The innate immune response of the respiratory epithelium

Immunological Reviews

Volumn 173, Issue , 2000, Pages 27-38

  Diamond, Gill ^c   Legarda, Diana ^a   Ryan, Lisa K ^b  

^a University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey   (United States)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^c RUTGERS NEW JERSEY MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CD14 ANTIGEN;

AIR POLLUTANT; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; HOST RESISTANCE; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFECTION; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

AIR POLLUTANTS; ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; BRONCHI; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION MEDIATORS; PHAGOCYTES; RESPIRATORY MUCOSA; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 0006422025     PISSN: 01052896     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065X.2000.917304.x     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. 1. Boucher RC. Molecular insights into the physiology of the 'thin film' of airway surface liquid. J Physiol 1999;516:631-638.
2. 2. Travis SM, et al. Activity of abundant antimicrobials of the human airway. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:872-879.
3. 3. Cole AM, Dewan P, Ganz T. Innate antimicrobial activity of nasal secretions. Infect Immun 1999;67:3267-3275.
4. 4. Harbitz O, Jenssen AO, Smidsrod O. Lysozyme and lactoferrin in sputum from patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Eur J Respir Dis 1984;65:512-520.
5. 5. Kaliner MA. Human nasal respiratory secretions and host defense. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:S52-56.
6. 6. Diamond G, Bevins CL. β-defensins: endogenous antibiotics of the innate host defense response. Clinic Immunol Immunopathol 1998;88:221-225.
7. 7. Schmidt HH, Walter U. NO at work. Cell 1994;78:919-925.
8. 8. Asano K, et al. Constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression, regulation and activity in human lung epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1994;91:10089-10093.
9. 9. Rose MC. Mucins: structure, function, and role in pulmonary diseases. Am J Physiol 1992;263:L413-429.
10. 10. Smith JJ, Travis SM, Greenberg EP, Welsh MJ. Cystic fibrosis airway epithelia fail to kill bacteria because of abnormal airway surface fluid. Cell 1996;85:229-236.
11. 11. McCray PB Jr, Zabner J, Jia HP, Welsh MJ, Thorne PS. Efficient killing of inhaled bacteria in DeltaF508 mice: role of airway surface liquid composition. Am J Physiol 1999;277:L183-L190.
12. 12. Matsui H, et al. Evidence for periciliary liquid layer depletion, not abnormal ion composition, in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis airways disease. Cell 1998;95:1005-1015.
13. 13. Zasloff M. Antibiotics peptides as mediators of innate immunity. Curr Opin Immunol 1992;4:3-7.
14. 14. Martin E, Ganz T, Lehrer RI. Defensins and other endogenous peptide antibiotics of vertebrates. J Leukoc Biol 1995;58:128-136.
15. 15. Ouellette AJ, Selsted ME. Paneth cell defensins: endogenous peptide components of intestinal host defense. FASEB J 1996;10:1280-1289.
16. 16. Quayle AJ, Martin Porter E, Nussbaum AA, Wang Y-M, Brabec C, Mok SC. Gene expression, immunolocalization and secretion of human defensin-5 in human female genital tract. Am J Pathol 1998;152:1247-1258.
17. 17. Diamond G, Zasloff M, Eck H, Brasseur M, Maloy WL, Bevins CL. Tracheal antimicrobial peptide, a novel cysteine-rich peptide from mammalian tracheal mucosa: peptide isolation and cloning of a cDNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88:3952-3956.
18. 18. Diamond G, Jones DE, Bevins CL. Airway epithelial cells are the site of expression of a mammalian antimicrobial peptide gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1993;90:4596-4600.
19. 19. Selsted ME, et al. Purification, primary structures, and antibacterial activities of β-defensins, a new family of antimicrobial peptides from bovine neutrophils. J Biol Chem 1993;268:6641-6648.
20. 20. Ryan LK, Rhodes J, Bhat M, Diamond G. Expression of β-defensin genes in bovine alveolar macrophages. Infect Immun 1998;66:878-881.
21. 21. Tarver AP, et al. Enteric β-defensin: molecular cloning and characterization of a gene with inducible intestinal epithelial cell expression associated with Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Infect Immun 1998;66:1045-1056.
22. 22. Schonwetter BS, Stolzenberg ED, Zasloff MA. Epithelial antibiotics induced at sites of inflammation. Science 1995;267:1645-1648.
23. 23. Zhao C, Wang I, Lehrer RI. Widespread expression of β-defensin hBD-1: in human secretory glands and epithelial cells. FEBS Lett 1996;396:319-322.
24. 24. Bensch KW, Raida M, Magert H-J, Schulz-Knappe P, Forssmann W-G. hBD-1: a novel β-defensin from human plasma. FEBS Lett 1995;368:331-335.
25. 25. Huttner KM, Kozak CA, Bevins CL. The mouse genome encodes a single homolog of the antimicrobial peptide human β-defensin 1. FEBS Lett 1997;413:45-49.
26. 26. Morrison GM, et al. Mouse β defensin-1 is a functional homolog of human β defensin-1. Mamm Genome 1998;9:453-457.
27. 27. Morrison GM, Davidson DJ, Dorin JR. A novel mouse β-defensin, Defb2, which is upregulated in the airways by lipopolysaccharide. FEBS Lett 1999;442:112-116.
28. 28. Bals R, Goldman MJ, Wilson JM. Mouse β-defensin 1 is a salt-sensitive antimicrobial peptide present in epithelia of the lung and urogenital tract. Infect Immun 1998;66:1225-1232.
29. 29. Bals R, et al. Mouse β-defensin 3 is an inducible antimicrobial peptide expressed in the epithelia of multiple organs. Infect Immun 1999;67:3542-3547.
30. 30. Huttner KM, Brezinski-Caliguri DJ, Mahoney MM, Diamond G. Antimicrobial peptide expression is developmentally-regulated in the ovine gastrointestinal tract. J Nutr 1997;128:297S-299S.
31. 31. Zhang G, Wu H, Shi J, Ganz T, Ross CR, Blecha F. Molecular cloning and tissue expression of porcine β-defensin-1. FEBS Lett 1998;424:37-40.
32. 32. Harwig SS, et al. Gallinacins: cysteine-rich antimicrobial peptides of chicken leukocytes. FEBS Letters 1994;342:281-285.
33. 33. Evans EW, Beach GG, Wunderlich J, Harmon BG. Isolation of antimicrobial peptides from avian heterophils. J Leukoc Biol 1994;56:661-665.
34. 34. Goldman MJ, Anderson GM, Stolzenberg ED, Kari UP, Zasloff M, Wilson JM. Human β-defensin-1 is a salt-sensitive antibiotic in lung that is inactivated in cystic fibrosis. Cell 1997;88:553-560.
35. 35. Bals R, Wang X, Zasloff M, Wilson JM. The peptide antibiotic LL-37/hCAP-18 is expressed in epithelia of the human lung where it has broad antimicrobial activity at the airway surface. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:9541-9546.
36. 36. Agerberth B, et al. Antibacterial components in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from healthy individuals and sarcoidosis patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:283-290.
37. 37. Bals R, Weiner DJ, Meegalla RL, Wilson JM. Transfer of a cathelicidin peptide antibiotic gene restores bacterial killing in a cystic fibrosis xenograft model. J Clin Invest 1999;103:1113-1117.
38. 38. Lechner JF, Haugen A, Autrup H, McClendon IA, Trump BF, Harris CC. Clonal growth of epithelial cells from normal adult human bronchus. Cancer Res 1981;41:2294-2304.
39. 39. Lee TC, Wu R, Brody AR, Barrett JC, Nettesheim P. Growth and differentiation of hamster tracheal epithelial cells in culture. Exp Lung Res 1984;6:27-45.
40. 40. Ke Y, et al. Human bronchial epithelial cells with integrated SV40 virus T antigen genes retain the ability to undergo squamous differentiation. Differentiation 1988;38:60-66.
41. 41. Diamond G, Russell JP, Bevins CL. Inducible expression of an antibiotic peptide gene in lipopolysaccharide-challenged tracheal epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:5156-5160.
42. 42. Russell JP, Diamond G, Tarver AP, Scanlin TF, Bevins CL. Coordinate induction of two antibiotic genes in tracheal epithelial cells exposed to the inflammatory mediators lipopolysaccharide and tumor necrosis factor α Infect Immun 1996;64:1565-1568.
43. 43. Diamond G, Kaiser V, Rhodes J, Russell JP, Bevins CL. Transcriptional regulation of β-defensin gene expression in tracheal epithelial cells. Infect Immun (In press).
44. 44. Harder J, Bartels J, Christophers E, Schroder J-M. A peptide antibiotic from human skin. Nature 1997;387:861.
45. 45. Liu L, et al. Structure and mapping of the human β-defensin HBD-2 gene and its expression at sites of inflammation. Gene 1998;222:237-244.
46. 46. Singh PK, et al. Production of β-defensins by human airway epithelia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:14961-14966.
47. 47. Stolzenberg ED, Anderson GM, Ackermann MR, Whitlock RH, Zasloff M. Epithelial antibiotic induced in states of disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:8686-8690.
48. 48. Hiratsuka T, et al. Identification of human β-defensin-2 in respiratory tract and plasma and its increase in bacterial pneumonia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998;249:943-947.
49. 49. Rochelle LG, Fischer BM, Adler KB. Concurrent production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species by airway epithelial cells in vitro. Free Radic Biol Med 1998;15:863-838.
50. 50. Dohrman A, et al. Mucin gene (MUC 2 and MUC 5AC) upregulation by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998;1406:251-259.
51. 51. Watkins DN, et al. Expression and localization of the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase in nasal polyp epithelium. Clin Exp Allergy 1998;28:211-219.
52. 52. Kristof AS, Goldberg P, Laubach V, Hussain SN. Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase in endotoxin-induced acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1883-1889.
53. 53. Rennard SI, et al. Airway epithelial cells: functional roles in airway disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150: S27-S30.
54. 54. Koyama S, et al. Endotoxin stimulates bronchial epithelial cells to release chemotactic factors for neutrophils. J Immunol 1991;147:4293-4301.
55. 55. Nakamura H, Yoshimura K, Jaffe HA, Crystal RG. Interleukin-8 gene expression in human bronchial epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 1991;266:19611-19617.
56. 56. Robbins RA, et al. Bronchial epithelial cells release chemotactic activity for lymphocytes. Am J Physiol 1989;157:L109-L115.
57. 57. Koyama S, et al. Bronchial epithelial cells release chemoattractant activity for monocytes. Am J Physiol 1989;257:L130-L136.
58. 58. Sato M, et al. Eosinophil adhesion to human bronchial epithelial cells: regulation by cytokines. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1997;113:203-205.
59. 59. Mattoli S, et al. Time course of IL1 and IL6 synthesis and release in human bronchial epithelial cell cultures exposed to toluene diisocyanate. J Cell Physiol 1991;149:260-268.
60. 60. Salvi S, et al. Interleukin-5 production by human airway epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:984-991.
61. 61. Black PN, et al. Formation of endothelin by cultured airway epithelial cells. FEBS Lett 1989;255:129-132.
62. 62. Smith SM, Lee DK, Lacy J, Coleman DL. Rat tracheal epithelial cells produce granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1990;2:59-68.
63. 63. Sacco O, Romberger D, Rizzino A, Beckmann JD, Rennard SI, Spurzem JR. Spontaneous production of transforming growth factor-β 2 by primary cultures of bronchial epithelial cells. Effects on cell behavior in vitro. J Clin Invest 1992;90:1379-1385.
64. 64. Shoji S, Rickard KA, Ertl RF, Robbins RA, Linder J, Rennard SI. Bronchial epithelial cells produce lung fibroblast chemotactic factor: fibronectin. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1989;1:13-20.
65. 65. Sauty A, et al. The T cell-specific CXC chemokines IP-10, Mig, and I-TAC are expressed by activated human bronchial epithelial cells. J Immunol 1999;162:3549-3558.
66. 66. Krunkosky TM, Fischer BM, Akley NJ, Adler KB. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF α)-induced ICAM-1 surface expression in airway epithelial cells in vitro: possible signal transduction mechanisms. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1996;796:30-37.
67. 67. Striz I, et al. IL-4 induces ICAM-1 expression in human bronchial epithelial cells and potentiates TNF-α. Am J Physiol 1999;277:L58-L64.
68. 68. Nettesheim P, Bader T. Tumor necrosis factor a stimulates arachidonic acid metabolisms and mucus production in rat tracheal epithelial cell cultures. Toxicol Lett 1996;88:35-37.
69. 69. Schroth MK, et al. Rhinovirus replication causes RANTES production in primary bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:1220-1228.
70. 70. Raza MW, et al. Infection with respiratory syncytial virus enhances expression of native receptors for non-pilate Neisseria meningitidis on HEp-2 cells. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1999;23:115-124.
71. 71. Olszewska-Pazdrak B, Pazdrak K, Ogra PL, Garofalo RP. Respiratory syncytial virus-infected pulmonary epithelial cells induce eosinophil degranulation by a CD18-mediated mechanism. J Immunol 1998;160:4889-4895.
72. 72. Guo FH, et al. Interferon γ and interleukin 4 stimulate prolonged expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human airway epithelium through synthesis of soluble mediators [published erratum appears in J Clin Invest 1997;100:1322]. J Clin Invest 1997;100:829-838.
73. 73. Fischer BM, Rochelle LG, Voynow JA, Akley NJ, Adler KB. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulates mucin secretion and cyclic GMP production by guinea pig tracheal epithelial cells in vitro. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:413-422.
74. 74. Fearns C, Kravchenko VV, Ulevitch RJ, Loskutoff DJ. Murine CD14 gene expression in vivo: extramyeloid synthesis and regulation by lipopolysaccharide. J Exp Med 1995;181:857-866.
75. 75. Fearns C, Ulevitch RJ. Effect of recombinant interleukin-1β on murine CD14 gene expression in vivo. Shock 1998;9:157-163.
76. 76. Bader T, Nettesheim P. Tumor necrosis factor-α modulates the expression of its p60 receptor and several cytokines in rat tracheal epithelial cells. J Immunol 1996;157:3089-3096.
77. 77. Levine SJ, Logun C, Chopra DP, Rhim JS, Shelhamer JH. Protein kinase C, interleukin-1 β, and corticosteroids regulate shedding of the type I, 55 kDa TNF receptor from human airway epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1996;14:254-261.
78. 78. Coulter KR, Wewers MD, Lowe MP, Knoell DL. Extracellular regulation of interleukin (IL)-1β through lung epithelial cells and defective IL-1 type II receptor expression. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:964-975.
79. 79. Kopp EB, Ghosh S. NF-κB and Rel proteins in innate immunity. Adv Immunol 1995;58:1-27.
80. 80. Ip YT, et al. Dif, a dorsal-related gene that mediates an immune response in Drosophila. Cell 1993;75:753-763.
81. 81. Lemaitre B, Nicolas E, Michaut L, Reichhart J-M, Hoffmann JA. The dorsoventral regulatory gene cassette spatzle/Toll/cactus controls potent antifungal response in Drosophila adults. Cell 1996;86:973-983.
82. 82. Boman HG. Peptide antibiotics and their role in innate immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 1995;13:61-92.
83. 83. Akira S, et al. A nuclear factor for IL-6 expression (NF-IL6) is a member of a c/EBP family. EMBO J 1990;9:1897-1906.
84. 84. Kappler C, Meister M, Lagueux M, Gateff E, Hoffmann JA, Reichhart J-M. Insect immunity. Two 17 bp repeats nesting a κB-related sequence confer inducibility to the diptericin gene and bind a polypeptide in bacteria-challenged Drosophila. EMBO J 1993;12:1561-1568.
85. 85. Betts JC, Cheshire JK, Akira S, Kishimoto T, Woo P. The role of NF-κB and NF-IL6 transactivating factors in the synergistic activation of human serum amyloid A gene expression by interleukin-1 and interleukin-6. J Biol Chem 1993;268:25624-25631.
86. 86. Matsusaka T, et al. Transcription factors NF-IL6 and NF-κB synergistically activate transcription of the inflammatory cytokines, interleukin 6 and interleukin 8. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1993;90:10193-10197.
87. 87. Tanaka T, et al. Targetted disruption of the NF-IL6 gene discloses its essential role in bacterial killing and tumor cytotoxicity by macrophages. Cell 1995;80:353-361.
88. 88. Jany B, Betz R, Schreck R. Activation of the transcription factor NF-κB in human tracheobronchial epithelial cells by inflammatory stimuli. Eur Respir J 1995;8:387-391.
89. 89. Takizawa H, et al. Diesel exhaust particles induce NF-κB activation in human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro: importance in cytokine transcription. J Immunol 1999;162:4705-4711.
90. 90. Janssen YM, Barchowsky A, Treadwell M, Driscoll KE, Mossman BT. Asbestos induces nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) DNA-binding activity and NF-κB-dependent gene expression in tracheal epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:8458-8462.
91. 91. Jaspers I, Flescher E, Chen LC. Ozone-induced IL-8 expression and transcription factor binding in respiratory epithelial cells. Am J Physiol 1997;272:L504-L511.
92. 92. Quay JL, Reed W, Samet J, Devlin RB. Air pollution particles induce IL-6 gene expression in human airway epithelial cells via NF-κB activation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1998;19:98-106.
93. 93. Hart LA, Krishnan VL, Adcock IM, Barnes PJ, Chung KF. Activation and localization of transcription factor, nuclear factor-κB, in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1585-1592.
94. 94. DiMango E, Ratner AJ, Bryan R, Tabibi S, Prince A. Activation of NF-κB by adherent Pseudomonas aeruginosa in normal and cystic fibrosis respiratory epithelial cells. J Clin Invest 1998;101:2598-2605.
95. 95. Zhu Z, Tang W, Gwaltney JM Jr, Wu Y, Elias JA. Rhinovirus stimulation of interleukin-8 in vivo and in vitro: role of NF-κB. Am J Physiol 1997;273: L814-L824.
96. 96. Thomas LH, Friedland JS, Sharland M, Becker S. Respiratory syncytial virus-induced RANTES production from human bronchial epithelial cells is dependent on nuclear factor-κ B nuclear binding and is inhibited by adenovirus-mediated expression of inhibitor of κ B α. J Immunol 1998;161:1007-1016.
97. 97. Li J-D, et al. Activation of NF-kB via a Src-dependent Ras-MAPK-pp90rsk pathway is required for Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced mucin overproduction in epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:5718-5723.
98. 98. Mastronarde JG, He B, Monick MM, Mukaida N, Matsushima K, Hunninghake GW. Induction of interleukin (IL)-8 gene expression by respiratory syncytial virus involves activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κ B and NF-IL-6. J Infect Dis 1996;174:262-267.
99. 99. Meng F, Lowell CA. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophage activation and signal transduction in the absence of Src-family kinases Hck, Fgr, and Lyn. J Exp Med 1997;185:1661-1670.
100. 100. Davis RJ. MAPKs: new JNK expands the group. Trends Biochem Sci 1994;19:470-473.
101. 101. Dziarski R, Jin YP, Gupta D. Differential activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1, ERK2, p38, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase mitogen-activated protein kinases by bacterial peptidoglycan. J Infect Dis 1996;174:777-785.
102. 102. Schumann RR, et al. Lipopolysaccharide induces the rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases erk-1 and p38 in cultured human vascular endothelial cells requiring the presence of soluble CD14. Blood 1996;87:2805-2814.
103. 103. Hwang D, Jang BC, Yu G, Boudreau M. Expression of mitogen-inducible cyclooxygenase induced by lipopolysaccharide: mediation through both mitogen-activated protein kinase and NF-κB signaling pathways in macrophages. Biochem Pharmacol 1997;54:87-96.
104. 104. Hashimoto S, Maruoka S, Gon Y, Matsumoto K, Takeshita I, Horie T. Mitogen-activated protein kinase involves neutrophil elastase-induced morphological changes in human bronchial epithelial cells. Life Sci 1999;64:1465-1471.
105. 105. Delude RL, Yoshimura A, Ingalls RR, Golenbock DT. Construction of a lipopolysaccharide reporter cell line and its use in identifying mutants defective in endotoxin, but not TNF-α, signal transduction. J Immunol 1998;161:3001-3009.
106. 106. Matsumoto K, Hashimoto S, Gon Y, Nakayama T, Horie T. Proinflammatory cytokine-induced and chemical mediator-induced IL-8 expression in human bronchial epithelial cells through p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent pathway. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:825-831.
107. 107. Samet JM, et al. Activation of MAPKs in human bronchial epithelial cells exposed to metals. Am J Physiol 1998;275: L551-L558.
108. 108. Wu W, Graves LM, Jaspers I, Devlin RB, Samet JM. Activation of the EGF receptor signalling pathway in human airway epithelial cells exposed to metals. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol (In press).
109. 109. Samet JM, Silbajoris MS, Wu W, Graves LM. Tyrosine phosphatases as targets in metal-induced signaling in human airway epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;21:357-364.
110. 110. Janssen-Heininger YM, Macara I, Mossman BT. Cooperativity between oxidants and tumor necrosis factor in the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB: requirement of Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinases in the activation of NF-κB by oxidants. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:942-952.
111. 111. Ghoda L, Lin X, Greene WC. The 90-kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (pp90rsk) phosphorylates the N-terminal regulatory domain of IκBα and stimulates its degradation in vitro. J Biol Chem 1997;272:21281-21288.
112. 112. Selgrade MJK, Gilmour MI. Effects of gaseous air pollutants on immune responses and susceptibility to infectious and allergic disease. In: Dean JH, Luster MI, Munson AE, Kimber I, eds. Immunotoxicology and immunopharmacology. New York: Raven Press, Ltd; 1994. p. 395-411.
113. 113. Bayram H, et al. The effect of diesel exhaust particles on cell function and release of inflammatory mediators from human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1998;18:441-448.
114. 114. Kim KC, et al. Airway goblet cell mucin: its structure and regulation of secretion. Eur Respir J 1997;10:2644-2649.
115. 115. Devlin RB, McKinnon KP, Reed W, Carter JD, Quay JL. In vitro ozone exposure induces increased expression of mRNAs coding for IL-6 and α chemokines, but not β chemokines, in human airway epithelial cells. In: Mohr U, Dungworth DL, Adler KB, Harris CC, Plopper CG, eds. Correlations between in vitro and in vivo investigations in inhalation toxicology. Washington, DC: ILSI Press; 1997. p. 59-76.
116. 116. Carter JD, Ghio AJ, Samet JM, Devlin RB. Cytokine production by human airway epithelial cells after exposure to an air pollution particle is metal-dependent. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1997;146:180-188.
117. 117. Mio T, Romberger DJ, Thompson AB, Robbins RA, Heires A, Rennard SI. Cigarette smoke induces interleukin-8 release from human bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1770-1776.
118. 118. Rosenthal GJ, et al. Asbestos stimulates IL-8 production from human lung epithelial cells. J Immunol 1994;153:3237-3244.
119. 119. Leikauf GD, et al. Airway epithelial cell responses to ozone injury. Environ Health Perspect 1995;103(Suppl 2):91-95.
120. 120. Gilmour Ml, Park P, Doerfler D, Selgrade MK. Factors that influence the suppression of pulmonary antibacterial defenses in mice exposed to ozone. Exp Lung Res 1993;19:299-314.
121. 121. Canning BJ, Hmieleski RR, Spannhake EW, Jakab GJ. Ozone reduces murine alveolar and peritoneal macrophage phagocytosis: the role of prostanoids. Am J Physiol 1991;261: L277-L282.
122. 122. Gilmour MI, Selgrade MJK. Modulation of T lymphocyte responses by air pollutants. In: Kimber I, Selgrade MJK, eds. T-lymphocyte subpopulations in immunotoxicology. Chester: John Wiley and Sons; 1998. p. 253-272.
123. 123. Becker S, Jordan RL, Orlando GS, Koren HS. In vitro ozone exposure inhibits mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation and IL-2 production. J Toxicol Environ Health 1989;26:469-483.
124. 124. Ibrahim AL, Zee YC, Osebold JW. The effects of ozone on the respiratory epithelium and alveolar macrophages of mice. I. Interferon production. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1976;152:483-488.
125. + T cells. J Immunol 1996;156:1722-1727.
126. 126. Betz M, Fox BS. Prostaglandin E2 inhibits production of Th1 lymphokines but not of Th2 lymphokines. J Immunol 1991;146:108-113.
127. 127. Snijdewint FG, Kalinski P, Wierenga EA, Bos JD, Kapsenberg ML. Prostaglandin E2 differentially modulates cytokine secretion profiles of human T helper lymphocytes. J Immunol 1993;150:5321-5329.
128. 128. Punjabi CJ, Laskin JD, Pendino KJ, Goller NL, Durham SK, Laskin DL. Production of nitric oxide by rat type II pneumocytes: increased expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase following inhalation of a pulmonary irritant. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1994;11:165-172.
129. 129. Barnes PJ, Liew FY. Nitric oxide and asthmatic inflammation. Immunol Today 1995;16:128-130.
130. 130. Cohen MD, Zelikoff JT, Qu Q, Schlesinger RB. Effects of ozone upon macrophage-interferon interactions. Toxicology 1996;114:243-252.
131. 131. Dreher KL, Jaskot RH, Lehmann JR, Richards JH, McGee JK. Soluble transition metals mediate residual oil fly ash induced acute lung injury. J Toxicol Environ Health 1997;50:285-305.
132. 132. Pritchard RJ, et al. Oxidant generation and lung injury after particulate air pollutant exposure increase with the concentrations of associated metals. Inhal Toxicol 1996;8:457-477.
133. 133. Hatch GE, et al. Inhalable particles and pulmonary host defense: in vivo and in vitro effects of ambient air and combustion particles. Environ Res 1985;36:67-80.
134. 134. Ghio AJ, et al. Metal-dependent expression of ferritin and lactoferrin by respiratory epithelial cells. Am J Physiol 1998;274: L728-L736.
135. 135. Ghio AJ, Carter JD, Dailey LA, Devlin RB, Samet JM. Respiratory epithelial cells demonstrate lactoferrin receptors that increase after metal exposure. Am J Physiol 1999;276: L933-L940.
136. 136. Diamond G, Bevins CL. Endotoxin upregulates expression of an antimicrobial peptide gene in mammalian airway epithelial cells. Chest 1994;105:51S.
137. 137. Wagner JG, Driscoll KE, Roth RA. Inhibition of pulmonary neutrophil trafficking during endotoxemia is dependent on the stimulus for migration. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;20:769-776.
138. 138. Ackermann LW, Wollenweber LA, Denning GM. IL-4 and IFN-γ increase steady state levels of polymeric Ig receptor mRNA in human airway and intestinal epithelial cells. J Immunol 1999;162:5112-5118.
139. 139. Guo FH, Erzurum SC. Characterization of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in human airway epithelium. Environ Health Perspect 1998;106(Suppl 5):1119-1124.
140. 140. Li JD, et al. Transcriptional activation of mucin by Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis lung disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:967-972.