Xia and D. A. Cathey: 'Anodically bonded elements for flat-panel displays', US Patent 6,734,619, 2004.
121. J. A. Plaza, M. J. López-Bosque, I. Grácia, C. Cané, J. Wöllenstein, G. Kühner, G. Plescher and H. Böttner: 'A glass/silicon technology for low-power robust gas sensors', IEEE Sensors J., 2004, 4, 195-206.
122. A. Hiratsuka, S. Sasaki and I. Karube: 'A self-contained glucose sensor chip with arrayed capillaries', Electroanalysis, 1998, 10, 231-235.
123. P. Kang, S. Tanaka and M. Esashi: 'Demonstration of a MEMS-based turbocharger on a single rotor', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2005, 15, 1076-1087.
124. H. Chen, L. Bednarova, R. S. Besser and W. Y. Lee: 'Surface-selective infiltration of thin-film catalyst into microchannel reactors', Appl. Catal. A, 2005, 286, 186-195.
125. R. M. Tiggelaar, P. van Male, J. W. Berenschot, J. G. E. Gardiniers, R. E. Oosterbroek, M. H. J. M. de Croon, J. C. Schouten, A. van den Berg and M. C. Elwenspoek: 'Fabrication of a high-temperature microreactor with integrated heater and sensor patterns on an ultrathin silicon membrane', Sensors Actuators A, 2005, 119, 196-205.
126. R. M. Tiggelaar, J. W. Berenschot, J. H. de Boer, R. G. P. Sanders, J. G. E. Gardiniers, R. E. Oosterbroek, A. van den Berg and M. C. Elwenspoek: 'Fabrication and characterization of high-temperature microreactors with thin film heater and sensor patterns in silicon nitride tubes', Lab Chip, 2005, 5, 326-336.
127. D. E. Raymond, A. Manz and H. M. Widmer: 'Continuous separation of high molecular weight compounds using a microliter volume free-flow electrophoresis microstructure', Anal. Chem., 1996, 68, 2515-2522.
128. M.-S. Kim, S. I. Cho, K.-N. Lee and Y.-K. Kim: 'Fabrication of microchip electrophoresis devices and effects of channel surface properties on separation efficiency', Sensors Actuators B, 2005, 107, 818-824.
129. B. R. Fonslow and M. T. Bowser: 'Free-flow electrophoresis on an anodic bonded glass microchip', Anal. Chem., 2005, 77, 5706-5710.
130. G. E. Spangler and E. S. Kolesar: 'Meandering "string-like" features observed in an anodic bond', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2002, 12, 541-547.
131. L. J. Kricka, O. Nozaki, S. Heyner, W. T. Garside and P. Wilding: 'Applications of a microfabricated device for evaluating sperm function', Clin. Chem., 1993, 39, 1944-1947.
132. P. Wilding, J. Pfahler, H. H. Bau, J. N. Zemel and L. J. Kricka: 'Manipulation and flow of biological fluids in straight channels micromachined in silicon', Clin. Chem., 1994, 40, 43-47.
133. H. Li, Y. Zheng, D. Akin and R. Bashir: 'Characterization and modeling of a microfluidic dielectrophoresis filter for biological species', J. Micromech. Syst., 2005, 14, 103-112.
134. J. M. Ruano, V. Benoit, J. S. Aitchison and J. M. Cooper: 'Flame hydrolysis deposition of glass on silicon for the integration of optical and microfluidic devices', Anal. Chem., 2000, 72, 1093-1097.
135. Y. Lin, G. J. Gerfen, D. L. Rousseau and S.-R. Yeh: 'Ultrafast microfluidic mixer and freeze-quenching device', Anal. Chem., 2003, 75, 5381-5386.
136. K. Y. Lee, S. A. Rishton and T. H. P. Chang: 'High aspect ratio aligned multilayer microstructure fabrication', J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 1994, 12, 3425-3430.
137. 87Rb with improved frequency stability', Opt. Express, 2005, 13, 1249-1253.
138. J. Kitching, S. Knappe, L. Liew, J. Moreland, P. D. D. Schwindt, V. Shah, V. Gerginov and L. Hollberg: 'Microfabricated atomic frequency references', Metrologia, 2005, 42, S100-S104.
139. P. Bruschi, A. Diligenti and M. Piotto: 'Micromachined gas flow regulator for ion propulsion systems', IEEE Trans. Aero. Elec. Syst., 2002, 38, 982-988.
140. E. V. Mukherjee, S. D. Collins, R. R. Isseroff and R. L. Smith: 'Microneedle array for transdermal biological fluid extraction and in situ analysis', Sensors Actuators A, 2004, 114, 267-275.
141. D.-S. Lee, H. C. Yoon and J. S. Ko: 'Fabrication and characterization of a bi-directional valveless peristaltic micropump and its application to a flow-type immunoanalysis', Sensors Actuators B, 2004, 103, 409-415.
142. A. D. DeHennis and K. D. Wise: 'A wireless microsystem for the remote sensing of pressure, temperature and relative humidity', J. Micromech. Syst., 2005, 14, 12-22.
143. A. K. Henning, J. Fitch, J. M. Harris, E. B. Arkilic, B. Cozad and B. Dehan: 'Performance of MEMS-based gas distribution and control systems for semiconductor processing', Proc. SPIE Symp. on 'Micromachined devices and components', (ed. P. J. French and K. Chau.), Vol. 3514, 159-170; 1998, Bellingham, WA, USA, SPIE.
144. P. Niedermann, W. Hänni, S. Thurre, M. Gjoni, A. Perret, N. Skinner, P.-F. Indermühle, U. Staufer and N. F. de Rooij: 'Mounting of micromachined diamond tips and cantilevers', Surf. Interf. Anal., 1999, 27, 296-298.
145. G.-S. Chung: 'Characteristics of anodic-bonded multilayer ceramic actuators on Si wafers for MEMS applications', Sensors Mater., 2005, 17, 39-48.
146. V. G. Kutchoukov, F. Laugere, W. van der Vlist, L. Pakula, Y. Garini and A. Bossche: 'Fabrication of nanofluidic devices using glass-to-glass anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 2004, 114, 521-527.
147. V. G. Kutchoukov, L. Pakula, G. O. F. Parikesit, Y. Garini, L. K. Nanver and A. Bossche: 'Fabrication of nanofluidic devices in glass with polysilicon electrodes', Sensors Actuators A, 2005, 123-124, 602-607.
148. G. Gerlach and R. Werthschützky: '50 years of piezoresistive sensors - history and state of the art of piezoresistive sensors', TM - Tech. Mess., 2005, 72, 53-76.
149. D. Briand, P. Weber and N. F. de Rooij: 'Integration of robust fluidic interconnects using metal to glass anodic bonding', J. Micromech. Microeng., 2005, 15, 1657-1663.
150. D. A. Barnes, P. O. Rock, T. A. Beckwith and C. W. Anderson: 'Method for anodically bonding an electrode to a ring laser gyro block', US Patent 6,072,580, 2000.
151. D. O. Myers: 'Bonding method adaptable for manufacturing capacitative pressure sensing elements', US Patent 4,384,899, 1983.
152. M. Mikkor: 'Method of making silicon capacitative pressure sensor with glass layer between silicon wafers', US Patent 4,773,972, 1988.
153. F. Rahali, S. Ansermet, J. Ardalan and D. Otter: 'Low-cost integrated silicon sensors for industrial applications', Hybrid Circ., 1994, No. 35, 18-21.
154. G. Blasquez, X. Chauffleur, P. Pons, C. Douziech, P. Favaro and P. Menini: 'Intrinsic thermal behaviour of capacitative pressure sensors: mechanisms and minimisation', Sensors Actuators A, 2000, 85, 65-69.
155. M. K. Chason, C. A. Kotecki, J. P. Tomase, M. J. Onystok, D. J. Ryback, R. G. Kinsman, L. N. Dworsky, K. J. Nield and S. C. Moore: 'Electrostatically sealed piezoelectric device', US Patent 4,639,631, 1987.
156. E. Collart, A. Shukla, F. Gélébart, M. Morand, C. Malgrange, N. Bardou, A. Madouri and J.-L. Pelouard: 'Spherically bent analyzers for resonant inelastic X-ray scattering with intrinsic resolution below 200 meV', J. Synchrotron Radiat., 2005, 12, 473-478.
157. W. H. Teh, R. Kumar and D. L. Kwong: '200 mm wafer-scale substrate transfer of 0·13 μ Cu/low-k (Black Diamond™) dual-damascene interconnection to glass substrates', Appl. Phys. Lett., 2005, 87, Article 043103.
158. M. Karnezos, H. H. Nakanos and A. P. Neukermans: 'Anodic bonding method and apparatus for X-ray masks', US Patent 4,632,871, 1986.
159. D. J. Bishop, A. H. Heuer and W. D. Williams (guest eds.): 'Microelectromechanical systems: technology and applications', MRS Bull., April 2001, 282-340.
160. H. Allen, K. Ramzan, J. Knutti and S. Withers: 'A novel ultra-miniature catheter tip pressure sensor fabricated using silicon and glass thinning techniques', MRS Proc., 2001, 681E, Paper I7·4.
161. J. Han and H. G. Craighead: 'Separation of long DNA molecules in a microfabricated entropie trap array', Science, 2000, 288, 1026-1029.
162. T. R. Anthony: 'Anodic bonding of imperfect surfaces', J. Appl. Phys., 1983, 54, 2419-2428.
163. B. I. Bleaney and B. Bleaney: 'Electricity and magnetism', 2nd edn, 26-28; 1965, Oxford, Clarendon Press.
164. F. W. DelRio, M. P. de Boer, J. A. Knapp, E. D. Reedy, P. J. Clews and M. L. Dunn: 'The role of van der Waals forces in adhesion of micromachined surfaces', Nature Mater., 2005, 4, 629-634.
165. W. J. Duffin: 'Electricity and magnetism', 348; 1965, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill.
166. A. Russell: 'The dielectric strength of air', Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., 1906, 20, 49-91.
167. W.-P. Shih, C.-Y. Hui and N. C. Tien: 'Collapse of microchannels during anodic bonding: theory and experiments', J. Appl. Phys., 2004, 95, 2800-2808.
168. L. L. Hench and J. K. West: 'Principles of electronic ceramics', 223; 1990, New York, NY, John Wiley & Sons.
169. J. Wei, S. M. L. Nai, C. K. Wong and L. C. Lee: 'Glass-to-glass anodic bonding process and electrostatic force', Thin Solid Films, 2004, 462-463, 487-491.
170. J. M. Brownlow: IBM Technical Report No. RC 7101, IBM Corporation, Yorktown Heights, NY, USA, 1978.
171. J.-M. Torres and R. S. Dhariwal: 'Electric field breakdown at micrometer separations', Nanotechnology, 1999, 10, 102-107.
172. R.-T. Lee, H.-H. Chung and Y.-C. Chiou: 'Arc erosion behaviour of silver electric contacts in a single arc discharge across a static gap', IEE Proc. - Sci. Meas. Technol., 2001, 148, 8-14.
173. P. G. Slade and E. D. Taylor: 'Electrical breakdown in atmospheric air between closely spaced (0·2 μm - 40 μm) electrical contacts', IEEE Trans. Compon. Pack. Technol., 2002, 25, 390-396.
174. F. Paschen: 'Ueber die zum Funkenübergang in Luft, Wasserstoff und Kohlensäure bei verschiedenen Drucken erforderliche Potentialdifferenz', Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1889, 37, 69-96.
175. F. Llewellyn-Jones: 'Ionization and breakdown in gases'; 1957, London, Methuen & Co. Ltd.
176. J. A. Greenwood and J. B. P. Williamson: 'Contact of nominally flat surfaces', Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A, 1966, 295, 300-319.
177. I. M. Hutchings: "Tribology: friction and wear of engineering materials'; 1992, London, Edward Arnold.
178. J. B. P. Williamson, J. A. Greenwood and J. Harris: 'The influence of dust particles on the contact of solids', Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A, 1956, 237, 560-573.
179. H. L. Ewalds and R. J. H. Wanhill: 'Fracture mechanics', 36; 1984, London, Edward Arnold.
180. Y. Arata, A. Ohmori, S. Sano and I. Okamoto: 'Pressure and field-assisted bonding of glass to aluminum', Trans. JWRI, 1984, 13, 35-40.
181. K. B. Albaugh and D. H. Rasmussen: 'Rate processes during anodic bonding', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1992, 75, 2644-2648.
182. J. A. Plaza, J. Esteve and E. Lora-Tamayo: 'Nondestructive anodic bonding test', J. Electrochem. Soc., 1997, 144, L108-L110.
183. J. A. Dziuban: 'Activation energy of silicon-to-glass anodic bonding process', Proc. 13th Eur. Conf. on 'Solid-state transducers' (Eurosensors XIII), The Hague, The Netherlands, September 1999, 387-388.
184. Y. Kanda, K. Matsuda, C. Murayama and J. Sugaya: 'The mechanism of field-assisted silicon-glass bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 1990, 21-23, 939-943.
185. A. T. J. van Helvoort, K. M. Knowles and J. A Fernie: 'Joining mechanisms in electrostatic bonding', Key Eng. Mater., 2004, 264-268, 649-654.
186. C. M. Lepienski, J. A. Giacometti, G. F. Leal Ferreira, F. L. Freire, Jr. and C. A. Achete: 'Electric field distribution and near-surface modifications in soda-lime glass submitted to a dc potential', J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 1993, 159, 204-212.
187. S. R. Elliott: 'Physics of amorphous materials'; 1983, New York, Longman Group Limited.
188. W. H. Zachariasen: 'The atomic arrangement in glass', J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1932, 54, 3841-3851.
189. Y. Haven and B. Verkerk: 'Diffusion and electrical conductivity of sodium ions in sodium silicate glasses', Phys. Chem. Glasses, 1965, 6, 38-45.
190. M. D. Ingram: 'Ionic conductivity in glass', Phys. Chem. Glasses, 1987, 28, 215-234.
191. S. W. Martin: 'Ionic conduction in phosphate glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1991, 74, 1767-1784.
192. O. L. Anderson and D. A. Stuart: 'Calculation of activation energy of ionic conductivity in silica glasses by classical methods', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1954, 37, 573-580.
193. P. M. Sutton: 'Space charge and electrode polarization in glass, I', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1964, 47, 188-194.
194. K. Lange, S. Grigull, M. Harz, U. Kreissig and B. Schmidt: 'Ion drift behavior in borosilicate glasses during anodic bonding to silicon or metals', Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 95-7, 371-379; 1995, Pennington, NJ, The Electrochemical Society.
195. B. Schmidt, P. Nitzsche, K. Lange, S. Grigull, U. Kreissig, B. Thomas and K. Herzog: 'In situ investigation of ion drift processes in glass during anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 1998, 67, 191-198.
196. D. E. Carlson, K. W. Hang and G. F. Stockdale: 'Ion depletion of glass at a blocking anode: II, properties of ion-depleted glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1974, 57, 295-300.
197. M. A. Morsy, K. Ikeuchi, M. Takahashi and M. Ushio: "Microstructure of glass/metal interface of anodically-bonded joint', Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on 'Trends in welding research', Pine Mountain, GA, USA, June 1998, ASM International, 251-256.
198. D. E. Carlson: 'Ion depletion of glass at a blocking anode: I, theory and experimental results for alkali silicate glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1974, 57, 291-294.
199. 2+ ions and electrons in commercial soda-lime glass I: experimental', J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 1988, 102, 50-61.
200. T. G. Alley, S. R. J. Brueck and M. Wiedenbeck: 'Secondary ion mass spectrometry study of space-charge formation in thermally poled fused silica', J. Appl. Phys., 1999, 86, 6634-6640.
201. M. M. Visser, S. Weichel, P. Storås, R. de Reus and A. B. Hanneborg: 'Sodium distribution in thin-film anodic bonding', Sensors Actuators A, 2001, 92, 223-228.
202. D. E. Carlson: 'Anodic proton injection in glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1974, 57, 461-466.
203. A. Doi and S. Maruno: 'Thermally stimulated currents in pyrex and soda-lime glasses', J. Mater. Sci., 1986, 21, 1863-1867.
204. A. Doi: 'Ionic conduction and conduction polarization in oxide glass', J. Mater. Sci., 1987, 22, 761-769.
205. A. Doi, Y. Menjou, T. Ishikawa and Y. Abe: 'Generation and annihilation of positive and negative ion-depleted region in soda-lime silicate glass', J. Appl. Phys., 1990, 67, 691-697.
206. J. W. Mayer and S. S. Lau: 'Electronic materials science for integrated circuits in Si and GaAs', 251; 1990, New York, NY, Macmillan Publishing Company.
207. S.-W. Choi, W.-B. Choi, Y.-H. Lee, B.-K. Ju, M.-Y. Sung and B.-H. Kim: 'The analysis of oxygen plasma pretreatment for improving anodic bonding', J. Electrochem. Soc., 2002, 149, G8-G11.
208. P. J. Jorgensen: 'Effect of an electric field on silicon oxidation', J. Chem. Phys., 1962, 37, 874-877.
209. D. A. Carl, D. W. Hess, M. A. Lieberman, T. D. Nguyen and R. Gronsky: 'Effects of dc bias on the kinetics and electrical properties of silicon dioxide grown in an electron cyclotron resonance plasma', J. Appl. Phys., 1991, 70, 3301-3313.
210. M. A. Szymanski, A. M. Stoneham and A. Shluger: 'The different roles of charged and neutral atomic and molecular oxidising species in silicon oxidation from ab initio calculations', Solid-State Electron., 2001, 45, 1233-1240.
211. A. Bongiorno and A. Pasquarello: 'Multiscale modeling of oxygen diffusion through the oxide during silicon oxidation', Phys. Rev. B, 2004, 70, Article 195312.
212. N. Birks and G. H. Meier: 'Introduction to high temperature oxidation of metals'; 1983, London, Edward Arnold.
213. A. T. J. van Helvoort: 'Microstructural characterisation of electrostatic bonding'; PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, 2002.
214. A. von Hippel, E. P. Gross, J. G. Jelatis and M. Geller: 'Photocurrent, space-charge buildup, and field emission in alkali halide crystals', Phys. Rev., 1953, 91, 568-579.
215. T. G. Alley, S. R. J. Brueck and R. A. Myers: 'Space charge dynamics in thermally poled fused silica', J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 1998, 242, 165-176.
216. A. N. Rios, A. C. Gracias, I. A. Maia and J. R. Senna: 'Modeling the anodic current in silicon-glass bonding', Rev. Bras. Aplic. Vacua, 2000, 19, 31-34.
217. S. P. Mitoff and R. J. Charles: 'Electrode polarization of ionic conductors', J. Appl. Phys., 1972, 43, 927-934.
218. J. R. Macdonald: 'Theory of space-charge polarization and electrode-discharge effects', J. Chem. Phys., 1973, 58, 4982-5001.
219. J. C. Wang: 'Model for impedance of a solid ionic conductor sandwiched between blocking electrodes', Electrochim. Acta, 1993, 38, 2111-214.
220. J. R. Macdonald: 'Electrode polarization of ionic conductors', J. Appl. Phys., 1973, 44, 3455-3458.
221. S. P. Mitoff and R. J. Charles: 'Comments on "Electrode polarization of ionic conductors"', J. Appl. Phys., 1973, 44, 3786-3787.
222. H. J. Schütt and E. Gerdes: 'Space-charge relaxation in ionicly conducting oxide glasses. I. Model and frequency response', J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 1992, 144, 1-13.
223. J. H. Beaumont and P. W. M. Jacobs: 'Polarization in potassium chloride crystals', J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1967, 28, 657-667.
224. C. Kim and M. Tomozawa: 'Electrode polarization of glasses', J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 1976, 59, 127-130.
225. W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen and D. R. Uhlmann: 'Introduction to ceramics', 2nd edn, 935-937; 1976, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
226. J. J. Moore: 'Chemical metallurgy', 87; 1981, London, Butterworth & Co.
227. J. W. Christian: 'The Theory of Transformations in Metals and Alloys', 2nd edn, Part 1; 1975, Oxford, Pergamon Press.