The airway epithelium: Soldier in the fight against respiratory viruses

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 210-229

  Vareille, Marjolaine ^a   Kieninger, Elisabeth ^a   Edwards, Michael R ^b,c   Regamey, Nicolas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

^b NATIONAL HEART AND LUNG INSTITUTE   (United Kingdom)

^c IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BETA DEFENSIN; BETA INTERFERON; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN RELATED CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1; CASPASE RECRUITMENT DOMAIN SIGNALING PROTEIN; CHEMOKINE; CYTOKINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERFERON; LACTOFERRIN; LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; MELANOMA DIFFERENTIATION ASSOCIATED GENE 5 PROTEIN; NITRIC OXIDE; NUCLEOTIDE BINDING OLIGOMERIZATION DOMAIN LIKE RECEPTOR; RETINOIC ACID INDUCIBLE PROTEIN I; RNA HELICASE; STAT1 PROTEIN; STAT2 PROTEIN; STEROID; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP 1; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VIRUS RNA;

2009 H1N1 INFLUENZA; ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; ADENOVIRUS; ANTIGEN RECOGNITION; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BACTERIUM ADHERENCE; BOCAVIRUS; BRONCHIOLITIS; CELL JUNCTION; CORONAVIRUS; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; CYTOKINE RESPONSE; CYTOTOXICITY; DESMOSOME; ENTEROVIRUS; EPITHELIUM CELL; HUMAN; HUMAN METAPNEUMOVIRUS; INFLAMMATION; INFLUENZA VIRUS; INNATE IMMUNITY; INTERFERON PRODUCTION; MUCUS; NONHUMAN; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS INFECTION; POLYOMA VIRUS; RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL PNEUMOVIRUS; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS INFECTION; RESPIRATORY VIRUS; RHINOVIRUS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; TH1 CELL; TH2 CELL; TIGHT JUNCTION; TISSUE REPAIR; VIRAL CLEARANCE; VIRAL RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; VIRUS IMMUNITY; VIRUS TYPING;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; HUMANS; IMMUNITY, INNATE; RESPIRATORY MUCOSA; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; VIRUSES;

EID: 78751489990     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: 10986618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00014-10     Document Type: Article

References (339)

1. Adamko, D. J., B. L. Yost, G. J. Gleich, A. D. Fryer, and D. B. Jacoby. 1999. Ovalbumin sensitization changes the inflammatory response to subsequent parainfluenza infection. Eosinophils mediate airway hyperresponsiveness, m(2) muscarinic receptor dysfunction, and antiviral effects. J. Exp. Med. 190:1465-1478.
2. Agnello, D., C. S. Lankford, J. Bream, A. Morinobu, M. Gadina, J. J. O'Shea, and D. M. Frucht. 2003. Cytokines and transcription factors that regulate T helper cell differentiation: new players and new insights. J. Clin. Immunol. 23:147-161.
3. Akira, S. 2009. Pathogen recognition by innate immunity and its signaling. Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys. Biol. Sci. 85:143-156.
4. Allakhverdi, Z., M. R. Comeau, H. K. Jessup, B. R. Yoon, A. Brewer, S. Chartier, N. Paquette, S. F. Ziegler, M. Sarfati, and G. Delespesse. 2007. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is released by human epithelial cells in response to microbes, trauma, or inflammation and potently activates mast cells. J. Exp. Med. 204:253-258.
5. Allen, I. C., M. A. Scull, C. B. Moore, E. K. Holl, E. McElvania-TeKippe, D. J. Taxman, E. H. Guthrie, R. J. Pickles, and J. P. Ting. 2009. The NLRP3 inflammasome mediates in vivo innate immunity to influenza A virus through recognition of viral RNA. Immunity 30:556-565.
6. Alwan, W. H., W. J. Kozlowska, and P. J. Openshaw. 1994. Distinct types of lung disease caused by functional subsets of antiviral T cells. J. Exp. Med. 179:81-89.
7. Amin, K., D. Lúdvíksdóttir, C. Janson, O. Nettelbladt, E. Björnsson, G. M. Roomans, G. Boman, L. Sevéus, and P. Venge. 2000. Inflammation and structural changes in the airways of patients with atopic and nonatopic asthma. BHR Group. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162:2295-2301.
8. Ank, N., and S. R. Paludan. 2009. Type III IFNs: new layers of complexity in innate antiviral immunity. Biofactors 35:82-87.
9. Ank, N., H. West, and S. R. Paludan. 2006. IFN-lambda: novel antiviral cytokines. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 26:373-379.
10. Arden, K. E., C. E. Faux, N. T. O'Neill, P. McErlean, A. Nitsche, S. B. Lambert, M. D. Nissen, T. P. Sloots, and I. M. Mackay. 2010. Molecular characterization and distinguishing features of a novel human rhinovirus (HRV) C, HRVC-QCE, detected in children with fever, cough and wheeze during 2003. J. Clin. Virol. 47:219-223.
11. Avadhanula, V., C. A. Rodriguez, J. P. Devincenzo, Y. Wang, R. J. Webby, G. C. Ulett, and E. E. Adderson. 2006. Respiratory viruses augment the adhesion of bacterial pathogens to respiratory epithelium in a viral speciesand cell type-dependent manner. J. Virol. 80:1629-1636.
12. Avadhanula, V., Y. Wang, A. Portner, and E. Adderson. 2007. Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae bind respiratory syncytial virus glycoprotein. J. Med. Microbiol. 56:1133-1137.
13. Barnes, B., B. Lubyova, and P. M. Pitha. 2002. On the role of IRF in host defense. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 22:59-71.
14. Bartlett, N. W., R. P. Walton, M. R. Edwards, J. Aniscenko, G. Caramori, J. Zhu, N. Glanville, K. J. Choy, P. Jourdan, J. Burnet, T. J. Tuthill, M. S. Pedrick, M. J. Hurle, C. Plumpton, N. A. Sharp, J. N. Bussell, D. M. Swallow, J. Schwarze, B. Guy, J. W. Almond, P. K. Jeffery, C. M. Lloyd, A. Papi, R. A. Killington, D. J. Rowlands, E. D. Blair, N. J. Clarke, and S. L. Johnston. 2008. Mouse models of rhinovirus-induced disease and exacerbation of allergic airway inflammation. Nat. Med. 14:199-204.
15. Basbaum, C. 2002. Mucus hypersecretion in respiratory disease. Chair's introduction. Novartis Found. Symp. 248:1-2.
16. Basler, C. F., and A. Garcia-Sastre. 2002. Viruses and the type I interferon antiviral system: induction and evasion. Int. Rev. Immunol. 21:305-337.
17. Bellani, G., L. Guerra, A. Pesenti, and C. Messa. 2010. Imaging of lung inflammation during severe influenza A: H1N1. Intensive Care Med. 36: 717-718.
18. Bergelson, J. M. 2009. Intercellular junctional proteins as receptors and barriers to virus infection and spread. Cell Host Microbe 5:517-521.
19. Bergelson, J. M. 2003. Virus interactions with mucosal surfaces: alternative receptors, alternative pathways. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 6:386-391.
20. Bergmann, M., A. Garcia-Sastre, E. Carnero, H. Pehamberger, K. Wolff, P. Palese, and T. Muster. 2000. Influenza virus NS1 protein counteracts PKRmediated inhibition of replication. J. Virol. 74:6203-6206.
21. Bermejo-Martin, J. F., R. Ortiz de Lejarazu, T. Pumarola, J. Rello, R. Almansa, P. Ramirez, I. Martin-Loeches, D. Varillas, M. C. Gallegos, C. Seron, D. Micheloud, J. M. Gomez, A. Tenorio-Abreu, M. J. Ramos, M. L. Molina, S. Huidobro, E. Sanchez, M. Gordon, V. Fernandez, A. Del Castillo, M. A. Marcos, B. Villanueva, C. J. Lopez, M. Rodriguez-Dominguez, J. C. Galan, R. Canton, A. Lietor, S. Rojo, J. M. Eiros, C. Hinojosa, I. Gonzalez, N. Torner, D. Banner, A. Leon, P. Cuesta, T. Rowe, and D. J. Kelvin. 2009. Th1 and Th17 hypercytokinemia as early host response signature in severe pandemic influenza. Crit. Care 13:R201.
22. Biron, C. A., K. B. Nguyen, G. C. Pien, L. P. Cousens, and T. P. Salazar-Mather. 1999. Natural killer cells in antiviral defense: function and regulation by innate cytokines. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 17:189-220.
23. Bisgaard, H., A. Flores-Nunez, A. Goh, P. Azimi, A. Halkas, M. P. Malice, J. L. Marchal, S. B. Dass, T. F. Reiss, and B. A. Knorr. 2008. Study of montelukast for the treatment of respiratory symptoms of post-respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 178:854-860.
24. Bitko, V., A. Velazquez, L. Yang, Y. C. Yang, and S. Barik. 1997. Transcriptional induction of multiple cytokines by human respiratory syncytial virus requires activation of NF-kappa B and is inhibited by sodium salicylate and aspirin. Virology 232:369-378.
25. Blaise, G. A., D. Gauvin, M. Gangal, and S. Authier. 2005. Nitric oxide, cell signaling and cell death. Toxicology 208:177-192.
26. Bochkov, Y. A., K. M. Hanson, S. Keles, R. A. Brockman-Schneider, N. N. Jarjour, and J. E. Gern. 2009. Rhinovirus-induced modulation of gene expression in bronchial epithelial cells from subjects with asthma. Mucosal Immunol. 3:69-80.
27. Bossios, A., S. Psarras, D. Gourgiotis, C. L. Skevaki, A. G. Constantopoulos, P. Saxoni-Papageorgiou, and N. G. Papadopoulos. 2005. Rhinovirus infection induces cytotoxicity and delays wound healing in bronchial epithelial cells. Respir. Res. 6:114.
28. Boukhvalova, M. S., G. A. Prince, L. Soroush, D. C. Harrigan, S. N. Vogel, and J. C. Blanco. 2006. The TLR4 agonist, monophosphoryl lipid A, attenuates the cytokine storm associated with respiratory syncytial virus vaccineenhanced disease. Vaccine 24:5027-5035.
29. Bousquet, J., P. K. Jeffery, W. W. Busse, M. Johnson, and A. M. Vignola. 2000. Asthma. From bronchoconstriction to airways inflammation and remodeling. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161:1720-1745.
30. Bragonzi, A., E. Copreni, S. de Bentzmann, M. Ulrich, and M. Conese.2004. Airway epithelial cell-pathogen interactions. J. Cyst. Fibros. 3(Suppl. 2):197-201.
31. Caramori, G., K. Ito, M. Contoli, A. Di Stefano, S. L. Johnston, I. M. Adcock, and A. Papi. 2006. Molecular mechanisms of respiratory virusinduced asthma and COPD exacerbations and pneumonia. Curr. Med. Chem. 13:2267-2290.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Bacterial coinfections in lung tissue specimens from fatal cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1)-United States, May-August 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58:1071-1074.
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Hospitalized patients with novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection-California, April-May, 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58:536-541.
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Intensive-care patients with severe novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection-Michigan, June 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 58:749-752.
35. Reference deleted.
36. Chilvers, M. A., and C. O'Callaghan. 2000. Local mucociliary defence mechanisms. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 1:27-34.
37. Collinson, J., K. G. Nicholson, E. Cancio, J. Ashman, D. C. Ireland, V. Hammersley, J. Kent, and C. O'Callaghan. 1996. Effects of upper respiratory tract infections in patients with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 51:1115-1122.
38. Contoli, M., S. D. Message, V. Laza-Stanca, M. R. Edwards, P. A. Wark, N. W. Bartlett, T. Kebadze, P. Mallia, L. A. Stanciu, H. L. Parker, L. Slater, A. Lewis-Antes, O. M. Kon, S. T. Holgate, D. E. Davies, S. V. Kotenko, A. Papi, and S. L. Johnston. 2006. Role of deficient type III interferon-lambda production in asthma exacerbations. Nat. Med. 12:1023-1026.
39. Copenhaver, C. C., J. E. Gern, Z. Li, P. A. Shult, L. A. Rosenthal, L. D. Mikus, C. J. Kirk, K. A. Roberg, E. L. Anderson, C. J. Tisler, D. F. DaSilva, H. J. Hiemke, K. Gentile, R. E. Gangnon, and R. F. Lemanske, Jr. 2004. Cytokine response patterns, exposure to viruses, and respiratory infections in the first year of life. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170:175-180.
40. Cundell, D. R., N. P. Gerard, C. Gerard, I. Idanpaan-Heikkila, and E. I. Tuomanen. 1995. Streptococcus pneumoniae anchor to activated human cells by the receptor for platelet-activating factor. Nature 377:435-438.
41. Davies, D. E., J. Wicks, R. M. Powell, S. M. Puddicombe, and S. T. Holgate. 2003. Airway remodeling in asthma: new insights. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111:215-225.
42. Davies, J., I. Carlstedt, A. K. Nilsson, A. Hakansson, H. Sabharwal, L. van Alphen, M. van Ham, and C. Svanborg. 1995. Binding of Haemophilus influenzae to purified mucins from the human respiratory tract. Infect. Immun. 63:2485-2492.
43. Davies, J. A., and D. R. Garrod. 1997. Molecular aspects of the epithelial phenotype. Bioessays 19:699-704.
44. de Bentzmann, S., C. Plotkowski, and E. Puchelle. 1996. Receptors in the Pseudomonas aeruginosa adherence to injured and repairing airway epithelium. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:S155-S162.
45. de Gouw, H. W., K. Grunberg, R. Schot, A. C. Kroes, E. C. Dick, and P. J. Sterk. 1998. Relationship between exhaled nitric oxide and airway hyperresponsiveness following experimental rhinovirus infection in asthmatic subjects. Eur. Respir. J. 11:126-132.
46. de Jong, M. D., C. P. Simmons, T. T. Thanh, V. M. Hien, G. J. Smith, T. N. Chau, D. M. Hoang, N. V. Chau, T. H. Khanh, V. C. Dong, P. T. Qui, B. V. Cam, Q. Ha Do, Y. Guan, J. S. Peiris, N. T. Chinh, T. T. Hien, and J. Farrar. 2006. Fatal outcome of human influenza A (H5N1) is associated with high viral load and hypercytokinemia. Nat. Med. 12:1203-1207.
47. De Serres, G., N. Lampron, J. La Forge, I. Rouleau, J. Bourbeau, K. Weiss, B. Barret, and G. Boivin. 2009. Importance of viral and bacterial infections in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. J. Clin. Virol. 46: 129-133.
48. Diamond, G., D. Legarda, and L. K. Ryan. 2000. The innate immune response of the respiratory epithelium. Immunol. Rev. 173:27-38.
49. Didierlaurent, A., J. Goulding, S. Patel, R. Snelgrove, L. Low, M. Bebien, T. Lawrence, L. S. van Rijt, B. N. Lambrecht, J. C. Sirard, and T. Hussell. 2008. Sustained desensitization to bacterial Toll-like receptor ligands after resolution of respiratory influenza infection. J. Exp. Med. 205:323-329.
50. Dinwiddie, D. L., and K. S. Harrod. 2008. Human metapneumovirus inhibits IFN-alpha signaling through inhibition of STAT1 phosphorylation. Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. 38:661-670.
51. Doherty, T., and D. Broide. 2007. Cytokines and growth factors in airway remodeling in asthma. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 19:676-680.
52. Domachowske, J. B., K. D. Dyer, A. G. Adams, T. L. Leto, and H. F. Rosenberg. 1998. Eosinophil cationic protein/RNase 3 is another RNase A-family ribonuclease with direct antiviral activity. Nucleic Acids Res. 26:3358-3363.
53. Donnelly, R. P., F. Sheikh, S. V. Kotenko, and H. Dickensheets. 2004. The expanded family of class II cytokines that share the IL-10 receptor-2 (IL-10R2) chain. J. Leukoc. Biol. 76:314-321.
54. Dosanjh, A., S. Rednam, and M. Martin. 2003. Respiratory syncytial virus augments production of fibroblast growth factor basic in vitro: implications for a possible mechanism of prolonged wheezing after infection. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 14:437-440.
55. Doss, M., M. R. White, T. Tecle, D. Gantz, E. C. Crouch, G. Jung, P. Ruchala, A. J. Waring, R. I. Lehrer, and K. L. Hartshorn. 2009. Interactions of alpha-, beta-, and theta-defensins with influenza A virus and surfactant protein D. J. Immunol. 182:7878-7887.
56. Dowling, R. B., M. Johnson, P. J. Cole, and R. Wilson. 1998. Effect of salmeterol on Haemophilus influenzae infection of respiratory mucosa in vitro. Eur. Respir. J. 11:86-90.
57. Dowling, R. B., C. F. Rayner, A. Rutman, A. D. Jackson, K. Kanthakumar, A. Dewar, G. W. Taylor, P. J. Cole, M. Johnson, and R. Wilson. 1997. Effect of salmeterol on Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection of respiratory mucosa. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155:327-336.
58. Duits, L. A., P. H. Nibbering, E. van Strijen, J. B. Vos, S. P. Mannesse-Lazeroms, M. A. van Sterkenburg, and P. S. Hiemstra. 2003. Rhinovirus increases human beta-defensin-2 and -3 mRNA expression in cultured bronchial epithelial cells. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 38:59-64.
59. Edwards, M. R., M. W. Johnson, and S. L. Johnston. 2006. Combination therapy: synergistic suppression of virus-induced chemokines in airway epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 34:616-624.
60. Edwards, M. R., T. Kebadze, M. W. Johnson, and S. L. Johnston. 2006. New treatment regimes for virus-induced exacerbations of asthma. Pulm. Pharmacol. Ther. 19:320-334.
61. El Feghaly, R. E., L. McGann, C. A. Bonville, P. J. Branigan, M. Suryadevera, H. F. Rosenberg, and J. B. Domachowske. 2010. Local production of inflammatory mediators during childhood parainfluenza virus infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 29:e26-e31.
62. Esposito, E., and S. Cuzzocrea. 2007. The role of nitric oxide synthases in lung inflammation. Curr. Opin. Invest. Drugs 8:899-909.
63. Fainstein, V., D. M. Musher, and T. R. Cate. 1980. Bacterial adherence to pharyngeal cells during viral infection. J. Infect. Dis. 141:172-176.
64. Fasano, M. B. 2010. Combined airways: impact of upper airway on lower airway. Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 18:15-20.
65. Fichorova, R. N., A. O. Cronin, E. Lien, D. J. Anderson, and R. R. Ingalls. 2002. Response to Neisseria gonorrhoeae by cervicovaginal epithelial cells occurs in the absence of Toll-like receptor 4-mediated signaling. J. Immunol. 168:2424-2432.
66. Finberg, R. W., J. P. Wang, and E. A. Kurt-Jones. 2007. Toll like receptors and viruses. Rev. Med. Virol. 17:35-43.
67. Fitzgerald, J. M., A. Becker, M. R. Sears, S. Mink, K. Chung, and J. Lee. 2004. Doubling the dose of budesonide versus maintenance treatment in asthma exacerbations. Thorax 59:550-556.
68. Fokkens, W. J., and R. A. Scheeren. 2000. Upper airway defence mechanisms. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 1:336-341.
69. Folkerts, G., W. W. Busse, F. P. Nijkamp, R. Sorkness, and J. E. Gern. 1998. Virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness and asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157:1708-1720.
70. Folkerts, G., H. J. van der Linde, and F. P. Nijkamp. 1995. Virus-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs is related to a deficiency in nitric oxide. J. Clin. Invest. 95:26-30.
71. Fort, M. M., J. Cheung, D. Yen, J. Li, S. M. Zurawski, S. Lo, S. Menon, T. Clifford, B. Hunte, R. Lesley, T. Muchamuel, S. D. Hurst, G. Zurawski, M. W. Leach, D. M. Gorman, and D. M. Rennick. 2001. IL-25 induces IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 and Th2-associated pathologies in vivo. Immunity 15:985-995.
72. Fraenkel, D. J., P. G. Bardin, G. Sanderson, F. Lampe, S. L. Johnston, and S. T. Holgate. 1995. Lower airways inflammation during rhinovirus colds in normal and in asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151:879-886.
73. Fukasawa, C., N. Ishiwada, J. Ogita, H. Hishiki, and Y. Kohno. 2009. The effects of disodium cromoglycate on enhanced adherence of Haemophilus influenzae to A549 cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Pediatr. Res. 66:168-173.
74. Gale, M., Jr., and G. C. Sen. 2009. Viral evasion of the interferon system. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 29:475-476.
75. Gambotto, A., S. M. Barratt-Boyes, M. D. de Jong, G. Neumann, and Y. Kawaoka. 2008. Human infection with highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus. Lancet 371:1464-1475.
76. Ganz, T. 2003. Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3:710-720.
77. Garbino, J., S. Crespo, J. D. Aubert, T. Rochat, B. Ninet, C. Deffernez, W. Wunderli, J. C. Pache, P. M. Soccal, and L. Kaiser. 2006. A prospective hospital-based study of the clinical impact of non-severe acute respiratory syndrome (non-SARS)-related human coronavirus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 43:1009-1015.
78. Garcia, M. A., E. F. Meurs, and M. Esteban. 2007. The dsRNA protein kinase PKR: virus and cell control. Biochimie 89:799-811.
79. Garofalo, R. P., J. Patti, K. A. Hintz, V. Hill, P. L. Ogra, and R. C. Welliver. 2001. Macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (not T helper type 2 cytokines) is associated with severe forms of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. J. Infect. Dis. 184:393-399.
80. Gaston, B., J. M. Drazen, J. Loscalzo, and J. S. Stamler. 1994. The biology of nitrogen oxides in the airways. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 149:538-551.
81. Gazit, R., R. Gruda, M. Elboim, T. I. Arnon, G. Katz, H. Achdout, J. Hanna, U. Qimron, G. Landau, E. Greenbaum, Z. Zakay-Rones, A. Porgador, and O. Mandelboim. 2006. Lethal influenza infection in the absence of the natural killer cell receptor gene Ncr1. Nat. Immunol. 7:517-523.
82. Gern, J. E. 2009. Rhinovirus and the initiation of asthma. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 9:73-78.
83. Gern, J. E., R. Vrtis, K. A. Grindle, C. Swenson, and W. W. Busse. 2000. Relationship of upper and lower airway cytokines to outcome of experimental rhinovirus infection. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162:2226-2231.
84. Gielen, V., S. L. Johnston, and M. R. Edwards. 2010. Azithromycin induces anti-viral responses in bronchial epithelial cells. Eur. Respir. J. 36:646-654.
85. Gil, J., and M. Esteban. 2000. Induction of apoptosis by the dsRNAdependent protein kinase (PKR): mechanism of action. Apoptosis 5:107-114.
86. Gleich, G. J. 2000. Mechanisms of eosinophil-associated inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 105:651-663.
87. Grayson, M. H., and M. J. Holtzman. 2007. Emerging role of dendritic cells in respiratory viral infection. J. Mol. Med. 85:1057-1068.
88. Green, K. J., and C. L. Simpson. 2007. Desmosomes: new perspectives on a classic. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127:2499-2515.
89. Greenberg, S. B. 2003. Respiratory consequences of rhinovirus infection. Arch. Intern. Med. 163:278-284.
90. Greenberg, S. B. 2002. Respiratory viral infections in adults. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 8:201-208.
91. Greene, C. M., and N. G. McElvaney. 2005. Toll-like receptor expression and function in airway epithelial cells. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsaw) 53:418-427.
92. Groskreutz, D. J., M. M. Monick, L. S. Powers, T. O. Yarovinsky, D. C. Look, and G. W. Hunninghake. 2006. Respiratory syncytial virus induces TLR3 protein and protein kinase R, leading to increased double-stranded RNA responsiveness in airway epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 176:1733-1740.
93. Guillot, L., R. Le Goffic, S. Bloch, N. Escriou, S. Akira, M. Chignard, and M. Si-Tahar. 2005. Involvement of Toll-like receptor 3 in the immune response of lung epithelial cells to double-stranded RNA and influenza A virus. J. Biol. Chem. 280:5571-5580.
94. Guo, Z., L. M. Chen, H. Zeng, J. A. Gomez, J. Plowden, T. Fujita, J. M. Katz, R. O. Donis, and S. Sambhara. 2007. NS1 protein of influenza A virus inhibits the function of intracytoplasmic pathogen sensor, RIG-I. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 36:263-269.
95. Haeberle, H. A., R. Takizawa, A. Casola, A. R. Brasier, H. J. Dieterich, N. Van Rooijen, Z. Gatalica, and R. P. Garofalo. 2002. Respiratory syncytial virus-induced activation of nuclear factor-kappaB in the lung involves alveolar macrophages and Toll-like receptor 4-dependent pathways. J. Infect. Dis. 186:1199-1206.
96. Hakansson, A., A. Kidd, G. Wadell, H. Sabharwal, and C. Svanborg. 1994. Adenovirus infection enhances in vitro adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect. Immun. 62:2707-2714.
97. Haller, O., and G. Kochs. 2002. Interferon-induced mx proteins: dynaminlike GTPases with antiviral activity. Traffic 3:710-717.
98. Hament, J. M., P. C. Aerts, A. Fleer, H. van Dijk, T. Harmsen, J. L. Kimpen, and T. F. Wolfs. 2005. Direct binding of respiratory syncytial virus to pneumococci: a phenomenon that enhances both pneumococcal adherence to human epithelial cells and pneumococcal invasiveness in a murine model. Pediatr. Res. 58:1198-1203.
99. Hament, J. M., J. L. Kimpen, A. Fleer, and T. F. Wolfs. 1999. Respiratory viral infection predisposing for bacterial disease: a concise review. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 26:189-195.
100. Hashimoto, K., B. S. Graham, S. B. Ho, K. B. Adler, R. D. Collins, S. J. Olson, W. Zhou, T. Suzutani, P. W. Jones, K. Goleniewska, J. F. O'Neal, and R. S. Peebles, Jr. 2004. Respiratory syncytial virus in allergic lung inflammation increases Muc5ac and gob-5. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 170:306-312.
101. Hassett, D. J., T. R. Korfhagen, R. T. Irvin, M. J. Schurr, K. Sauer, G. W. Lau, M. D. Sutton, H. Yu, and N. Hoiby. 2010. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm infections in cystic fibrosis: insights into pathogenic processes and treatment strategies. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 14:117-130.
102. Hauber, H. P., S. C. Foley, and Q. Hamid. 2006. Mucin overproduction in chronic inflammatory lung disease. Can. Respir. J. 13:327-335.
103. Hauber, H. P., T. Goldmann, E. Vollmer, B. Wollenberg, and P. Zabel. 2007. Effect of dexamethasone and ACC on bacteria-induced mucin expression in human airway mucosa. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 37:606-616.
104. Hauber, H. P., M. K. Tulic, A. Tsicopoulos, B. Wallaert, R. Olivenstein, P. Daigneault, and Q. Hamid. 2005. Toll-like receptors 4 and 2 expression in the bronchial mucosa of patients with cystic fibrosis. Can. Respir. J. 12:13-18.
105. Hayashi, S., and J. C. Hogg. 2007. Adenovirus infections and lung disease. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 7:237-243.
106. Haynes, L. M., D. D. Moore, E. A. Kurt-Jones, R. W. Finberg, L. J. Anderson, and R. A. Tripp. 2001. Involvement of Toll-like receptor 4 in innate immunity to respiratory syncytial virus. J. Virol. 75:10730-10737.
107. He, S. H., J. Zheng, and M. K. Duan. 2004. Induction of mucin secretion from human bronchial tissue and epithelial cells by rhinovirus and lipopolysaccharide. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 25:1176-1181.
108. Henrickson, K. J., S. Hoover, K. S. Kehl, and W. Hua. 2004. National disease burden of respiratory viruses detected in children by polymerase chain reaction. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23:S11-S18.
109. Herold, S., W. von Wulffen, M. Steinmueller, S. Pleschka, W. A. Kuziel, M. Mack, M. Srivastava, W. Seeger, U. A. Maus, and J. Lohmeyer. 2006. Alveolar epithelial cells direct monocyte transepithelial migration upon influenza virus infection: impact of chemokines and adhesion molecules. J. Immunol. 177:1817-1824.
110. Hewson, C. A., A. Jardine, M. R. Edwards, V. Laza-Stanca, and S. L. Johnston. 2005. Toll-like receptor 3 is induced by and mediates antiviral activity against rhinovirus infection of human bronchial epithelial cells. J. Virol. 79:12273-12279.
111. Hiemstra, P. S. 2001. Epithelial antimicrobial peptides and proteins: their role in host defence and inflammation. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 2:306-310.
112. Hogg, J. C. 2000. Chronic bronchitis: the role of viruses. Semin. Respir. Infect. 15:32-40.
113. Holt, P. G., A. Degebrodt, C. O'Leary, K. Krska, and T. Plozza. 1985. T cell activation by antigen-presenting cells from lung tissue digests: suppression by endogenous macrophages. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 62:586-593.
114. Holt, P. G., S. Haining, D. J. Nelson, and J. D. Sedgwick. 1994. Origin and steady-state turnover of class II MHC-bearing dendritic cells in the epithelium of the conducting airways. J. Immunol. 153:256-261.
115. Holt, P. G., J. Oliver, N. Bilyk, C. McMenamin, P. G. McMenamin, G. Kraal, and T. Thepen. 1993. Downregulation of the antigen presenting cell function(s) of pulmonary dendritic cells in vivo by resident alveolar macrophages. J. Exp. Med. 177:397-407.
116. Holt, P. G., D. H. Strickland, M. E. Wikstrom, and F. L. Jahnsen. 2008. Regulation of immunological homeostasis in the respiratory tract. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8:142-152.
117. Hornsleth, A., B. Klug, M. Nir, J. Johansen, K. S. Hansen, L. S. Christensen, and L. B. Larsen. 1998. Severity of respiratory syncytial virus disease related to type and genotype of virus and to cytokine values in nasopharyngeal secretions. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 17:1114-1121.
118. Hurst, S. D., T. Muchamuel, D. M. Gorman, J. M. Gilbert, T. Clifford, S. Kwan, S. Menon, B. Seymour, C. Jackson, T. T. Kung, J. K. Brieland, S. M. Zurawski, R. W. Chapman, G. Zurawski, and R. L. Coffman. 2002. New IL-17 family members promote Th1 or Th2 responses in the lung: in vivo function of the novel cytokine IL-25. J. Immunol. 169:443-453.
119. Husain, M., and K. S. Harrod. 2009. Influenza A virus-induced caspase-3 cleaves the histone deacetylase 6 in infected epithelial cells. FEBS Lett. 583:2517-2520.
120. Hussell, T., A. Pennycook, and P. J. Openshaw. 2001. Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor reduces the severity of virus-specific lung immunopathology. Eur. J. Immunol. 31:2566-2573.
121. Ichinohe, T., H. K. Lee, Y. Ogura, R. Flavell, and A. Iwasaki. 2009. Inflammasome recognition of influenza virus is essential for adaptive immune responses. J. Exp. Med. 206:79-87.
122. Ishizuka, S., M. Yamaya, T. Suzuki, H. Takahashi, S. Ida, T. Sasaki, D. Inoue, K. Sekizawa, H. Nishimura, and H. Sasaki. 2003. Effects of rhinovirus infection on the adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae to cultured human airway epithelial cells. J. Infect. Dis. 188:1928-1939.
123. Iwamura, C., and T. Nakayama. 2008. Toll-like receptors in the respiratory system: their roles in inflammation. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 8:7-13.
124. Jacques, J., H. Moret, D. Minette, N. Leveque, N. Jovenin, G. Deslee, F. Lebargy, J. Motte, and L. Andreoletti. 2008. Epidemiological, molecular, and clinical features of enterovirus respiratory infections in French children between 1999 and 2005. J. Clin. Microbiol. 46:206-213.
125. Jain, R., and R. D. Goldman. 2009. Novel influenza A(H1N1): clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. Pediatr. Emerg. Care 25:791-796.
126. Jamaluddin, M., R. Garofalo, P. L. Ogra, and A. R. Brasier. 1996. Inducible translational regulation of the NF-IL6 transcription factor by respiratory syncytial virus infection in pulmonary epithelial cells. J. Virol. 70:1554-1563.
127. Jiang, Z., N. Nagata, E. Molina, L. O. Bakaletz, H. Hawkins, and J. A. Patel. 1999. Fimbria-mediated enhanced attachment of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae to respiratory syncytial virus-infected respiratory epithelial cells. Infect. Immun. 67:187-192.
128. Jin, Y., X. H. Yuan, Z. P. Xie, H. C. Gao, J. R. Song, R. F. Zhang, Z. Q. Xu, L. S. Zheng, Y. D. Hou, and Z. J. Duan. 2009. Prevalence and clinical characterization of a newly identified human rhinovirus C species in children with acute respiratory tract infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 47:2895-2900.
129. Johansen, H. K., and N. Hoiby. 1992. Seasonal onset of initial colonisation and chronic infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with cystic fibrosis in Denmark. Thorax 47:109-111.
130. Johnston, N. W., S. L. Johnston, J. M. Duncan, J. M. Greene, T. Kebadze, P. K. Keith, M. Roy, S. Waserman, and M. R. Sears. 2005. The September epidemic of asthma exacerbations in children: a search for etiology. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 115:132-138.
131. Johnston, S. L., F. Blasi, P. N. Black, R. J. Martin, D. J. Farrell, and R. B. Nieman. 2006. The effect of telithromycin in acute exacerbations of asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 354:1589-1600.
132. Johnston, S. L., A. Papi, P. J. Bates, J. G. Mastronarde, M. M. Monick, and G. W. Hunninghake. 1998. Low grade rhinovirus infection induces a prolonged release of IL-8 in pulmonary epithelium. J. Immunol. 160:6172-6181.
133. Johnstone, J., S. R. Majumdar, J. D. Fox, and T. J. Marrie. 2008. Viral infection in adults hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: prevalence, pathogens, and presentation. Chest 134:1141-1148.
134. Jones, W. T., and J. H. Menna. 1982. Influenza type A virus-mediated adherence of type 1a group B streptococci to mouse tracheal tissue in vivo. Infect. Immun. 38:791-794.
135. Kadowaki, N., S. Ho, S. Antonenko, R. W. Malefyt, R. A. Kastelein, F. Bazan, and Y. J. Liu. 2001. Subsets of human dendritic cell precursors express different Toll-like receptors and respond to different microbial antigens. J. Exp. Med. 194:863-869.
136. Kahn, J. 2008. Human bocavirus: clinical significance and implications. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 20:62-66.
137. Kahn, J. S. 2006. Epidemiology of human metapneumovirus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19:546-557.
138. Kampf, C., A. J. Relova, S. Sandler, and G. M. Roomans. 1999. Effects of TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma and IL-beta on normal human bronchial epithelial cells. Eur. Respir. J. 14:84-91.
139. Kao, Y. J., P. A. Piedra, G. L. Larsen, and G. N. Colasurdo. 2001. Induction and regulation of nitric oxide synthase in airway epithelial cells by respiratory syncytial virus. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163:532-539.
140. Kato, A., S. Favoreto, Jr., P. C. Avila, and R. P. Schleimer. 2007. TLR3- and Th2 cytokine-dependent production of thymic stromal lymphopoietin in human airway epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 179:1080-1087.
141. Kato, H., O. Takeuchi, S. Sato, M. Yoneyama, M. Yamamoto, K. Matsui, S. Uematsu, A. Jung, T. Kawai, K. J. Ishii, O. Yamaguchi, K. Otsu, T. Tsujimura, C. S. Koh, C. Reis e Sousa, Y. Matsuura, T. Fujita, and S. Akira. 2006. Differential roles of MDA5 and RIG-I helicases in the recognition of RNA viruses. Nature 441:101-105.
142. Katze, M. G., Y. He, and M. Gale, Jr. 2002. Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2:675-687.
143. Kawai, T., and S. Akira. 2007. TLR signaling. Semin. Immunol. 19:24-32.
144. Kawai, T., and S. Akira. 2008. Toll-like receptor and RIG-I-like receptor signaling. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1143:1-20.
145. Kishimoto, T. K., M. A. Jutila, E. L. Berg, and E. C. Butcher. 1989. Neutrophil Mac-1 and MEL-14 adhesion proteins inversely regulated by chemotactic factors. Science 245:1238-1241.
146. Klotman, M. E., and T. L. Chang. 2006. Defensins in innate antiviral immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 6:447-456.
147. Knight, D. A., and S. T. Holgate. 2003. The airway epithelium: structural and functional properties in health and disease. Respirology 8:432-446.
148. Knobil, K., A. M. Choi, G. W. Weigand, and D. B. Jacoby. 1998. Role of oxidants in influenza virus-induced gene expression. Am. J. Physiol. 274: L134-L142.
149. Koetzler, R., R. S. Zaheer, R. Newton, and D. Proud. 2009. Nitric oxide inhibits IFN regulatory factor 1 and nuclear factor-kappaB pathways in rhinovirus-infected epithelial cells. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 124:551-557.
150. Kohlmeier, J. E., and D. L. Woodland. 2009. Immunity to respiratory viruses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 27:61-82.
151. Kota, S., A. Sabbah, T. H. Chang, R. Harnack, Y. Xiang, X. Meng, and S. Bose. 2008. Role of human beta-defensin-2 during tumor necrosis factoralpha/NF-kappaB-mediated innate antiviral response against human respiratory syncytial virus. J. Biol. Chem. 283:22417-22429.
152. Kotenko, S. V., G. Gallagher, V. V. Baurin, A. Lewis-Antes, M. Shen, N. K. Shah, J. A. Langer, F. Sheikh, H. Dickensheets, and R. P. Donnelly. 2003. IFN-lambdas mediate antiviral protection through a distinct class II cytokine receptor complex. Nat. Immunol. 4:69-77.
153. Kuiken, T., and J. K. Taubenberger. 2008. Pathology of human influenza revisited. Vaccine 26(Suppl. 4):D59-D66.
154. Kumar, H., T. Kawai, and S. Akira. 2009. Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 388:621-625.
155. Kurt-Jones, E. A., L. Popova, L. Kwinn, L. M. Haynes, L. P. Jones, R. A. Tripp, E. E. Walsh, M. W. Freeman, D. T. Golenbock, L. J. Anderson, and R. W. Finberg. 2000. Pattern recognition receptors TLR4 and CD14 mediate response to respiratory syncytial virus. Nat. Immunol. 1:398-401.
156. Lambrecht, B. N., and H. Hammad. 2003. Taking our breath away: dendritic cells in the pathogenesis of asthma. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3:994-1003.
157. Lechapt-Zalcman, E., V. Pruliere-Escabasse, D. Advenier, S. Galiacy, C. Charriere-Bertrand, A. Coste, A. Harf, M. P. d'Ortho, and E. Escudier. 2006. Transforming growth factor-beta1 increases airway wound repair via MMP-2 upregulation: a new pathway for epithelial wound repair? Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 290:L1277-L1282.
158. Le Goffic, R., J. Pothlichet, D. Vitour, T. Fujita, E. Meurs, M. Chignard, and M. Si-Tahar. 2007. Cutting edge: influenza A virus activates TLR3-dependent inflammatory and RIG-I-dependent antiviral responses in human lung epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 178:3368-3372.
159. Leigh, R., W. Oyelusi, S. Wiehler, R. Koetzler, R. S. Zaheer, R. Newton, and D. Proud. 2008. Human rhinovirus infection enhances airway epithelial cell production of growth factors involved in airway remodeling. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 121:1238-1245.
160. Lemanske, R. F., Jr., D. J. Jackson, R. E. Gangnon, M. D. Evans, Z. Li, P. A. Shult, C. J. Kirk, E. Reisdorf, K. A. Roberg, E. L. Anderson, K. T. Carlson-Dakes, K. J. Adler, S. Gilbertson-White, T. E. Pappas, D. F. Dasilva, C. J. Tisler, and J. E. Gern. 2005. Rhinovirus illnesses during infancy predict subsequent childhood wheezing. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 116:571-577.
161. Levy, D. E., and A. Garcia-Sastre. 2001. The virus battles: IFN induction of the antiviral state and mechanisms of viral evasion. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 12:143-156.
162. Li, M., X. Liu, Y. Zhou, and S. B. Su. 2009. Interferon-lambdas: the modulators of antivirus, antitumor, and immune responses. J. Leukoc. Biol. 86:23-32.
163. Li, W., and H. H. Shen. 2007. Effect of respiratory syncytial virus on the activity of matrix metalloproteinase in mice. Chin. Med. J. (England) 120: 5-11.
164. Ling, Z., K. C. Tran, and M. N. Teng. 2009. Human respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural protein NS2 antagonizes the activation of beta interferon transcription by interacting with RIG-I. J. Virol. 83:3734-3742.
165. Lo, M. S., R. M. Brazas, and M. J. Holtzman. 2005. Respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 mediate inhibition of Stat2 expression and alpha/beta interferon responsiveness. J. Virol. 79:9315-9319.
166. Lopez-Souza, N., S. Favoreto, H. Wong, T. Ward, S. Yagi, D. Schnurr, W. E. Finkbeiner, G. M. Dolganov, J. H. Widdicombe, H. A. Boushey, and P. C. Avila. 2009. In vitro susceptibility to rhinovirus infection is greater for bronchial than for nasal airway epithelial cells in human subjects. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 123:1384-1390.
167. Louie, J. K., A. E. Kajon, M. Holodniy, L. Guardia-LaBar, B. Lee, A. M. Petru, J. K. Hacker, and D. P. Schnurr. 2008. Severe pneumonia due to adenovirus serotype 14: a new respiratory threat? Clin. Infect. Dis. 46:421-425.
168. Lu, L. L., M. Puri, C. M. Horvath, and G. C. Sen. 2008. Select paramyxoviral V proteins inhibit IRF3 activation by acting as alternative substrates for inhibitor of kappaB kinase epsilon (IKKe)/TBK1. J. Biol. Chem. 283: 14269-14276.
169. Lukens, M. V., D. Kruijsen, F. E. Coenjaerts, J. L. Kimpen, and G. M. van Bleek. 2009. Respiratory syncytial virus-induced activation and migration of respiratory dendritic cells and subsequent antigen presentation in the lungdraining lymph node. J. Virol. 83:7235-7243.
170. Lund, J. M., L. Alexopoulou, A. Sato, M. Karow, N. C. Adams, N. W. Gale, A. Iwasaki, and R. A. Flavell. 2004. Recognition of single-stranded RNA viruses by Toll-like receptor 7. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101:5598-5603.
171. Mackay, I. M. 2008. Human rhinoviruses: the cold wars resume. J. Clin. Virol. 42:297-320.
172. Mall, M. A. 2008. Role of cilia, mucus, and airway surface liquid in mucociliary dysfunction: lessons from mouse models. J. Aerosol Med. Pulm. Drug Deliv. 21:13-24.
173. Mallia, P., M. Contoli, G. Caramori, A. Pandit, S. L. Johnston, and A. Papi. 2007. Exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): focus on virus induced exacerbations. Curr. Pharm. Des. 13:73-97.
174. McCray, P. B., Jr., and L. Bentley. 1997. Human airway epithelia express a beta-defensin. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 16:343-349.
175. McCullers, J. A., A. R. Iverson, R. McKeon, and P. J. Murray. 2008. The platelet activating factor receptor is not required for exacerbation of bacterial pneumonia following influenza. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 40:11-17.
176. McNamara, P. S., B. F. Flanagan, C. A. Hart, and R. L. Smyth. 2005. Production of chemokines in the lungs of infants with severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. J. Infect. Dis. 191:1225-1232.
177. McNamara, P. S., B. F. Flanagan, A. M. Selby, C. A. Hart, and R. L. Smyth. 2004. Pro- and anti-inflammatory responses in respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Eur. Respir. J. 23:106-112.
178. Medzhitov, R. 2001. Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 1:135-145.
179. Melmed, G., L. S. Thomas, N. Lee, S. Y. Tesfay, K. Lukasek, K. S. Michelsen, Y. Zhou, B. Hu, M. Arditi, and M. T. Abreu. 2003. Human intestinal epithelial cells are broadly unresponsive to Toll-like receptor 2-dependent bacterial ligands: implications for host-microbial interactions in the gut. J. Immunol. 170:1406-1415.
180. Mese, G., G. Richard, and T. W. White. 2007. Gap junctions: basic structure and function. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127:2516-2524.
181. Message, S. D., and S. L. Johnston. 2004. Host defense function of the airway epithelium in health and disease: clinical background. J. Leukoc. Biol. 75:5-17.
182. Message, S. D., V. Laza-Stanca, P. Mallia, H. L. Parker, J. Zhu, T. Kebadze, M. Contoli, G. Sanderson, O. M. Kon, A. Papi, P. K. Jeffery, L. A. Stanciu, and S. L. Johnston. 2008. Rhinovirus-induced lower respiratory illness is increased in asthma and related to virus load and Th1/2 cytokine and IL-10 production. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105:13562-13567.
183. Mizgerd, J. P. 2006. Lung infection - a public health priority. PLoS Med. 3:e76.
184. Mogensen, T. H., and S. R. Paludan. 2001. Molecular pathways in virusinduced cytokine production. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65:131-150.
185. Reference deleted.
186. Reference deleted.
187. Reference deleted.
188. Morens, D. M., J. K. Taubenberger, and A. S. Fauci. 2008. Predominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic influenza: implications for pandemic influenza preparedness. J. Infect. Dis. 198:962-970.
189. Mori, I., T. Komatsu, K. Takeuchi, K. Nakakuki, M. Sudo, and Y. Kimura. 1995. In vivo induction of apoptosis by influenza virus. J. Gen. Virol. 76:2869-2873.
190. Morris, D. P. 2007. Bacterial biofilm in upper respiratory tract infections. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 9:186-192.
191. Muir, A., G. Soong, S. Sokol, B. Reddy, M. I. Gomez, A. Van Heeckeren, and A. Prince. 2004. Toll-like receptors in normal and cystic fibrosis airway epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 30:777-783.
192. Mukherjee, A., S. A. Morosky, L. Shen, C. R. Weber, J. R. Turner, K. S. Kim, T. Wang, and C. B. Coyne. 2009. Retinoic acid-induced gene-1 (RIG-I) associates with the actin cytoskeleton via caspase activation and recruitment domain-dependent interactions. J. Biol. Chem. 284:6486-6494.
193. Murawski, M. R., G. N. Bowen, A. M. Cerny, L. J. Anderson, L. M. Haynes, R. A. Tripp, E. A. Kurt-Jones, and R. W. Finberg. 2009. Respiratory syncytial virus activates innate immunity through Toll-like receptor 2. J. Virol. 83:1492-1500.
194. Murphy, A. W., T. A. Platts-Mills, M. Lobo, and F. Hayden. 1998. Respiratory nitric oxide levels in experimental human influenza. Chest 114:452-456.
195. Muruve, D. A., V. Petrilli, A. K. Zaiss, L. R. White, S. A. Clark, P. J. Ross, R. J. Parks, and J. Tschopp. 2008. The inflammasome recognizes cytosolic microbial and host DNA and triggers an innate immune response. Nature 452:103-107.
196. Nagarkar, D. R., Q. Wang, J. Shim, Y. Zhao, W. C. Tsai, N. W. Lukacs, U. Sajjan, and M. B. Hershenson. 2009. CXCR2 is required for neutrophilic airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness in a mouse model of human rhinovirus infection. J. Immunol. 183:6698-6707.
197. Nair, H., D. J. Nokes, B. D. Gessner, M. Dherani, S. A. Madhi, R. J. Singleton, K. L. O'Brien, A. Roca, P. F. Wright, N. Bruce, A. Chandran, E. Theodoratou, A. Sutanto, E. R. Sedyaningsih, M. Ngama, P. K. Munywoki, C. Kartasasmita, E. A. Simoes, I. Rudan, M. W. Weber, and H. Campbell. 2010. Global burden of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 375:1545-1555.
198. Nicholas, B., P. Skipp, R. Mould, S. Rennard, D. E. Davies, C. D. O'Connor, and R. Djukanovic. 2006. Shotgun proteomic analysis of humaninduced sputum. Proteomics 6:4390-4401.
199. Novelli, F., and J. L. Casanova. 2004. The role of IL-12, IL-23 and IFN-gamma in immunity to viruses. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 15:367-377.
200. O'Byrne, P. M., H. Bisgaard, P. P. Godard, M. Pistolesi, M. Palmqvist, Y. Zhu, T. Ekstrom, and E. D. Bateman. 2005. Budesonide/formoterol combination therapy as both maintenance and reliever medication in asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 171:129-136.
201. Onomoto, K., M. Yoneyama, and T. Fujita. 2007. Regulation of antiviral innate immune responses by RIG-I family of RNA helicases. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 316:193-205.
202. Oshansky, C. M., W. Zhang, E. Moore, and R. A. Tripp. 2009. The host response and molecular pathogenesis associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Future Microbiol. 4:279-297.
203. Osterlund, P., J. Pirhonen, N. Ikonen, E. Ronkko, M. Strengell, S. M. Makela, M. Broman, O. J. Hamming, R. Hartmann, T. Ziegler, and I. Julkunen. 2010. Pandemic H1N1 2009 influenza A virus induces weak cytokine responses in human macrophages and dendritic cells and is highly sensitive to the antiviral actions of interferons. J. Virol. 84:1414-1422.
204. Osterlund, P. I., T. E. Pietila, V. Veckman, S. V. Kotenko, and I. Julkunen. 2007. IFN regulatory factor family members differentially regulate the expression of type III IFN (IFN-lambda) genes. J. Immunol. 179:3434-3442.
205. Papadopoulos, N. G., P. Xepapadaki, P. Mallia, G. Brusselle, J. B. Watelet, M. Xatzipsalti, G. Foteinos, C. M. van Drunen, W. J. Fokkens, C. D'Ambrosio, S. Bonini, A. Bossios, J. Lotvall, P. van Cauwenberge, S. T. Holgate, G. W. Canonica, A. Szczeklik, G. Rohde, J. Kimpen, A. Pitkaranta, M. Makela, P. Chanez, J. Ring, and S. L. Johnston. 2007. Mechanisms of virus-induced asthma exacerbations: state-of-the-art. A GA2LEN and InterAirways document. Allergy 62:457-470.
206. Papi, A., and S. L. Johnston. 1999. Rhinovirus infection induces expression of its own receptor intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) via increased NF-kappaB-mediated transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 274:9707-9720.
207. Patel, J., H. Faden, S. Sharma, and P. L. Ogra. 1992. Effect of respiratory syncytial virus on adherence, colonization and immunity of non-typable Haemophilus influenzae: implications for otitis media. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 23:15-23.
208. Peiris, J. S., C. Y. Cheung, C. Y. Leung, and J. M. Nicholls. 2009. Innate immune responses to influenza A H5N1: friend or foe? Trends Immunol. 30:574-584.
209. Peiris, J. S., W. C. Yu, C. W. Leung, C. Y. Cheung, W. F. Ng, J. M. Nicholls, T. K. Ng, K. H. Chan, S. T. Lai, W. L. Lim, K. Y. Yuen, and Y. Guan. 2004. Re-emergence of fatal human influenza A subtype H5N1 disease. Lancet 363:617-619.
210. Peltola, V. T., and J. A. McCullers. 2004. Respiratory viruses predisposing to bacterial infections: role of neuraminidase. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23: S87-S97.
211. Peltola, V. T., K. G. Murti, and J. A. McCullers. 2005. Influenza virus neuraminidase contributes to secondary bacterial pneumonia. J. Infect. Dis. 192:249-257.
212. Perrone, L. A., J. K. Plowden, A. Garcia-Sastre, J. M. Katz, and T. M. Tumpey. 2008. H5N1 and 1918 pandemic influenza virus infection results in early and excessive infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils in the lungs of mice. PLoS Pathog. 4:e1000115.
213. Peterhans, E. 1997. Oxidants and antioxidants in viral diseases: disease mechanisms and metabolic regulation. J. Nutr. 127:962S-965S.
214. Petersen, N. T., N. Hoiby, C. H. Mordhorst, K. Lind, E. W. Flensborg, and B. Bruun. 1981. Respiratory infections in cystic fibrosis patients caused by virus, chlamydia and mycoplasma-possible synergism with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 70:623-628.
215. Reference deleted.
216. Pittet, L. A., L. Hall-Stoodley, M. R. Rutkowski, and A. G. Harmsen. 2010. Influenza virus infection decreases tracheal mucociliary velocity and clearance of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 42:450-460.
217. Player, M. R., and P. F. Torrence. 1998. The 2-5A system: modulation of viral and cellular processes through acceleration of RNA degradation. Pharmacol. Ther. 78:55-113.
218. Plotkowski, M. C., E. Puchelle, G. Beck, J. Jacquot, and C. Hannoun. 1986. Adherence of type I Streptococcus pneumoniae to tracheal epithelium of mice infected with influenza A/PR8 virus. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 134:1040-1044.
219. Potena, A., G. Caramori, P. Casolari, M. Contoli, S. L. Johnston, and A. Papi. 2007. Pathophysiology of viral-induced exacerbations of COPD. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2:477-483.
220. Power, C. A., D. J. Church, A. Meyer, S. Alouani, A. E. Proudfoot, I. Clark-Lewis, S. Sozzani, A. Mantovani, and T. N. Wells. 1997. Cloning and characterization of a specific receptor for the novel CC chemokine MIP-3alpha from lung dendritic cells. J. Exp. Med. 186:825-835.
221. Proud, D., S. P. Sanders, and S. Wiehler. 2004. Human rhinovirus infection induces airway epithelial cell production of human beta-defensin 2 both in vitro and in vivo. J. Immunol. 172:4637-4645.
222. Proud, D., R. B. Turner, B. Winther, S. Wiehler, J. P. Tiesman, T. D. Reichling, K. D. Juhlin, A. W. Fulmer, B. Y. Ho, A. A. Walanski, C. L. Poore, H. Mizoguchi, L. Jump, M. L. Moore, C. K. Zukowski, and J. W. Clymer. 2008. Gene expression profiles during in vivo human rhinovirus infection: insights into the host response. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 178:962-968.
223. Psarras, S., E. Volonaki, C. L. Skevaki, M. Xatzipsalti, A. Bossios, H. Pratsinis, S. Tsigkos, D. Gourgiotis, A. G. Constantopoulos, A. Papapetropoulos, P. Saxoni-Papageorgiou, and N. G. Papadopoulos. 2006. Vascular endothelial growth factor-mediated induction of angiogenesis by human rhinoviruses. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 117:291-297.
224. Puchelle, E., J. M. Zahm, J. M. Tournier, and C. Coraux. 2006. Airway epithelial repair, regeneration, and remodeling after injury in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 3:726-733.
225. Qi, B., Y. Huang, D. Rowe, and G. Halliday. 2007. VISA - a pass to innate immunity. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 39:287-291.
226. Qiu, Y., J. Zhu, V. Bandi, K. K. Guntupalli, and P. K. Jeffery. 2007. Bronchial mucosal inflammation and upregulation of CXC chemoattractants and receptors in severe exacerbations of asthma. Thorax 62:475-482.
227. Ramphal, R., P. M. Small, J. W. Shands, Jr., W. Fischlschweiger, and P. A. Small, Jr. 1980. Adherence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to tracheal cells injured by influenza infection or by endotracheal intubation. Infect. Immun. 27:614-619.
228. Ramshaw, I. A., A. J. Ramsay, G. Karupiah, M. S. Rolph, S. Mahalingam, and J. C. Ruby. 1997. Cytokines and immunity to viral infections. Immunol. Rev. 159:119-135.
229. Randall, R. E., and S. Goodbourn. 2008. Interferons and viruses: an interplay between induction, signalling, antiviral responses and virus countermeasures. J. Gen. Virol. 89:1-47.
230. Rate, A., J. W. Upham, A. Bosco, K. L. McKenna, and P. G. Holt. 2009. Airway epithelial cells regulate the functional phenotype of locally differentiating dendritic cells: implications for the pathogenesis of infectious and allergic airway disease. J. Immunol. 182:72-83.
231. Reddy, M. S. 1992. Human tracheobronchial mucin: purification and binding to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect. Immun. 60:1530-1535.
232. Regamey, N., L. Kaiser, H. L. Roiha, C. Deffernez, C. E. Kuehni, P. Latzin, C. Aebi, and U. Frey. 2008. Viral etiology of acute respiratory infections with cough in infancy: a community-based birth cohort study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 27:100-105.
233. Regamey, N., C. Obregon, S. Ferrari-Lacraz, C. van Leer, M. Chanson, L. P. Nicod, and T. Geiser. 2007. Airway epithelial IL-15 transforms monocytes into dendritic cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 37:75-84.
234. Rehwinkel, J., and C. Reis e Sousa. 2010. RIGorous detection: exposing virus through RNA sensing. Science 327:284-286.
235. Reibman, J., Y. Hsu, L. C. Chen, B. Bleck, and T. Gordon. 2003. Airway epithelial cells release MIP-3alpha/CCL20 in response to cytokines and ambient particulate matter. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 28:648-654.
236. Reiss, C. S., and T. Komatsu. 1998. Does nitric oxide play a critical role in viral infections? J. Virol. 72:4547-4551.
237. Roche, W. R., S. Montefort, J. Baker, and S. T. Holgate. 1993. Cell adhesion molecules and the bronchial epithelium. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148:S79-S82.
238. Rogers, D. F. 2004. Airway mucus hypersecretion in asthma: an undervalued pathology? Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 4:241-250.
239. Rogers, D. F. 2000. Mucus pathophysiology in COPD: differences to asthma, and pharmacotherapy. Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis. 55:324-332.
240. Rohde, G. 2009. Drug targets in rhinoviral infections. Infect. Disord. Drug Targets 9:126-132.
241. Rose, M. C., T. J. Nickola, and J. A. Voynow. 2001. Airway mucus obstruction: mucin glycoproteins, MUC gene regulation and goblet cell hyperplasia. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 25:533-537.
242. Rose, M. C., and J. A. Voynow. 2006. Respiratory tract mucin genes and mucin glycoproteins in health and disease. Physiol. Rev. 86:245-278.
243. Saadi, A. T., C. C. Blackwell, S. D. Essery, M. W. Raza, O. R. el Ahmer, D. A. MacKenzie, V. S. James, D. M. Weir, M. M. Ogilvie, R. A. Elton, A. Busuttil, and J. W. Keeling. 1996. Developmental and environmental factors that enhance binding of Bordetella pertussis to human epithelial cells in relation to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 16:51-59.
244. Saadi, A. T., C. C. Blackwell, M. W. Raza, V. S. James, J. Stewart, R. A. Elton, and D. M. Weir. 1993. Factors enhancing adherence of toxigenic Staphylococcus aureus to epithelial cells and their possible role in sudden infant death syndrome. Epidemiol. Infect. 110:507-517.
245. Sacco, O., M. Silvestri, F. Sabatini, R. Sale, A. C. Defilippi, and G. A. Rossi. 2004. Epithelial cells and fibroblasts: structural repair and remodelling in the airways. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 5(Suppl. A):S35-S40.
246. Saeki, H., A. M. Moore, M. J. Brown, and S. T. Hwang. 1999. Cutting edge: secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (SLC) and CC chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) participate in the emigration pathway of mature dendritic cells from the skin to regional lymph nodes. J. Immunol. 162:2472-2475.
247. Sajjan, U., Q. Wang, Y. Zhao, D. C. Gruenert, and M. B. Hershenson. 2008. Rhinovirus disrupts the barrier function of polarized airway epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 178:1271-1281.
248. Samuel, C. E. 2001. Antiviral actions of interferons. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:778-809.
249. Sanders, S. P., J. Kim, K. R. Connolly, J. D. Porter, E. S. Siekierski, and D. Proud. 2001. Nitric oxide inhibits rhinovirus-induced granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor production in bronchial epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 24:317-325.
250. Sanders, S. P., E. S. Siekierski, J. D. Porter, S. M. Richards, and D. Proud. 1998. Nitric oxide inhibits rhinovirus-induced cytokine production and viral replication in a human respiratory epithelial cell line. J. Virol. 72:934-942.
251. Sanders, S. P., E. S. Siekierski, S. M. Richards, J. D. Porter, F. Imani, and D. Proud. 2001. Rhinovirus infection induces expression of type 2 nitric oxide synthase in human respiratory epithelial cells in vitro and in vivo. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 107:235-243.
252. Sanford, B. A., V. E. Davison, and M. A. Ramsay. 1982. Fibrinogen-mediated adherence of group A Streptococcus to influenza A virus-infected cell cultures. Infect. Immun. 38:513-520.
253. Sanford, B. A., and M. A. Ramsay. 1987. Bacterial adherence to the upper respiratory tract of ferrets infected with influenza A virus. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 185:120-128.
254. Sanford, B. A., A. Shelokov, and M. A. Ramsay. 1978. Bacterial adherence to virus-infected cells: a cell culture model of bacterial superinfection. J. Infect. Dis. 137:176-181.
255. Sano, H., K. Nagai, H. Tsutsumi, and Y. Kuroki. 2003. Lactoferrin and surfactant protein A exhibit distinct binding specificity to F protein and differently modulate respiratory syncytial virus infection. Eur. J. Immunol. 33:2894-2902.
256. Sasai, M., M. Shingai, K. Funami, M. Yoneyama, T. Fujita, M. Matsumoto, and T. Seya. 2006. NAK-associated protein 1 participates in both the TLR3 and the cytoplasmic pathways in type I IFN induction. J. Immunol. 177: 8676-8683.
257. Sato, M., H. Suemori, N. Hata, M. Asagiri, K. Ogasawara, K. Nakao, T. Nakaya, M. Katsuki, S. Noguchi, N. Tanaka, and T. Taniguchi. 2000. Distinct and essential roles of transcription factors IRF-3 and IRF-7 in response to viruses for IFN-alpha/beta gene induction. Immunity 13:539-548.
258. Satoh, T., H. Kato, Y. Kumagai, M. Yoneyama, S. Sato, K. Matsushita, T. Tsujimura, T. Fujita, S. Akira, and O. Takeuchi. 2010. LGP2 is a positive regulator of RIG-I- and MDA5-mediated antiviral responses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 107:1512-1517.
259. Schildgen, O., A. Muller, T. Allander, I. M. Mackay, S. Volz, B. Kupfer, and A. Simon. 2008. Human bocavirus: passenger or pathogen in acute respiratory tract infections? Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 21:291-304.
260. Schutte, B. C., and P. B. McCray, Jr. 2002. Beta-defensins in lung host defense. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 64:709-748.
261. See, H., and P. Wark. 2008. Innate immune response to viral infection of the lungs. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 9:243-250.
262. Selinger, D. S., W. P. Reed, and L. C. McLaren. 1981. Model for studying bacterial adherence to epithelial cells infected with viruses. Infect. Immun. 32:941-944.
263. Sha, Q., A. Q. Truong-Tran, J. R. Plitt, L. A. Beck, and R. P. Schleimer. 2004. Activation of airway epithelial cells by Toll-like receptor agonists. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 31:358-364.
264. Sheppard, P., W. Kindsvogel, W. Xu, K. Henderson, S. Schlutsmeyer, T. E. Whitmore, R. Kuestner, U. Garrigues, C. Birks, J. Roraback, C. Ostrander, D. Dong, J. Shin, S. Presnell, B. Fox, B. Haldeman, E. Cooper, D. Taft, T. Gilbert, F. J. Grant, M. Tackett, W. Krivan, G. McKnight, C. Clegg, D. Foster, and K. M. Klucher. 2003. IL-28, IL-29 and their class II cytokine receptor IL-28R. Nat. Immunol. 4:63-68.
265. Shuter, J., V. B. Hatcher, and F. D. Lowy. 1996. Staphylococcus aureus binding to human nasal mucin. Infect. Immun. 64:310-318.
266. Siegal, F. P., N. Kadowaki, M. Shodell, P. A. Fitzgerald-Bocarsly, K. Shah, S. Ho, S. Antonenko, and Y. J. Liu. 1999. The nature of the principal type 1 interferon-producing cells in human blood. Science 284:1835-1837.
267. Sigurs, N., R. Bjarnason, F. Sigurbergsson, and B. Kjellman. 2000. Respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy is an important risk factor for asthma and allergy at age 7. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161:1501-1507.
268. Simon, H. U., H. Seelbach, R. Ehmann, and M. Schmitz. 2003. Clinical and immunological effects of low-dose IFN-alpha treatment in patients with corticosteroid-resistant asthma. Allergy 58:1250-1255.
269. Singh, D., K. L. McCann, and F. Imani. 2007. MAPK and heat shock protein 27 activation are associated with respiratory syncytial virus induction of human bronchial epithelial monolayer disruption. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 293:L436-L445.
270. Singh, P. K., H. P. Jia, K. Wiles, J. Hesselberth, L. Liu, B. A. Conway, E. P. Greenberg, E. V. Valore, M. J. Welsh, T. Ganz, B. F. Tack, and P. B. McCray, Jr. 1998. Production of beta-defensins by human airway epithelia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95:14961-14966.
271. Skevaki, C. L., I. Christodoulou, I. S. Spyridaki, I. Tiniakou, V. Georgiou, P. Xepapadaki, D. A. Kafetzis, and N. G. Papadopoulos. 2009. Budesonide and formoterol inhibit inflammatory mediator production by bronchial epithelial cells infected with rhinovirus. Clin. Exp. Allergy 39:1700-1710.
272. Sloots, T. P., D. M. Whiley, S. B. Lambert, and M. D. Nissen. 2008. Emerging respiratory agents: new viruses for old diseases? J. Clin. Virol. 42:233-243.
273. Smit, J. J., D. M. Lindell, L. Boon, M. Kool, B. N. Lambrecht, and N. W. Lukacs. 2008. The balance between plasmacytoid DC versus conventional DC determines pulmonary immunity to virus infections. PLoS One 3:e1720.
274. Smyth, R. L., K. J. Mobbs, U. O'Hea, D. Ashby, and C. A. Hart. 2002. Respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: disease severity, interleukin-8, and virus genotype. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 33:339-346.
275. Soumelis, V., P. A. Reche, H. Kanzler, W. Yuan, G. Edward, B. Homey, M. Gilliet, S. Ho, S. Antonenko, A. Lauerma, K. Smith, D. Gorman, S. Zurawski, J. Abrams, S. Menon, T. McClanahan, R. de Waal-Malefyt Rd, F. Bazan, R. A. Kastelein, and Y. J. Liu. 2002. Human epithelial cells trigger dendritic cell mediated allergic inflammation by producing TSLP. Nat. Immunol. 3:673-680.
276. Spann, K. M., K. C. Tran, and P. L. Collins. 2005. Effects of nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 of human respiratory syncytial virus on interferon regulatory factor 3, NF-kappaB, and proinflammatory cytokines. J. Virol. 79:5353-5362.
277. Stark, G. R., I. M. Kerr, B. R. Williams, R. H. Silverman, and R. D. Schreiber. 1998. How cells respond to interferons. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 67:227-264.
278. Swain, S. L., R. W. Dutton, and D. L. Woodland. 2004. T cell responses to influenza virus infection: effector and memory cells. Viral Immunol. 17: 197-209.
279. Sykes, A., and S. L. Johnston. 2008. Etiology of asthma exacerbations. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 122:685-688.
280. Takaoka, A., S. Hayakawa, H. Yanai, D. Stoiber, H. Negishi, H. Kikuchi, S. Sasaki, K. Imai, T. Shibue, K. Honda, and T. Taniguchi. 2003. Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signalling to p53 responses in tumour suppression and antiviral defence. Nature 424:516-523.
281. Tamura, S., and T. Kurata. 2004. Defense mechanisms against influenza virus infection in the respiratory tract mucosa. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 57:236-247.
282. Taubenberger, J. K., and D. M. Morens. 2008. The pathology of influenza virus infections. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 3:499-522.
283. Thomas, P. G., P. Dash, J. R. Aldridge, Jr., A. H. Ellebedy, C. Reynolds, A. J. Funk, W. J. Martin, M. Lamkanfi, R. J. Webby, K. L. Boyd, P. C. Doherty, and T. D. Kanneganti. 2009. The intracellular sensor NLRP3 mediates key innate and healing responses to influenza A virus via the regulation of caspase-1. Immunity 30:566-575.
284. Thornton, D. J., K. Rousseau, and M. A. McGuckin. 2008. Structure and function of the polymeric mucins in airways mucus. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 70:459-486.
285. Ting, J. P., J. A. Duncan, and Y. Lei. 2010. How the noninflammasome NLRs function in the innate immune system. Science 327:286-290.
286. To, K. K., I. F. Hung, I. W. Li, K. L. Lee, C. K. Koo, W. W. Yan, R. Liu, K. Y. Ho, K. H. Chu, C. L. Watt, W. K. Luk, K. Y. Lai, F. L. Chow, T. Mok, T. Buckley, J. F. Chan, S. S. Wong, B. Zheng, H. Chen, C. C. Lau, H. Tse, V. C. Cheng, K. H. Chan, and K. Y. Yuen. 2010. Delayed clearance of viral load and marked cytokine activation in severe cases of pandemic H1N1 2009 influenza virus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50:850-859.
287. Tregoning, J. S., and J. Schwarze. 2010. Respiratory viral infections in infants: causes, clinical symptoms, virology, and immunology. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 23:74-98.
288. Trinchieri, G. 1989. Biology of natural killer cells. Adv. Immunol. 47:187-376.
289. Uematsu, S., and S. Akira. 2006. Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. J. Mol. Med. 84:712-725.
290. Uetani, K., S. D. Der, M. Zamanian-Daryoush, C. de La Motte, B. Y. Lieberman, B. R. Williams, and S. C. Erzurum. 2000. Central role of double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase in microbial induction of nitric oxide synthase. J. Immunol. 165:988-996.
291. Van Alphen, L. 1996. Interaction of bacteria and airway epithelial cells. Eur. Respir. J. 9:1342-1343.
292. Van der Sluijs, K. F., C. Obregon, T. K. Geiser, K. Muhlemann, and L. P. Nicod. 2010. Monocyte differentiation towards regulatory dendritic cells is not affected by RSV-induced inflammatory mediators. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. [Epub ahead of print.] doi:10.1165/rcmb.2010-0136OC.
293. Van der Strate, B. W., L. Beljaars, G. Molema, M. C. Harmsen, and D. K. Meijer. 2001. Antiviral activities of lactoferrin. Antiviral Res. 52:225-239.
294. Van der Zalm, M. M., B. E. van Ewijk, B. Wilbrink, C. S. Uiterwaal, T. F. Wolfs, and C. K. van der Ent. 2009. Respiratory pathogens in children with and without respiratory symptoms. J. Pediatr. 154:396-400.
295. Van Ewijk, B. E., T. F. Wolfs, P. C. Aerts, K. P. Van Kessel, A. Fleer, J. L. Kimpen, and C. K. Van der Ent. 2007. RSV mediates Pseudomonas aeruginosa binding to cystic fibrosis and normal epithelial cells. Pediatr. Res. 61:398-403.
296. Vermaelen, K., and R. Pauwels. 2005. Pulmonary dendritic cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172:530-551.
297. Visse, R., and H. Nagase. 2003. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases: structure, function, and biochemistry. Circ. Res. 92:827-839.
298. Vogelmeier, C., A. D'Urzo, R. Pauwels, J. M. Merino, M. Jaspal, S. Boutet, I. Naya, and D. Price. 2005. Budesonide/formoterol maintenance and reliever therapy: an effective asthma treatment option? Eur. Respir. J. 26: 819-828.
299. Volonaki, E., S. Psarras, P. Xepapadaki, D. Psomali, D. Gourgiotis, and N. G. Papadopoulos. 2006. Synergistic effects of fluticasone propionate and salmeterol on inhibiting rhinovirus-induced epithelial production of remodelling-associated growth factors. Clin. Exp. Allergy 36:1268-1273.
300. Von Boehmer, H. 2005. Mechanisms of suppression by suppressor T cells. Nat. Immunol. 6:338-344.
301. Voynow, J. A., S. J. Gendler, and M. C. Rose. 2006. Regulation of mucin genes in chronic inflammatory airway diseases. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 34:661-665.
302. Voynow, J. A., and B. K. Rubin. 2009. Mucins, mucus, and sputum. Chest 135:505-512.
303. Wang, H., N. Peters, and J. Schwarze. 2006. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells limit viral replication, pulmonary inflammation, and airway hyperresponsiveness in respiratory syncytial virus infection. J. Immunol. 177:6263-6270.
304. Wang, H., Z. Su, and J. Schwarze. 2009. Healthy but not RSV-infected lung epithelial cells profoundly inhibit T cell activation. Thorax 64:283-290.
305. Wang, J. H., H. J. Kwon, and Y. J. Jang. 2009. Rhinovirus enhances various bacterial adhesions to nasal epithelial cells simultaneously. Laryngoscope 119:1406-1411.
306. Wang, J. H., H. J. Kwon, and Y. J. Jang. 2009. Rhinovirus upregulates matrix metalloproteinase-2, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and vascular endo-thelial growth factor expression in nasal polyp fibroblasts. Laryngoscope 119:1834-1838.
307. Wang, Q., D. R. Nagarkar, E. R. Bowman, D. Schneider, B. Gosangi, J. Lei, Y. Zhao, C. L. McHenry, R. V. Burgens, D. J. Miller, U. Sajjan, and M. B. Hershenson. 2009. Role of double-stranded RNA pattern recognition receptors in rhinovirus-induced airway epithelial cell responses. J. Immunol. 183:6989-6997.
308. Wang, S. Z., H. Xu, A. Wraith, J. J. Bowden, J. H. Alpers, and K. D. Forsyth. 1998. Neutrophils induce damage to respiratory epithelial cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Eur. Respir. J. 12:612-618.
309. Wang, X., E. R. Hinson, and P. Cresswell. 2007. The interferon-inducible protein viperin inhibits influenza virus release by perturbing lipid rafts. Cell Host Microbe 2:96-105.
310. Ward, P. P., E. Paz, and O. M. Conneely. 2005. Multifunctional roles of lactoferrin: a critical overview. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 62:2540-2548.
311. Wareing, M. D., A. B. Lyon, B. Lu, C. Gerard, and S. R. Sarawar. 2004. Chemokine expression during the development and resolution of a pulmonary leukocyte response to influenza A virus infection in mice. J. Leukoc. Biol. 76:886-895.
312. Wareing, M. D., A. L. Shea, C. A. Inglis, P. B. Dias, and S. R. Sarawar. 2007. CXCR2 is required for neutrophil recruitment to the lung during influenza virus infection, but is not essential for viral clearance. Viral Immunol. 20:369-378.
313. Wark, P. A., S. L. Johnston, F. Bucchieri, R. Powell, S. Puddicombe, V. Laza-Stanca, S. T. Holgate, and D. E. Davies. 2005. Asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells have a deficient innate immune response to infection with rhinovirus. J. Exp. Med. 201:937-947.
314. Wat, D., C. Gelder, S. Hibbitts, F. Cafferty, I. Bowler, M. Pierrepoint, R. Evans, and I. Doull. 2008. The role of respiratory viruses in cystic fibrosis. J. Cyst. Fibros. 7:320-328.
315. Wattier, R. L., M. Vazquez, C. Weibel, E. D. Shapiro, D. Ferguson, M. L. Landry, and J. S. Kahn. 2008. Role of human polyomaviruses in respiratory tract disease in young children. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14:1766-1768.
316. Weinberg, G. A. 2006. Parainfluenza viruses: an underappreciated cause of pediatric respiratory morbidity. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25:447-448.
317. Weiss, S. R., and S. Navas-Martin. 2005. Coronavirus pathogenesis and the emerging pathogen severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 69:635-664.
318. Welliver, R. C., Sr. 2008. The immune response to respiratory syncytial virus infection: friend or foe? Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 34:163-173.
319. Whiteman, S. C., A. Bianco, R. A. Knight, and M. A. Spiteri. 2003. Human rhinovirus selectively modulates membranous and soluble forms of its intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) receptor to promote epithelial cell infectivity. J. Biol. Chem. 278:11954-11961.
320. Wilson, R., R. B. Dowling, and A. D. Jackson. 1996. The biology of bacterial colonization and invasion of the respiratory mucosa. Eur. Respir. J. 9:1523-1530.
321. Winther, B., J. M. Gwaltney, and J. O. Hendley. 1990. Respiratory virus infection of monolayer cultures of human nasal epithelial cells. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 141:839-845.
322. Woo, P. C., E. T. Tung, K. H. Chan, C. C. Lau, S. K. Lau, and K. Y. Yuen. 2010. Cytokine profiles induced by the novel swine-origin influenza A/H1N1 virus: implications for treatment strategies. J. Infect. Dis. 201:346-353.
323. Wu, L., and A. Dakic. 2004. Development of dendritic cell system. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 1:112-118.
324. Xatzipsalti, M., F. Psarros, G. Konstantinou, M. Gaga, D. Gourgiotis, P. Saxoni-Papageorgiou, and N. G. Papadopoulos. 2008. Modulation of the epithelial inflammatory response to rhinovirus in an atopic environment. Clin. Exp. Allergy 38:466-472.
325. Xepapadaki, P., and N. G. Papadopoulos. 2007. Viral infections and allergies. Immunobiology 212:453-459.
326. Yamaguchi, T., K. Kawabata, N. Koizumi, F. Sakurai, K. Nakashima, H. Sakurai, T. Sasaki, N. Okada, K. Yamanishi, and H. Mizuguchi. 2007. Role of MyD88 and TLR9 in the innate immune response elicited by serotype 5 adenoviral vectors. Hum. Gene Ther. 18:753-762.
327. Yanagi, S., J. Ashitani, H. Ishimoto, Y. Date, H. Mukae, N. Chino, and M. Nakazato. 2005. Isolation of human beta-defensin-4 in lung tissue and its increase in lower respiratory tract infection. Respir. Res. 6:130.
328. Yang, D., A. Biragyn, L. W. Kwak, and J. J. Oppenheim. 2002. Mammalian defensins in immunity: more than just microbicidal. Trends Immunol. 23: 291-296.
329. Yang, L., Y. Luo, J. Wei, and S. He. 2010. Integrative genomic analyses on IL28RA, the common receptor of interferon-lambda1, -lambda2 and -lambda3. Int. J. Mol. Med. 25:807-812.
330. Yoneyama, M., W. Suhara, Y. Fukuhara, M. Fukuda, E. Nishida, and T. Fujita. 1998. Direct triggering of the type I interferon system by virus infection: activation of a transcription factor complex containing IRF-3 and CBP/p300. EMBO J. 17:1087-1095.
331. Yoshikawa, T., T. Hill, K. Li, C. J. Peters, and C. T. Tseng. 2009. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus-induced lung epithelial cytokines exacerbate SARS pathogenesis by modulating intrinsic functions of monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells. J. Virol. 83:3039-3048.
332. Young, D. F., T. S. Carlos, K. Hagmaier, L. Fan, and R. E. Randall. 2007. AGS and other tissue culture cells can unknowingly be persistently infected with PIV5; a virus that blocks interferon signalling by degrading STAT1. Virology 365:238-240.
333. Yu, D., L. Wei, L. Zhengxiu, L. Jian, W. Lijia, L. Wei, Y. Xiqiang, Z. Xiaodong, F. Zhou, and L. Enmei. 2009. Impact of bacterial colonization on the severity and airway inflammation of children with virus induced wheezing. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. [Epub ahead of print.] doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03147.x.
334. Zarember, K. A., and P. J. Godowski. 2002. Tissue expression of human Toll-like receptors and differential regulation of Toll-like receptor mRNAs in leukocytes in response to microbes, their products, and cytokines. J. Immunol. 168:554-561.
335. Zhang, L., A. Bukreyev, C. I. Thompson, B. Watson, M. E. Peeples, P. L. Collins, and R. J. Pickles. 2005. Infection of ciliated cells by human parainfluenza virus type 3 in an in vitro model of human airway epithelium. J. Virol. 79:1113-1124.
336. Zheng, S., B. P. De, S. Choudhary, S. A. Comhair, T. Goggans, R. Slee, B. R. Williams, J. Pilewski, S. J. Haque, and S. C. Erzurum. 2003. Impaired innate host defense causes susceptibility to respiratory virus infections in cystic fibrosis. Immunity 18:619-630.
337. Zheng, S., W. Xu, S. Bose, A. K. Banerjee, S. J. Haque, and S. C. Erzurum. 2004. Impaired nitric oxide synthase-2 signaling pathway in cystic fibrosis airway epithelium. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 287:L374-L381.
338. Zhou, Z., O. J. Hamming, N. Ank, S. R. Paludan, A. L. Nielsen, and R. Hartmann. 2007. Type III interferon (IFN) induces a type I IFN-like response in a restricted subset of cells through signaling pathways involving both the Jak-STAT pathway and the mitogen-activated protein kinases. J. Virol. 81:7749-7758.
339. Zhu, L., P. K. Lee, W. M. Lee, Y. Zhao, D. Yu, and Y. Chen. 2009. Rhinovirus-induced major airway mucin production involves a novel TLR3-EGFR-dependent pathway. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 40:610-619.