Animal models: An important tool in mycology

Medical Mycology

Volumn 45, Issue 8, 2007, Pages 657-684

  Capilla, Javier ^a,b,c   Clemons, Karl V ^a,b,c   Stevens, David A ^a,b,c  

^a CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^b SANTA CLARA VALLEY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Animal models; Antifungal drugs; Fungal vaccines; Fungal virulence; Fungi; Host response; Mice; Pathogenesis; Rabbits

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BETA 1,3 GLUCANOSYLTRANSFERASE; COCCIDIOIDES IMMITIS VACCINE; COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR 1; CORTICOSTEROID; CPG OLIGODEOXYNUCLEOTIDE; CYTOTOXIC AGENT; ECHINOCANDIN; FLUCONAZOLE; FLUOROURACIL; FUNGUS VACCINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCURONOXYLOMANNAN; GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; HYDROCORTISONE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INTERLEUKIN 12; PENTOXIFYLLINE; PLACEBO; PROLINE RICH ANTIGEN; PYRROLE DERIVATIVE; TERBINAFINE; TETANUS TOXOID; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VORICONAZOLE;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; ADJUVANT THERAPY; ASPERGILLOSIS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CANDIDIASIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCCIDIOIDES IMMITIS; COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CRYPTOCOCCOSIS; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DISEASE MODEL; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG EFFICACY; EXPERIMENTATION; FOOD DRUG INTERACTION; FUNGAL STRAIN; FUNGAL VIRULENCE; GENETIC MANIPULATION; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GRAPEFRUIT JUICE; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; IN VITRO STUDY; INJECTION SITE REACTION; INNATE IMMUNITY; LUNG INFECTION; MONOTHERAPY; MYCOSIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; REVIEW; SCEDOSPORIUM;

ANIMALS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; MYCOLOGY; MYCOSES;

ANIMALIA; FUNGI; MURINAE; MUS; ORYCTOLAGUS CUNICULUS;

EID: 36348967643     PISSN: 13693786     EISSN: 14602709     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13693780701644140     Document Type: Review

References (410)

1. Spellberg, B., Ibrahim, AS, Edwards Jr, JE and Filler, SG. (2005) Mice with disseminated candidiasis die of progressive sepsis. J Infect Dis, 192, pp. 336-343.
2. Imai, J., Singh, G., Fernandez, B., Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2005) Efficacy of Abelcet and caspofungin, alone or in combination, against CNS aspergillosis in a murine model. J Antimicrob Chemother, 56, pp. 166-171.
3. Latge, JP. (1999) Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev, 12, pp. 310-350.
4. Bowman, JC, Abruzzo, GK and Anderson, JW (2001) Quantitative PCR assay to measure Aspergillus fumigatus burden in a murine model of disseminated aspergillosis: Demonstration of efficacy of caspofungin acetate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45, pp. 3474-3481.
5. Singh, G., Imai, J., Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2005) Efficacy of caspofungin against central nervous system Aspergillus fumigatus infection in mice determined by TaqMan PCR and CFU methods. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 49, pp. 1369-1376.
6. Balloy, V., Huerre, M., Latge, JP and Chignard, M. (2005) Differences in patterns of infection and inflammation for corticosteroid treatment and chemotherapy in experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Infect Immun, 73, pp. 494-503.
7. U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment (1986) Alternatives to animal use in research, testing and education, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
8. Tournu, H., Serneels, J. and Van Dijck, P. (2005) Fungal pathogens research: Novel and improved molecular approaches for the discovery of antifungal drug targets. Curr Drug Targets, 6, pp. 909-922.
9. Fuchs, BB and Mylonakis, E. (2006) Using non-mammalian hosts to study fungal virulence and host defense. Curr Opin Microbiol, 9, pp. 346-351.
10. Alarco, AM, Marcil, A. and Chen, J. (2004) Immune-deficient Drosophila melanogaster: A model for the innate immune response to human fungal pathogens. J Immunol, 172, pp. 5622-5628.
11. Chamilos, G., Lionakis, MS and Lewis, RE (2006) Drosophila melanogaster as a facile model for large-scale studies of virulence mechanisms and antifungal drug efficacy in Candida species. J Infect Dis, 193, pp. 1014-1022.
12. Stroschein-Stevenson, SL, Foley, E., O'Farrell, PH and Johnson, AD Identification of Drosophila gene products required for phagocytosis of Candida albicans.
13. Steenbergen, JN, Shuman, HA and Casadevall, A. (2001) Cryptococcus neoformans interactions with amoebae suggest an explanation for its virulence and intracellular pathogenic strategy in macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 98, pp. 15245-15250.
14. Bunting, LA, Neilson, JB and Bulmer, GS. (1979) Cryptococcus neoformans: gastronomic delight of a soil ameba. Sabouraudia, 17, pp. 225-232.
15. Land, KM. (2002) Soil amoebae help to unravel fungal pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol, 10, p. 116.
16. Greub, G. and Raoult, D. (2004) Microorganisms resistant to free-living amoebae. Clin Microbiol Rev, 17, pp. 413-433.
17. Steenbergen, JN, Nosanchuk, JD, Malliaris, SD and Casadevall, A. (2004) Interaction of Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii, and Histoplasma capsulatum with Acanthamoeba castellanii. Infect Immun, 72, pp. 3478-3488.
18. Malliaris, SD, Steenbergen, JN and Casadevall, A. (2004) Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii can exploit Acanthamoeba castellanii for growth. Med Mycol, 42, pp. 149-158.
19. Steenbergen, JN, Nosanchuk, JD, Malliaris, SD and Casadevall, A. (2003) Cryptococcus neoformans virulence is enhanced after growth in the genetically malleable host Dictyostelium discoideum. Infect Immun, 71, pp. 4862-4872.
20. Steinert, M. and Heuner, K. (2005) Dictyostelium as host model for pathogenesis. Cell Microbiol, 7, pp. 307-314.
21. Frases, S., Chaskes, S., Dadachova, E. and Casadevall, A. (2006) Induction by Klebsiella aerogenes of a melanin-like pigment in Cryptococcus neoformans. Appl Environ Microbiol, 72, pp. 1542-1550.
22. Unal, C. and Steinert, M. (2006) Dictyostelium discoideum as a model to study host-pathogen interactions. Methods Mol Biol, 346, pp. 507-515.
23. Mylonakis, E. and Aballay, A. (2005) Worms and flies as genetically tractable animal models to study host-pathogen interactions. Infect Immun, 73, pp. 3833-3841.
24. Balloy, V., Si-Tahar, M. and Takeuchi, O. (2005) Involvement of toll-like receptor 2 in experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Infect Immun, 73, pp. 5420-5425.
25. Lionakis, MS and Kontoyiannis, DP. (2005) Fruit flies as a minihost model for studying drug activity and virulence in Aspergillus. Med Mycol, 43, p. S111.
26. Netea, MG, Van der Graaf, C., Van der Meer, JW and Kullberg, BJ. (2004) Recognition of fungal pathogens by Toll-like receptors. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 23, pp. 672-676.
27. Roeder, A., Kirschning, CJ, Rupec, RA, Schaller, M. and Korting, HC. (2004) Toll-like receptors and innate antifungal responses. Trends Microbiol, 12, pp. 44-49.
28. Renwick, J., Daly, P., Reeves, EP and Kavanagh, K. (2006) Susceptibility of larvae of Galleria mellonella to infection by Aspergillus fumigatus is dependent upon stage of conidial germination. Mycopathologia, 161, pp. 377-384.
29. Reeves, EP, Reiber, K. and Neville, C. (2006) A nonribosomal peptide synthetase (Pes1) confers protection against oxidative stress in Aspergillus fumigatus. FEBS J, 273, pp. 3038-3053.
30. Scully, LR and Bidochka, MJ. (2005) Serial passage of the opportunistic pathogen Aspergillus flavus through an insect host yields decreased saprobic capacity. Can J Microbiol, 51, pp. 185-189.
31. Reeves, EP, Messina, CG, Doyle, S. and Kavanagh, K. (2004) Correlation between gliotoxin production and virulence of Aspergillus fumigatus in Galleria mellonella. Mycopathologia, 158, pp. 73-79.
32. Leger, RJ St., Screen, SE and Shams-Pirzadeh, B. (2000) Lack of host specialization in Aspergillus flavus. Appl Environ Microbiol, 66, pp. 320-324.
33. Bhabhra, R., Miley, MD and Mylonakis, E. (2004) Disruption of the Aspergillus fumigatus gene encoding nucleolar protein CgrA impairs thermotolerant growth and reduces virulence. Infect Immun, 72, pp. 4731-4740.
34. Sorensen, KN, Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (1999) Murine models of blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, and histoplasmosis. Mycopathologia, 146, pp. 53-65.
35. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2005) The contribution of animal models of aspergillosis to understanding pathogenesis, therapy and virulence. Med Mycol, 43, pp. S101-S110.
36. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2006) Animal models testing monotherapy versus combination antifungal therapy: Lessons learned and future directions. Curr Opin Infect Dis, 19, pp. 360-364.
37. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2006) Animal models of Aspergillus infection in preclinical trials, diagnostics and pharmacodynamics: What can we learn from them?. Med Mycol, 44, pp. S119-S126.
38. Polak, A. (1998) Experimental models in antifungal chemotherapy. Mycoses, 41, pp. 1-30.
39. Brummer, E. and Clemons, KV. (1987) Animal models in of systemic mycoses. Animal Models in Medical Mycology, pp. 79-100. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
40. de Repentigny, L. (2004) Animal models in the analysis of Candida host-pathogen interactions. Curr Opin Microbiol, 7, pp. 324-329.
41. Stevens, DA. (1997) Animal models of blastomycosis. Semin Respir Infect, 12, pp. 196-197.
42. Stevens, DA. (1996) Animal models in the evaluation of antifungal drugs. J Mycol Medicale, 6, pp. 7-10.
43. Stevens, DA. (1986) Animal models to evaluate antifungal activity; utility of models in chronic deep mycoses. In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Antifungal Agents, pp. 153-157. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, NY
44. Stewart, NJ and Munday, BL. (2005) Possible differences in pathogenicity between cane toad-, frog- and platypus-derived isolates of Mucor amphibiorum, and a platypus-derived isolate of Mucor circinelloides. Med Mycol, 43, pp. 127-132.
45. Castanon-Olivares, LR, Manzano-Gayosso, P., Lopez-Martinez, R., De la Rosa-Velazquez, IA and Soto-Reyes-Solis, E. (2001) Effectiveness of terbinafine in the eradication of Microsporum canis from laboratory cats. Mycoses, 44, pp. 95-97.
46. Greer, DL and McMurray, DN. (1981) Pathogenesis of experimental histoplasmosis in the bat, Artibeus lituratus. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 30, pp. 653-659.
47. Tesh, RB and Schneidau Jr, JD (1966) Experimental infection of North American insectivorous bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) with Histoplasma capsulatum. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 15, pp. 544-550.
48. Waterston, RH, Lindblad-Toh, K. and Birney, E. (2002) Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome. Nature, 420, pp. 520-562.
49. Williams, PL, Sobel, RA and Sorensen, KN (1998) A model of coccidioidal meningoencephalitis and cerebrospinal vasculitis in the rabbit. J Infect Dis, 178, pp. 1217-1221.
50. Perfect, JR, Lang, SD and Durack, DT. (1980) Chronic cryptococcal meningitis: A new experimental model in rabbits. Am J Pathol, 101, pp. 177-194.
51. Jafari, HS, Saez-Llorens, X. and Grimprel, E. (1991) Characteristics of experimental Candida albicans infection of the central nervous system in rabbits. J Infect Dis, 164, pp. 389-395.
52. Singh, SM, Sharma, S. and Chatterjee, PK. (1990) Clinical and experimental mycotic keratitis caused by Aspergillus terreus and the effect of subconjunctival oxiconazole treatment in the animal model. Mycopathologia, 112, pp. 127-137.
53. Demant, E. and Easterbrook, M. (1977) An experimental model of Candida endophthalmitis. Can J Ophthalmol, 12, pp. 304-307.
54. Goldblum, D., Frueh, BE, Sarra, GM, Katsoulis, K. and Zimmerli, S. (2005) Topical caspofungin for treatment of keratitis caused by Candida albicans in a rabbit model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 49, pp. 1359-1363.
55. Isobe, Y. and Hatano, H. (1992) Study of suppressive effect of intravenous fluconazole on endogenous Candida endophthalmitis in rabbits. Jpn J Ophthalmol, 36, pp. 23-27.
56. O'Day, DM, Head, WS, Robinson, RD, Williams, TE and Wolff, R. (1992) Ocular pharmacokinetics of saperconazole in rabbits. A potential agent against keratomycoses. Arch Ophthalmol, 110, pp. 550-554.
57. Fujita, NK, Henderson, DK, Hockey, LJ, Guze, LB and Edwards Jr, JE (1982) Comparative ocular pathogenicity of Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida glabrata, and Aspergillus fumigatus in the rabbit. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 22, pp. 410-414.
58. Smith, RE, O'Connor, GR, Halde, CJ, Scalarone, MA and Easterbrook, WM. (1973) Clinical course in rabbits after experimental induction of ocular histoplasmosis. Am J Ophthalmol, 76, pp. 284-293.
59. Ishibashi, Y., Kaufman, HE and Kagawa, S. (1986) Comparison of the pathogenicities of Fusarium solani and Candida albicans in the rabbit cornea. J Med Vet Mycol, 24, pp. 369-376.
60. Ishibashi, Y., Kaufman, HE, Matsumoto, T. and Kagawa, S. (1986) The pathogenicities of Cylindrocarpon tonkinense and Fusarium solani in the rabbit cornea. Mycopathologia, 94, pp. 145-152.
61. McGuire, TW, Bullock Jr, JD, Bullock, JD, Elder, BL and Funkhouser, JW. (1991) Fungal endophthalmitis. An experimental study with a review of 17 human ocular cases. Arch Ophthalmol, 109, pp. 1289-1296.
62. Letterio, JJ, Lehrnbecher, T., Pollack, G., Walsh, TJ and Chanock, SJ. (2001) Invasive candidiasis stimulates hepatocyte and monocyte production of active transforming growth factor beta. Infect Immun, 69, pp. 5115-5120.
63. Patterson, TF, Miniter, P. and Dijkstra, J. (1989) Treatment of experimental invasive aspergillosis with novel amphotericin B/ cholesterol-sulfate complexes. J Infect Dis, 159, pp. 717-724.
64. Patterson, TF, Miniter, P., Ryan, JL and Andriole, VT. (1988) Effect of immunosuppression and amphotericin B on Aspergillus antigenemia in an experimental model. J Infect Dis, 158, pp. 415-422.
65. Walsh, TJ, Garrett, K. and Feurerstein, E. (1995) Therapeutic monitoring of experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis by ultrafast computerized tomography, a novel, noninvasive method for measuring responses to antifungal therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 39, pp. 1065-1069.
66. Walsh, TJ, Petraitis, V. and Petraitiene, R. (2003) Experimental pulmonary aspergillosis due to Aspergillus terreus: Pathogenesis and treatment of an emerging fungal pathogen resistant to amphotericin B. J Infect Dis, 188, pp. 305-319.
67. Capilla, J., Yustes, C. and Mayayo, E. (2003) Efficacy of albaconazole (UR-9825) in treatment of disseminated Scedosporium prolificans infection in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, pp. 1948-1951.
68. Chilvers, ER, Spreadbury, CL and Cohen, J. (1989) Bronchoalveolar lavage in an immunosuppressed rabbit model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Mycopathologia, 108, pp. 163-171.
69. Groll, AH, Gonzalez, CE and Giri, N. (1999) Liposomal nystatin against experimental pulmonary aspergillosis in persistently neutropenic rabbits: Efficacy, safety and non-compartmental pharmacokinetics. J Antimicrob Chemother, 43, pp. 95-103.
70. Nakamura, T. (1984) Experimental pulmonary candidiasis in modified rabbits. Histopathological, ultrastructural and enzyme cytochemical studies of tissue reactions. Mycopathologia, 85, pp. 129-144.
71. Nakamura, T. (1985) Experimental pulmonary candidiasis in modified rabbits. II. Immunohistochemical evidence of participation of immune complexes in the formation of fungal lesions in C. albicans-sensitized hosts. Mycopathologia, 92, pp. 93-99.
72. Gross, NT, Jarstrand, C. and Robertson, B. (2000) Treatment of experimental Cryptococcus neoformans infection in newborn rabbits by airway instillation of specific antibody and surfactant. Lett Appl Microbiol, 31, pp. 218-222.
73. Chakrabarti, A., Jatana, M. and Sharma, SC. (1997) Rabbit as an animal model of paranasal sinus mycoses. J Med Vet Mycol, 35, pp. 295-297.
74. Dufour, X., Kauffmann-Lacroix, C. and Goujon, JM (2005) Experimental model of fungal sinusitis: A pilot study in rabbits. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol, 114, pp. 167-172.
75. Kamei, K. (2001) Animal models of zygomycosis-Absidia, Rhizopus, Rhizomucor, and Cunninghamella. Mycopathologia, 152, pp. 5-13.
76. Carrizosa, J., Kohn, C. and Levison, ME. (1975) Experimental aspergillus endocarditis in rabbits. J Lab Clin Med, 86, pp. 746-753.
77. Demierre, G. and Freedman, LR. (1979) Experimental endocarditis: prophylaxis of Candida albicans infections by 5-fluorocytosine in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 16, pp. 252-254.
78. Padula, A. and Chambers, HF. (1989) Evaluation of cilofungin (LY121019) for treatment of experimental Candida albicans endocarditis in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 33, pp. 1822-1823.
79. Kurup, VP and Grunig, G. (2002) Animal models of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Mycopathologia, 153, pp. 165-177.
80. Kurup, VP and Sheth, NK. (1981) Experimental aspergillosis in rabbits. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis, 4, pp. 161-174.
81. Patterson, TF. (2005) The future of animal models of invasive aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 43, pp. S115-S119.
82. Dhuley, JN. (2000) Therapeutic efficacy of hamycin, a polyene antimycotic agent, for experimental cutaneous candidiasis in guinea pigs. Rocz Akad Med Bialymst, 45, pp. 19-25.
83. Sohnle, PG, Frank, MM and Kirkpatrick, CH. (1976) Mechanisms involved in elimination of organisms from experimental cutaneous Candida albicans infections in guinea pigs. J Immunol, 117, pp. 523-530.
84. Palacin, C., Sacristan, A. and Ortiz, JA. (1992) In vivo activity of sertaconazole in experimental dermatophytosis in guinea pigs. Arzneimittelforschung, 42, pp. 714-718.
85. Arika, T., Hase, T. and Yokoo, M. (1993) Anti-Trichophyton mentagrophytes activity and percutaneous permeation of butenafine in guinea pigs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 37, pp. 363-365.
86. Van Cutsem, J., Van Gerven, F., Fransen, J., Schrooten, P. and Janssen, PA. (1990) The in vitro antifungal activity of ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione, and selenium sulfide against Pityrosporum and their efficacy as a shampoo in the treatment of experimental pityrosporosis in guinea pigs. J Am Acad Dermatol, 22, pp. 993-998.
87. Tatsumi, Y., Yokoo, M., Senda, H. and Kakehi, K. (2002) Therapeutic efficacy of topically applied KP-103 against experimental tinea unguium in guinea pigs in comparison with amorolfine and terbinafine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 46, pp. 3797-3801.
88. Kirkpatrick, WR, McAtee, RK, Fothergill, AW, Rinaldi, MG and Patterson, TF. (2000) Efficacy of voriconazole in a guinea pig model of disseminated invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 44, pp. 2865-2868.
89. Kirkpatrick, WR, Perea, S., Coco, BJ and Patterson, TF. (2002) Efficacy of ravuconazole (BMS-207147) in a guinea pig model of disseminated aspergillosis. J Antimicrob Chemother, 49, pp. 353-357.
90. Kirkpatrick, WR, Perea, S., Coco, BJ and Patterson, TF. (2002) Efficacy of caspofungin alone and in combination with voriconazole in a guinea pig model of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 46, pp. 2564-2568.
91. Kirkpatrick, WR, Coco, BJ and Patterson, TF. (2006) Sequential or combination antifungal therapy with voriconazole and liposomal amphotericin B in a guinea pig model of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50, pp. 1567-1569.
92. Arrese, JE, Delvenne, P., Van Cutsem, J., Pierard-Franchimont, C. and Pierard, GE. (1994) Experimental aspergillosis in guinea pigs: Influence of itraconazole on fungaemia and invasive fungal growth. Mycoses, 37, pp. 117-122.
93. Riera, CM, Masih, DT and Nobile, R. (1983) Experimental cryptococcosis in guinea pigs. Mycopathologia, 82, pp. 179-184.
94. Capilla, J. and Guarro, J. (2004) Correlation between in vitro susceptibility of Scedosporium apiospermum to voriconazole and in vivo outcome of scedosporiosis in guinea pigs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 48, pp. 4009-4011.
95. Martin, MV, Yates, J. and Hitchcock, CA. (1997) Comparison of voriconazole (UK-109,496) and itraconazole in prevention and treatment of Aspergillus fumigatus endocarditis in guinea pigs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, pp. 13-16.
96. Schlitzer, RL, Chandler, FW and Larsh, HW. (1981) Primary acute histoplasmosis in guinea pigs exposed to aerosolized Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun, 33, pp. 575-582.
97. Serena, C., Gilgado, F., Marine, M., Pastor, FJ and Guarro, J. (2006) Efficacy of voriconazole in a guinea pig model of invasive trichosporonosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50, pp. 2240-2243.
98. Capilla, J., Serena, C., Pastor, FJ, Ortoneda, M. and Guarro, J. (2003) Efficacy of voriconazole in treatment of systemic scedosporiosis in neutropenic mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, pp. 3976-3978.
99. Chandrasekar, PH, Cutright, J. and Manavathu, E. (2000) Efficacy of voriconazole against invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in a guinea-pig model. J Antimicrob Chemother, 45, pp. 673-676.
100. Graybill, JR, Najvar, LK, Gonzalez, GM, Hernandez, S. and Bocanegra, R. (2003) Improving the mouse model for studying the efficacy of voriconazole. J Antimicrob Chemother, 51, pp. 1373-1376.
101. Sugar, AM and Liu, XP. (2001) Efficacy of voriconazole in treatment of murine pulmonary blastomycosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45, pp. 601-604.
102. Andes, D., Marchillo, K., Stamstad, T. and Conklin, R. (2003) In vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a new triazole, voriconazole, in a murine candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, pp. 3165-3169.
103. Fenske, M. (1992) Body weight and water intake of guinea pigs: Influence of single caging and an unfamiliar new room. J Exp Anim Sci, 35, pp. 71-79.
104. Hennessy, MB. (1999) Social influences on endocrine activity in guinea pigs, with comparisons to findings in nonhuman primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 23, pp. 687-698.
105. Tell, LA. (2005) Aspergillosis in mammals and birds: Impact on veterinary medicine. Med Mycol, 43, pp. S71-S73.
106. Tell, LA, Craigmill, AL and Clemons, KV (2005) Studies on itraconazole delivery and pharmacokinetics in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). J Vet Pharmacol Ther, 28, pp. 267-274.
107. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2002) Immunomodulation of fungal infections: Do immunomodulators have a role in treating mycoses?. EOS Riv Immunol Immunofarmacol, 22, pp. 29-32.
108. Steinbach, WJ, Benjamin Jr, DK and Trasi, SA (2004) Value of an inhalational model of invasive aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 42, pp. 417-425.
109. Morozumi, PA, Brummer, E. and Stevens, DA. (1981) Strain differences in resistance to infection reversed by route of challenge: Studies in blastomycosis. Infect Immun, 34, pp. 623-625.
110. Curtis, JL, Huffnagle, GB and Chen, GH (1994) Experimental murine pulmonary cryptococcosis. Differences in pulmonary inflammation and lymphocyte recruitment induced by two encapsulated strains of Cryptococcus neoformans. Lab Invest, 71, pp. 113-126.
111. Mitchell, TG and Perfect, JR. (1995) Cryptococcosis in the era of AIDS - 100 years after the discovery of Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Microbiol Rev, 8, pp. 515-548.
112. Ortoneda, M., Pastor, FJ, Mayayo, E. and Guarro, J. (2002) Comparison of the virulence of Scedosporium prolificans strains from different origins in a murine model. J Med Microbiol, 51, pp. 924-928.
113. Cano, J., Guarro, J., Mayayo, E. and Fernandez-Ballart, J. (1992) Experimental infection with Scedosporium inflatum. J Med Vet Mycol, 30, pp. 413-420.
114. Kan, VL and Bennett, JE. (1988) Efficacies of four antifungal agents in experimental murine sporotrichosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 32, pp. 1619-1623.
115. Brummer, E., Castaneda, E. and Restrepo, A. (1993) Paracoccidioidomycosis: An update. Clin Microbiol Rev, 6, pp. 89-117.
116. Kudeken, N., Kawakami, K., Kusano, N. and Saito, A. (1996) Cell-mediated immunity in host resistance against infection caused by Penicillium marneffei. J Med Vet Mycol, 34, pp. 371-378.
117. Carmeno-Vivas, JR, Torres-Rodriguez, JM, Corominas, JM and Madrenys, N. (1998) Pathogenicity of Hansenula anomala in a model of immunocompromised mice. Mycopathologia, 144, pp. 67-71.
118. Mayayo, E., Pujol, I. and Guarro, J. (1999) Experimental pathogenicity of four opportunist Fusarium species in a murine model. J Med Microbiol, 48, pp. 363-366.
119. Chiller, TM, Luque, JC and Sobel, RA (2002) Development of a murine model of cerebral aspergillosis. J Infect Dis, 186, pp. 574-577.
120. Blasi, E., Barluzzi, R., Mazzolla, R., Mosci, P. and Bistoni, F. (1992) Experimental model of intracerebral infection with Cryptococcus neoformans: Roles of phagocytes and opsonization. Infect Immun, 60, pp. 3682-3688.
121. Chiller, TM, Sobel, RA, Luque, JC, Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2003) Efficacy of amphotericin B or itraconazole in a murine model of central nervous system Aspergillus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, pp. 813-815.
122. Capilla, J., Mayayo, E., Serena, C., Pastor, FJ and Guarro, J. (2004) A novel murine model of cerebral scedosporiosis: Lack of efficacy of amphotericin B. J Antimicrob Chemother, 54, pp. 1092-1095.
123. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, BK. (2002) Central nervous system aspergillosis: a 20-year retrospective series. Hum Pathol, 33, pp. 116-124.
124. Allendoerfer, R., Yates, RR and Marquis, AJ (1992) Comparison of SCH 39304 and its isomers, RR 42427 and SS 42426, for treatment of murine cryptococcal and coccidioidal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 36, pp. 217-219.
125. Graybill, JR, Sun, SH and Ahrens, J. (1986) Treatment of murine coccidioidal meningitis with fluconazole (UK 49,858). J Med Vet Mycol, 24, pp. 113-119.
126. Haynes, RR, Connolly, PA and Durkin, MM (2002) Antifungal therapy for central nervous system histoplasmosis, using a newly developed intracranial model of infection. J Infect Dis, 185, pp. 1830-1832.
127. Hossain, MA, Mukherjee, PK, Reyes, G., Long, L. and Ghannoum, MA. (2002) Effects of fluconazole singly and in combination with 5-fluorocytosine or amphotericin B in the treatment of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in an intracranial murine model. J Chemother, 14, pp. 351-360.
128. Craven, PC and Graybill, JR. (1984) Combination of oral flucytosine and ketoconazole as therapy for experimental cryptococcal meningitis. J Infect Dis, 149, pp. 584-590.
129. Kamberi, P., Sobel, RA and Clemons, KV (2003) A murine model of coccidioidal meningitis. J Infect Dis, 187, pp. 453-460.
130. Harvey, RP, Schmid, ES, Carrington, CC and Stevens, DA. (1978) Mouse model of pulmonary blastomycosis: Utility, simplicity, and quantitative parameters. Am Rev Respir Dis, 117, pp. 695-703.
131. Lima, C. and Vital, JP. (1994) Olfactory mucosa response in guinea pigs following intranasal instillation with Cryptococcus neoformans. A histological and immunocytochemical study. Mycopathologia, 126, pp. 65-73.
132. Waldorf, AR, Halde, C. and Vedros, NA. (1982) Murine model of pulmonary mucormycosis in cortisone-treated mice. Sabouraudia, 20, pp. 217-224.
133. Osier, M. and Oberdorster, G. (1997) Intratracheal inhalation vs intratracheal instillation: Differences in particle effects. Fundam Appl Toxicol, 40, pp. 220-227.
134. Sheppard, DC, Graybill, JR and Najvar, LK (2006) Standardization of an experimental murine model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50, pp. 3501-3503.
135. Sheppard, DC, Rieg, G. and Chiang, LY (2004) Novel inhalational murine model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 48, pp. 1908-1911.
136. Cole, GT, Halawa, AA and Anaissie, EJ. (1996) The role of the gastrointestinal tract in hematogenous candidiasis: From the laboratory to the bedside. Clin Infect Dis, 22, p. S73.
137. Samaranayake, YH and Samaranayake, LP. (2001) Experimental oral candidiasis in animal models. Clin Microbiol Rev, 14, pp. 398-429.
138. Cole, GT, Lynn, KT and Seshan, KR. (1990) An animal model for oropharyngeal, esophageal and gastric candidosis. Mycoses, 33, pp. 7-19.
139. Clemons, KV, Gonzalez, GM and Singh, G. (2006) Development of an orogastrointestinal mucosal model of candidiasis with dissemination to visceral organs. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50, pp. 2650-2657.
140. Samonis, G., Karyotakis, NC and Anaissie, EJ (1996) Effects of cyclophosphamide and ceftriaxone on gastrointestinal colonization of mice by Candida albicans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 40, pp. 2221-2223.
141. Sandovsky-Losica, H., Barr-Nea, L. and Segal, E. (1992) Fatal systemic candidiasis of gastrointestinal origin: An experimental model in mice compromised by anti-cancer treatment. J Med Vet Mycol, 30, pp. 219-231.
142. Sandovsky-Losica, H. and Segal, E. (1989) Interaction of Candida albicans with murine gastrointestinal mucosa: Effect of irradiation on adherence in vitro. J Med Vet Mycol, 27, pp. 345-352.
143. Sandovsky-Losica, H. and Segal, E. (1990) Interaction of Candida albicans with murine gastrointestinal mucosa from methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil treated animals: In vitro adhesion and prevention. J Med Vet Mycol, 28, pp. 279-287.
144. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2000) Treatment of orogastrointestinal candidosis in SCID mice with fluconazole alone or in combination with recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor or interferon-gamma. Med Mycol. 38, pp. 213-219.
145. Narayanan, R., Joyce, WA and Greenfield, RA. (1991) Gastrointestinal candidiasis in a murine model of severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome. Infect Immun, 59, pp. 2116-2119.
146. Fidel Jr, PL and Sobel, JD. (1996) Immunopathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev, 9, pp. 335-348.
147. Sobel, JD, Muller, G. and McCormick, JF. (1985) Experimental chronic vaginal candidosis in rats. Sabouraudia, 23, pp. 199-206.
148. Steele, C., Ratterree, M. and Fidel Jr, PL (1999) Differential susceptibility of two species of macaques to experimental vaginal candidiasis. J Infect Dis, 180, pp. 802-810.
149. Fidel Jr, PL, Cutright, J. and Steele, C. (2000) Effects of reproductive hormones on experimental vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun, 68, pp. 651-657.
150. Spearow, JL, O'Henley, P. and Doemeny, P. (2001) Genetic variation in physiological sensitivity to estrogen in mice. APMIS, 109, pp. 356-364.
151. Calderon, L., Williams, R., Martinez, M., Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2003) Genetic susceptibility to vaginal candidiasis. Med Mycol, 41, pp. 143-147.
152. Clemons, KV, Spearow, JL, Parmar, R., Espiritu, M. and Stevens, DA. (2004) Genetic susceptibility of mice to Candida albicans vaginitis correlates with host estrogen sensitivity. Infect Immun, 72, pp. 4878-4880.
153. De Bernardis, F., Cassone, A., Sturtevant, J. and Calderone, R. (1995) Expression of Candida albicans SAP1 and SAP2 in experimental vaginitis. Infect Immun, 63, pp. 1887-1892.
154. de Bernardis, F., Morelli, L., Ceddia, T., Lorenzini, R. and Cassone, A. (1990) Experimental pathogenicity and acid proteinase secretion of vaginal isolates of Candida parapsilosis. J Med Vet Mycol, 28, pp. 125-137.
155. Fidel Jr, PL, Cutright, JL, Tait, L. and Sobel, JD. (1996) A murine model of Candida glabrata vaginitis. J Infect Dis, 173, pp. 425-431.
156. Fidel Jr, PL, Lynch, ME, Conaway, DH, Tait, L. and Sobel, JD. (1995) Mice immunized by primary vaginal Candida albicans infection develop acquired vaginal mucosal immunity. Infect Immun, 63, pp. 547-553.
157. Fidel Jr, PL, Lynch, ME and Sobel, JD. (1993) Candida-specific cell-mediated immunity is demonstrable in mice with experimental vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun, 61, pp. 1990-1995.
158. Fidel Jr, PL and Sobel, JD. (1998) Protective immunity in experimental Candida vaginitis. Res Immunol, 149, pp. 361-373.
159. MacCallum, DM and Odds, FC. (2005) Temporal events in the intravenous challenge model for experimental Candida albicans infections in female mice. Mycoses, 48, pp. 151-161.
160. Baghian, A. and Lee, KW. (1989) Systemic candidosis in beige mice. J Med Vet Mycol, 27, pp. 51-55.
161. Capilla, J., Maffei, CM, Clemons, KV, Sobel, RA and Stevens, DA. (2006) Experimental systemic infection with Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and Cryptococcus gattii in normal and immunodeficient mice. Med Mycol, 44, pp. 601-610.
162. Kwon-Chung, KJ and Rhodes, JC. (1986) Encapsulation and melanin formation as indicators of virulence in Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun, 51, pp. 218-223.
163. Jacobson, ES. (2000) Pathogenic roles for fungal melanins. Clin Microbiol Rev, 13, pp. 708-717.
164. Nosanchuk, JD and Casadevall, A. (2003) The contribution of melanin to microbial pathogenesis. Cell Microbiol, 5, pp. 203-223.
165. Kwon-Chung, KJ, Polacheck, I. and Popkin, TJ. (1982) Melanin-lacking mutants of Cryptococcus neoformans and their virulence for mice. J Bacteriol, 150, pp. 1414-1421.
166. Dixon, DM, Polak, A. and Szaniszlo, PJ. (1987) Pathogenicity and virulence of wild-type and melanin-deficient Wangiella dermatitidis. J Med Vet Mycol, 25, pp. 97-106.
167. Dixon, DM, Migliozzi, J. and Cooper Jr, CR (1992) Melanized and non-melanized multicellular form mutants of Wangiella dermatitidis in mice: Mortality and histopathology studies. Mycoses, 35, pp. 17-21.
168. Jahn, B., Koch, A. and Schmidt, A. (1997) Isolation and characterization of a pigmentless-conidium mutant of Aspergillus fumigatus with altered conidial surface and reduced virulence. Infect Immun, 65, pp. 5110-5117.
169. Tsai, HF, Chang, YC, Washburn, RG, Wheeler, MH and Kwon-Chung, KJ. (1998) The developmentally regulated alb1 gene of Aspergillus fumigatus: its role in modulation of conidial morphology and virulence. J Bacteriol, 180, pp. 3031-3038.
170. Ikeda, R., Sugita, T., Jacobson, ES and Shinoda, T. (2003) Effects of melanin upon susceptibility of Cryptococcus to antifungals. Microbiol Immunol, 47, pp. 271-277.
171. Doering, TL, Nosanchuk, JD, Roberts, WK and Casadevall, A. (1999) Melanin as a potential cryptococcal defence against microbicidal proteins. Med Mycol, 37, pp. 175-181.
172. Clemons, KV, McCusker, JH, Davis, RW and Stevens, DA. (1994) Comparative pathogenesis of clinical and nonclinical isolates of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Infect Dis, 169, pp. 859-867.
173. Byron, JK, Clemons, KV, McCusker, JH, Davis, RW and Stevens, DA. (1995) Pathogenicity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in complement factor five-deficient mice. Infect Immun, 63, pp. 478-485.
174. Kwon-Chung, K. (1998) Gene disruption to evaluate the role of fungal candidate virulence genes. Curr Opin Microbiol, 1, pp. 381-389.
175. Calderone, RA and Fonzi, WA. (2001) Virulence factors of Candida albicans. Trends Microbiol, 9, pp. 327-335.
176. Casadevall, A. (2005) Fungal virulence, vertebrate endothermy, and dinosaur extinction: Is there a connection?. Fungal Genet Biol, 42, pp. 98-106.
177. Deepe Jr, GS, Romani, L. and Calich, VL (2000) Knockout mice as experimental models of virulence. Med Mycol, 38, pp. S87-S98.
178. Hamilton, AJ and Holdom, MD. (1999) Antioxidant systems in the pathogenic fungi of man and their role in virulence. Med Mycol, 37, pp. 375-389.
179. Haynes, K. (2001) Virulence in Candida species. Trends Microbiol, 9, pp. 591-596.
180. Hogan, LH, Klein, BS and Levitz, SM. (1996) Virulence factors of medically important fungi. Clin Microbiol Rev, 9, pp. 469-488.
181. Mitchell, AP. (1998) Dimorphism and virulence in Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol, 1, pp. 687-692.
182. Navarro-Garcia, F., Sanchez, M., Nombela, C. and Pla, J. (2001) Virulence genes in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 25, pp. 245-268.
183. Odds, FC, Gow, NA and Brown, AJ Fungal virulence studies come of age.
184. San-Blas, G., Travassos, LR and Fries, BC (2000) Fungal morphogenesis and virulence. Med Mycol, 38, pp. S79-S86.
185. Tomee, JF and Kauffman, HF. (2000) Putative virulence factors of Aspergillus fumigatus. Clin Exp Allergy, 30, pp. 476-484.
186. Yang, YL. (2003) Virulence factors of Candida species. J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 36, pp. 223-228.
187. Laprade, L., Boyartchuk, VL, Dietrich, WF and Winston, F. (2002) Spt3
188. Gale, CA, Bendel, CM and McClellan, M. (1998) Linkage of adhesion, filamentous growth, and virulence in Candida albicans to a single gene, INT1. Science, 279, pp. 1355-1358.
189. Bendel, CM, Kinneberg, KM and Jechorek, RP (1999) Systemic infection following intravenous inoculation of mice with Candida albicans int1 mutant strains. Mol Genet Metab, 67, pp. 343-351.
190. Braun, BR and Johnson, AD. (2000) TUP1, CPH1 and EFG1 make independent contributions to filamentation in Candida albicans. Genetics, 155, pp. 57-67.
191. Lo, HJ, Kohler, JR and DiDomenico, B. (1997) Nonfilamentous C. albicans mutants are avirulent. Cell, 90, pp. 939-949.
192. Rementeria, A., Lopez-Molina, N. and Ludwig, A. (2005) Genes and molecules involved in Aspergillus fumigatus virulence. Rev Iberoam Micol, 22, pp. 1-23.
193. Mellado, E., Aufauvre-Brown, A., Gow, NA and Holden, DW. (1996) The Aspergillus fumigatus chsC and chsG genes encode class III chitin synthases with different functions. Mol Microbiol, 20, pp. 667-679.
194. Aufauvre-Brown, A., Mellado, E., Gow, NA and Holden, DW. (1996) Aspergillus fumigatus chsE: A gene related to CHS3 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and important for hyphal growth and conidiophore development but not pathogenicity. Fungal Genet Biol, 21, pp. 141-152.
195. Panepinto, JC, Oliver, BG and Fortwendel, JR (2003) Deletion of the Aspergillus fumigatus gene encoding the Ras-related protein RhbA reduces virulence in a model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Infect Immun, 71, pp. 2819-2826.
196. Clemons, KV, Miller, TK, Selitrennikoff, CP and Stevens, DA. (2002) Fos-1, a putative histidine kinase as a virulence factor for systemic aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 40, pp. 259-262.
197. Langfelder, K., Jahn, B. and Gehringer, H. (1998) Identification of a polyketide synthase gene (pksP) of Aspergillus fumigatus involved in conidial pigment biosynthesis and virulence. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl), 187, pp. 79-89.
198. Selitrennikoff, CP, Alex, L. and Miller, TK (2001) COS-l, a putative two-component histidine kinase of Candida albicans, is an in vivo virulence factor. Med Mycol, 39, pp. 69-74.
199. Calera, JA and Calderone, R. (1999) Histidine kinase, two-component signal transduction proteins of Candida albicans and the pathogenesis of candidosis. Mycoses, 42, pp. S49-S53.
200. Bader, T., Bodendorfer, B., Schroppel, K. and Morschhauser, J. (2003) Calcineurin is essential for virulence in Candida albicans. Infect Immun, 71, pp. 5344-5354.
201. Alspaugh, JA, Perfect, JR and Heitman, J. (1998) Signal transduction pathways regulating differentiation and pathogenicity of Cryptococcus neoformans. Fungal Genet Biol, 25, pp. 1-14.
202. Steinbach, WJ, Cramer Jr, RA and Perfect, BZ (2006) Calcineurin controls growth, morphology, and pathogenicity in Aspergillus fumigatus. Eukary Cell, 5, pp. 1091-1103.
203. Cummings, CA and Relman, DA. (2000) Using DNA microarrays to study host-microbe interactions. Emerg Infect Dis, 6, pp. 513-525.
204. Cummings, CA and Relman, DA. (2002) Genomics and microbiology. Microbial forensics-'cross-examining pathogens'. Science, 296, pp. 1976-1979.
205. Staib, P., Kretschmar, M. and Nichterlein, T. (1999) Host-induced, stage-specific virulence gene activation in Candida albicans during infection. Mol Microbiol, 32, pp. 533-546.
206. Retallack, DM, Deepe Jr, GS and Woods, JP. (2000) Applying in vivo expression technology (IVET) to the fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum. Microb Pathog, 28, pp. 169-182.
207. Langfelder, K., Philippe, B., Jahn, B., Latge, JP and Brakhage, AA. (2001) Differential expression of the Aspergillus fumigatus pksP gene detected in vitro and in vivo with green fluorescent protein. Infect Immun, 69, pp. 6411-6418.
208. Goldstein, AL and McCusker, JH. (2001) Development of Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model pathogen. A system for the genetic identification of gene products required for survival in the mammalian host environment. Genetics, 159, pp. 499-513.
209. Nelson, RT, Hua, J., Pryor, B. and Lodge, JK. (2001) Identification of virulence mutants of the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans using signature-tagged mutagenesis. Genetics, 157, pp. 935-947.
210. Brown, JS, Aufauvre-Brown, A. and Brown, J. (2000) Signature-tagged and directed mutagenesis identify PABA synthetase as essential for Aspergillus fumigatus pathogenicity. Mol Microbiol, 36, pp. 1371-1380.
211. Zhang, L., Wang, M. and Calderone, R. (2005) Expression of Aspergillus fumigatus virulence-related genes detected in vitro and in vivo with competitive RT-PCR. Mycopathologia, 160, pp. 201-206.
212. Steen, BR, Zuyderduyn, S. and Toffaletti, DL (2003) Cryptococcus neoformans gene expression during experimental cryptococcal meningitis. Eukary Cell, 2, pp. 1336-1349.
213. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2001) Overview of host defense mechanisms in systemic mycoses and the basis for immunotherapy. Semin Respir Infect, 16, pp. 60-66.
214. Romani, L. (2004) Immunity to fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol, 4, pp. 1-23.
215. Chang, YC, Segal, BH, Holland, SM, Miller, GF and Kwon-Chung, KJ. (1998) Virulence of catalase-deficient Aspergillus nidulans in p47(phox)-/- mice. Implications for fungal pathogenicity and host defense in chronic granulomatous disease. J Clin Invest, 101, pp. 1843-1850.
216. Perfect, JR, Wong, B., Chang, YC, Kwon-Chung, KJ and Williamson, PR. (1998) Cryptococcus neoformans: Virulence and host defences. Med Mycol, 36, pp. S79-S86.
217. Cheers, C. and Waller, R. (1975) Activated macrophages in congenitally athymic 'nude mice' and in lethally irradiate mice. J Immunol, 115, pp. 844-847.
218. Cutler, JE. (1976) Acute systemic candidiasis in normal and congenitally thymic-deficient (nude) mice. J Reticuloendothel Soc, 19, pp. 121-124.
219. Huffnagle, GB and Deepe, GS. (2003) Innate and adaptive determinants of host susceptibility to medically important fungi. Curr Opin Microbiol, 6, pp. 344-350.
220. Zaas, AK. (2006) Host genetics affect susceptibility to invasive aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 44, pp. S55-S60.
221. Hector, RF, Domer, JE and Carrow, EW. (1982) Immune responses to Candida albicans in genetically distinct mice. Infect Immun, 38, pp. 1020-1028.
222. Hector, RF, Yee, E. and Collins, MS. (1990) Use of DBA/2N mice in models of systemic candidiasis and pulmonary and systemic aspergillosis. Infect Immun, 58, pp. 1476-1478.
223. Kirkland, TN and Fierer, J. (1983) Inbred mouse strains differ in resistance to lethal Coccidioides immitis infection. Infect Immun, 40, pp. 912-916.
224. Madan, T., Reid, KB, Singh, M., Sarma, PU and Kishore, U. (2005) Susceptibility of mice genetically deficient in the surfactant protein (SP)-A or SP-D gene to pulmonary hypersensitivity induced by antigens and allergens of Aspergillus fumigatus. J Immunol, 174, pp. 6943-6954.
225. Lassnig, C., Kolb, A., Strobl, B., Enjuanes, L. and Muller, M. (2005) Studying human pathogens in animal models: Fine tuning the humanized mouse. Transgenic Res, 14, pp. 803-806.
226. Hohl, TM, Rivera, A. and Pamer, EG. (2006) Immunity to fungi. Curr Opin Immunol, 18, pp. 465-472.
227. Kullberg, BJ. (1997) Trends in immunotherapy of fungal infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 16, pp. 51-55.
228. Stevens, DA, Walsh, TJ and Bistoni, F. (1998) Cytokines and mycoses. Med Mycol, 36, pp. S174-S182.
229. Kullberg, BJ and Anaissie, EJ. (1998) Cytokines as therapy for opportunistic fungal infections. Res Immunol, 149, pp. 478-488.
230. Feldmesser, M., Mednick, A. and Casadevall, A. (2002) Antibody-mediated protection in murine Cryptococcus neoformans infection is associated with pleotrophic effects on cytokine and leukocyte responses. Infect Immun, 70, pp. 1571-1580.
231. Lortholary, O., Improvisi, L., Fitting, C., Cavaillon, JM and Dromer, F. (2002) Influence of gender and age on course of infection and cytokine responses in mice with disseminated Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Clin Microbiol Infect, 8, pp. 31-37.
232. Cain, JA and Deepe Jr, GS (1998) Evolution of the primary immune response to Histoplasma capsulatum in murine lung. Infect Immun, 66, pp. 1473-1481.
233. Awasthi, S. and Magee, DM. (2004) Differences in expression of cell surface co-stimulatory molecules, Toll-like receptor genes and secretion of IL-12 by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells from susceptible and resistant mouse strains in response to Coccidioides posadasii. Cell Immunol, 231, pp. 49-55.
234. Mdel, P Jimenez, Walls, L. and Fierer, J. (2006) High levels of interleukin-10 impair resistance to pulmonary coccidioidomycosis in mice in part through control of nitric oxide synthase 2 expression. Infect Immun, 74, pp. 3387-3395.
235. Cenci, E., Perito, S. and Enssle, KH (1997) Th1 and Th2 cytokines in mice with invasive aspergillosis. Infect Immun, 65, pp. 564-570.
236. Huffnagle, GB. (1996) Role of cytokines in T cell immunity to a pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Biol Signals, 5, pp. 215-222.
237. Wright, TW, Johnston, CJ, Harmsen, AG and Finkelstein, JN. (1997) Analysis of cytokine mRNA profiles in the lungs of Pneumocystis carinii-infected mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 17, pp. 491-500.
238. Cenci, E., Mencacci, A. and d'Ostiani, C Fe (1998) Cytokine- and T helper-dependent lung mucosal immunity in mice with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Infect Dis, 178, pp. 1750-1760.
239. Centeno-Lima, S., Silveira, H., Casimiro, C., Aguiar, P. and Rosario, VE. do (2002) Kinetics of cytokine expression in mice with invasive aspergillosis: Lethal infection and protection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol, 32, pp. 167-173.
240. Maffei, CM, Mirels, LF, Sobel, RA, Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2004) Cytokine and inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression during experimental murine cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. Infect Immun, 72, pp. 2338-2349.
241. Schelenz, S., Smith, DA and Bancroft, GJ. (1999) Cytokine and chemokine responses following pulmonary challenge with Aspergillus fumigatus: obligatory role of TNF-α and GM-CSF in neutrophil recruitment. Med Mycol, 37, pp. 183-194.
242. Sisto, F., Miluzio, A. and Leopardi, O. (2003) Differential cytokine pattern in the spleens and livers of BALB/c mice infected with Penicillium marneffei: Protective role of gamma interferon. Infect Immun, 71, pp. 465-473.
243. Taylor, BN, Saavedra, M. and Fidel Jr, PL (2000) Local Th1/Th2 cytokine production during experimental vaginal candidiasis: Potential importance of transforming growth factor-β. Med Mycol, 38, pp. 419-431.
244. Wright, TW, Johnston, CJ, Harmsen, AG and Finkelstein, JN. (1999) Chemokine gene expression during Pneumocystis carinii-driven pulmonary inflammation. Infect Immun, 67, pp. 3452-3460.
245. Zucker, KE, Kamberi, P. and Sobel, RA (2006) Temporal expression of inflammatory mediators in brain basilar artery vasculitis and cerebrospinal fluid of rabbits with coccidioidal meningitis. Clin Exp Immunol, 143, pp. 458-466.
246. Pasquier, L. Du (2001) The immune system of invertebrates and vertebrates. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol, 129, pp. 1-15.
247. Kozel, TR. (1996) Activation of the complement system by pathogenic fungi. Clin Microbiol Rev, 9, pp. 34-46.
248. Kozel, TR. (1998) Complement activation by pathogenic fungi. Res Immunol, 149, pp. 309-320.
249. Rosas, AL, MacGill, RS, Nosanchuk, JD, Kozel, TR and Casadevall, A. (2002) Activation of the alternative complement pathway by fungal melanins. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol, 9, pp. 144-148.
250. Ashman, RB, Papadimitriou, JM and Fulurija, A. (2003) Role of complement C5 and T lymphocytes in pathogenesis of disseminated and mucosal candidiasis in susceptible DBA/2 mice. Microb Pathol, 34, pp. 103-113.
251. Lyon, FL, Hector, RF and Domer, JE. (1986) Innate and acquired immune responses against Candida albicans in congenic B10.D2 mice with deficiency of the C5 complement component. J Med Vet Mycol, 24, pp. 359-367.
252. Brown, GD, Herre, J. and Williams, DL (2003) Dectin-1 mediates the biological effects of beta-glucans. J Exp Med, 197, pp. 1119-1124.
253. Herre, J., Gordon, S. and Brown, GD. (2004) Dectin-1 and its role in the recognition of beta-glucans by macrophages. Mol Immunol, 40, pp. 869-876.
254. Romani, L., Bistoni, F. and Puccetti, P. (2002) Fungi, dendritic cells and receptors: A host perspective of fungal virulence. Trends Microbiol, 10, pp. 508-514.
255. Underhill, DM, Ozinsky, A. and Hajjar, AM (1999) The Toll-like receptor 2 is recruited to macrophage phagosomes and discriminates between pathogens. Nature, 401, pp. 811-815.
256. Wallis, R., Dodds, AW and Mitchell, DA (2007) Molecular interactions between MASP-2, C4 and C2 and their activation fragments leading to complement activation via the lectin pathway. J Biol Chem, pp. 7844-7851.
257. Worthley, DL, Bardy, PG and Mullighan, CG. (2005) Mannose-binding lectin: Biology and clinical implications. Intern Med J, 35, pp. 548-555.
258. Eisen, DP and Minchinton, RM. (2003) Impact of mannose-binding lectin on susceptibility to infectious diseases. Clin Infect Dis, 37, pp. 1496-1505.
259. Jack, DL and Turner, MW. (2003) Anti-microbial activities of mannose-binding lectin. Biochem Soc Trans, 31, pp. 753-757.
260. Jensenius, JC, Jensen, PH, McGuire, K., Larsen, JL and Thiel, S. (2003) Recombinant mannan-binding lectin (MBL) for therapy. Biochem Soc Trans, 31, pp. 763-767.
261. Turner, MW. (2003) The role of mannose-binding lectin in health and disease. Mol Immunol, 40, pp. 423-429.
262. Wanyiri, J. and Ward, H. (2006) Association of mannose-binding lectin deficiency with cryptosporidiosis. Clin Infect Dis, 43, pp. 295-296.
263. Podolsky, MJ, Lasker, A. and Flaminio, MJ (2006) Characterization of an equine mannose-binding lectin and its roles in disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 343, pp. 928-936.
264. Moller-Kristensen, M., Ip, WK and Shi, L. (2006) Deficiency of mannose-binding lectin greatly increases susceptibility to postburn infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Immunol, 176, pp. 1769-1775.
265. Moens, L., Van Hoeyveld, E. and Peetermans, WE (2006) Mannose-binding lectin genotype and invasive pneumococcal infection. Hum Immunol, 67, pp. 605-611.
266. Liu, F., Liao, Q. and Liu, Z. (2006) Mannose-binding lectin and vulvovaginal candidiasis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 92, pp. 43-47.
267. Clemons, KV, Martinez, M., Axelsen, M. and Stevens, DA (2006) Intersci Conf Antimicrob Agents Chemother, Am. Soc. Microbiol, San Francisco
268. Crouch, E., Hartshorn, K. and Ofek, I. (2000) Collectins and pulmonary innate immunity. Immunol Rev, 173, pp. 52-65.
269. Crouch, EC. (2000) Surfactant protein-D and pulmonary host defense. Respir Res, 1, pp. 93-108.
270. Awasthi, S., Magee, DM and Coalson, JJ. (2004) Coccidioides posadasii infection alters the expression of pulmonary surfactant proteins (SP)-A and SP-D. Respir Res, 5, p. 28.
271. Kishor, U., Madan, T. and Sarma, PU (2002) Protective roles of pulmonary surfactant proteins, SP-A and SP-D, against lung allergy and infection caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. Immunobiol, 205, pp. 610-618.
272. 5Lekkala, M., LeVine, AM and Linke, MJ (2006) Effect of lung surfactant collectins on bronchoalveolar macrophage interaction with Blastomyces dermatitidis: Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor α production by surfactant protein D. Infect Immun, 74, pp. 4549-4556.
273. Madan, T., Kaur, S. and Saxena, S. (2005) Role of collectins in innate immunity against aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 43, pp. S155-S163.
274. Takeda, K. and Akira, S. (2005) Toll-like receptors in innate immunity. Int Immunol, 17, pp. 1-14.
275. Netea, MG, Van Der Graaf, CA and Vonk, AG (2002) The role of toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4 in the host defense against disseminated candidiasis. J Infect Dis, 185, pp. 1483-1489.
276. Villamon, E., Gozalbo, D. and Roig, P. (2004) Toll-like receptor-2 is essential in murine defenses against Candida albicans infections. Microbes Infect, 6, pp. 1-7.
277. Bellocchio, S., Montagnoli, C. and Bozza, S. (2004) The contribution of the Toll-like/IL-1 receptor superfamily to innate and adaptive immunity to fungal pathogens in vivo. J Immunol, 172, pp. 3059-3069.
278. Blease, K., Kunkel, SL and Hogaboam, CM. (2001) IL-18 modulates chronic fungal asthma in a murine model; putative involvement of Toll-like receptor-2. Inflamm Res, 50, pp. 552-560.
279. Hirschfeld, M., Weis, JJ and Toshchakov, V. (2001) Signaling by toll-like receptor 2 and 4 agonists results in differential gene expression in murine macrophages. Infect Immun, 69, pp. 1477-1482.
280. Tapping, RI, Akashi, S., Miyake, K., Godowski, PJ and Tobias, PS. (2000) Toll-like receptor 4, but not toll-like receptor 2, is a signaling receptor for Escherichia and Salmonella lipopolysaccharides. J Immunol, 165, pp. 5780-5787.
281. Timonen, T., Ortaldo, JR and Herberman, RB. (1982) Analysis by a single cell cytotoxicity assay of natural killer (NK) cells frequencies among human large granular lymphocytes and of the effects of interferon on their activity. J Immunol, 128, pp. 2514-2521.
282. Benedetto, N., Sabatini, P., Sellitto, C. and Carratelli, C. Romano (1988) Interleukin-2 and increased natural killer activity in mice experimentally infected with Aspergillus niger. Microbiologica, 11, pp. 339-345.
283. Marconi, P., Scaringi, L. and Tissi, L. (1985) Induction of natural killer cell activity by inactivated Candida albicans in mice. Infect Immun, 50, pp. 297-303.
284. Murphy, JW, Hidore, MR and Nabavi, N. (1991) Binding interactions of murine natural killer cells with the fungal target Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun, 59, pp. 1476-1488.
285. Lipscomb, MF, Alvarellos, T. and Toews, GB (1987) Role of natural killer cells in resistance to Cryptococcus neoformans infections in mice. Am J Pathol, 128, pp. 354-361.
286. Kawakami, K., Koguchi, Y. and Qureshi, MH (2000) NK cells eliminate Cryptococcus neoformans by potentiating the fungicidal activity of macrophages rather than by directly killing them upon stimulation with IL-12 and IL-18. Microbiol Immunol, 44, pp. 1043-1050.
287. Kawakami, K., Koguchi, Y. and Qureshi, MH (2000) IL-18 contributes to host resistance against infection with Cryptococcus neoformans in mice with defective IL-12 synthesis through induction of IFN-β production by NK cells. J Immunol, 165, pp. 941-947.
288. Stevens, DA. (2006) Th1/Th2 in aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 44, pp. S229-S235.
289. Romani, L., Bistoni, F. and Puccetti, P. (1997) Initiation of T-helper cell immunity to Candida albicans by IL-12: The role of neutrophils. Chem Immunol, 68, pp. 110-135.
290. Cain, JA and Deepe Jr, GS (2000) Interleukin-12 neutralization alters lung inflammation and leukocyte expression of CD80, CD86, and major histocompatibility complex class II in mice infected with Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun, 68, pp. 2069-2076.
291. Rayhane, N., Lortholary, O. and Fitting, C. (1999) Enhanced sensitivity of tumor necrosis factor/lymphotoxin-α-deficient mice to Cryptococcus neoformans infection despite increased levels of nitrite/ nitrate, interferon-γ, and interleukin-12. J Infect Dis, 180, pp. 1637-1647.
292. Kawakami, K., Shibuya, K. and Qureshi, MH (1999) Chemokine responses and accumulation of inflammatory cells in the lungs of mice infected with highly virulent Cryptococcus neoformans: Effects of interleukin-12. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol, 25, pp. 391-402.
293. Magee, DM and Cox, RA. (1996) Interleukin-12 regulation of host defenses against Coccidioides immitis. Infect Immun, 64, pp. 3609-3613.
294. Arruda, C., Franco, MF and Kashino, SS (2002) Interleukin-12 protects mice against disseminated infection caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis but enhances pulmonary inflammation. Clin Immunol, 103, pp. 185-195.
295. Moore, KW, O'Garra, A., Malefyt, R de Waal, Vieira, P. and Mosmann, TR. (1993) Interleukin-10. Annu Rev Immunol, 11, pp. 165-190.
296. Rennick, DM, Fort, MM and Davidson, NJ. (1997) Studies with IL-10-/- mice: An overview. J Leukoc Biol, 61, pp. 389-396.
297. Clemons, KV, Grunig, G. and Sobel, RA (2000) Role of IL-10 in invasive aspergillosis: Increased resistance of IL-10 gene knockout mice to lethal systemic aspergillosis. Clin Exp Immunol, 122, pp. 186-191.
298. Sero, G Del, Mencacci, A. and Cenci, E. (1999) Antifungal type 1 responses are upregulated in IL-10-deficient mice. Microbes Infect, 1, pp. 1169-1180.
299. Deepe Jr, GS and Gibbons, RS. (2003) Protective and memory immunity to Histoplasma capsulatum in the absence of IL-10. J Immunol, 171, pp. 5353-5362.
300. Romani, L., Puccetti, P. and Mencacci, A. (1994) Neutralization of IL-10 up-regulates nitric oxide production and protects susceptible mice from challenge with Candida albicans. J Immunol, 152, pp. 3514-3521.
301. Mencacci, A., Cenci, E. and Sero, G Del (1998) IL-10 is required for development of protective Th1 responses in IL-12-deficient mice upon Candida albicans infection. J Immunol, 161, pp. 6228-6237.
302. Koth, LL, Rodriguez, MW and Bernstein, XL (2004) Aspergillus antigen induces robust Th2 cytokine production, inflammation, airway hyperreactivity and fibrosis in the absence of MCP-1 or CCR2. Respir Res, 5, p. 12.
303. Akkoc, T., Tolunay, S., Barlan, I. and Basaran, M. (2001) Airway remodeling and serum total immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels in a murine model of asthma. J Asthma, 38, pp. 585-591.
304. Hurst, SD, Muchamuel, T. and Gorman, DM (2002) New IL-17 family members promote Th1 or Th2 responses in the lung: In vivo function of the novel cytokine IL-25. J Immunol, 169, pp. 443-453.
305. Rivera, J., Zaragoza, O. and Casadevall, A. (2005) Antibody-mediated protection against Cryptococcus neoformans pulmonary infection is dependent on B cells. Infect Immun, 73, pp. 1141-1150.
306. Casadevall, A. and Pirofski, L. (2005) Insights into mechanisms of antibody-mediated immunity from studies with Cryptococcus neoformans. Curr Mol Med, 5, pp. 421-433.
307. Magee, DM, Friedberg, RL, Woitaske, MD, Johnston, SA and Cox, RA. (2005) Role of B cells in vaccine-induced immunity against coccidioidomycosis. Infect Immun, 73, pp. 7011-7013.
308. Mandi, Y., Farkas, G. and Ocsovszky, I. (1995) Effects of pentoxifyllin and PentaglobinO on TNF and IL-6 production in septic patients. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung, 42, pp. 301-308.
309. Hunter, RL. (2002) Overview of vaccine adjuvants: Present and future. Vaccine, 20, pp. S7-S12.
310. Kullberg, BJ, Netea, MG and Curfs, JH (1998) Recombinant murine granulocyte colony-stimulating factor protects against acute disseminated Candida albicans infection in nonneutropenic mice. J Infect Dis, 177, pp. 175-181.
311. Stevens, DA, Domer, JE, Ashman, RB, Blackstock, R. and Brummer, E. (1994) Immunomodulation in mycoses. J Med Vet Mycol, 32, pp. S253-S265.
312. Stevens, DA, Kullberg, BJ and Brummer, E. (2000) Combined treatment: antifungal drugs with antibodies, cytokines or drugs. Med Mycol, 38, pp. S305-S315.
313. Mencacci, A., Cenci, E., Bacci, A., Bistoni, F. and Romani, L. (2000) Host immune reactivity determines the efficacy of combination immunotherapy and antifungal chemotherapy in candidiasis. J Infect Dis, 181, pp. 686-694.
314. Wout, JW Van't, Van der Meer, JW, Barza, M. and Dinarello, CA. (1988) Protection of neutropenic mice from lethal Candida albicans infection by recombinant interleukin 1. Eur J Immunol, 18, pp. 1143-1146.
315. Cano, LE, Kashino, SS and Arruda, C. (1998) Protective role of gamma interferon in experimental pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis. Infect Immun, 66, pp. 800-806.
316. Clemons, KV, Lutz, JE and Stevens, DA. (2001) Efficacy of recombinant gamma interferon for treatment of systemic cryptococcosis in SCID mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45, pp. 686-689.
317. Clemons, KV, Lutz, JE and Stevens, DA. (2001) Efficacy of interferon-γ and amphotericin B for the treatment of systemic murine histoplasmosis. Microbes Infect, 3, pp. 3-10.
318. Hostetler, JS, Brummer, E., Coffman, RL and Stevens, DA. (1993) Effect of anti-IL-4, interferon-γ and an antifungal triazole (SCH 42427) in paracoccidioidomycosis: Correlation of IgE levels with outcome. Clin Exp Immunol, 94, pp. 11-16.
319. Joly, V., Saint-Julien, L., Carbon, C. and Yeni, P. (1994) In vivo activity of interferon-γ in combination with amphotericin B in the treatment of experimental cryptococcosis. J Infect Dis, 170, pp. 1331-1334.
320. Kawakami, K., Kohno, S. and Kadota, J. (1995) T cell-dependent activation of macrophages and enhancement of their phagocytic activity in the lungs of mice inoculated with heat-killed Cryptococcus neoformans: Involvement of IFN-γ and its protective effect against cryptococcal infection. Microbiol Immunol, 39, pp. 135-143.
321. Kawakami, K., Tohyama, M. and Teruya, K. (1996) Contribution of interferon-γ in protecting mice during pulmonary and disseminated infection with Cryptococcus neoformans. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol, 13, pp. 123-130.
322. Kullberg, BJ, Wout, JW van't, Hoogstraten, C. and van Furth, R. (1993) Recombinant interferon-γ enhances resistance to acute disseminated Candida albicans infection in mice. J Infect Dis, 168, pp. 436-443.
323. Rex, JH, Bennett, JE and Gallin, JI (1991) In vivo interferon-γ therapy augments the in vitro ability of chronic granulomatous disease neutrophils to damage Aspergillus hyphae. J Infect Dis, 163, pp. 849-852.
324. Stevens, DA, Brummer, E. and Clemons, KV. (2006) Interferon-γ as an antifungal. J Infect Dis, 194, pp. S33-S37.
325. Clemons, KV, Brummer, E. and Stevens, DA. (1994) Cytokine treatment of central nervous system infection: Efficacy of interleukin-12 alone and synergy with conventional antifungal therapy in experimental cryptococcosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38, pp. 460-464.
326. Kawakami, K., Qureshi, MH, Koguchi, Y., Nakajima, K. and Saito, A. (1999) Differential effect of Cryptococcus neoformans on the production of IL-12p40 and IL-10 by murine macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide and gamma interferon. FEMS Microbiol Lett, 175, pp. 87-94.
327. Kawakami, K., Qureshi, MH and Zhang, T. (1997) IL-18 protects mice against pulmonary and disseminated infection with Cryptococcus neoformans by inducing IFN-γ production. J Immunol, 159, pp. 5528-5534.
328. Kawakami, K., Tohyama, M., Xie, Q. and Saito, A. (1996) IL-12 protects mice against pulmonary and disseminated infection caused by Cryptococcus neoformans. Clin Exp Immunol, 104, pp. 208-214.
329. Kobayashi, M., Takahashi, H., Herndon, DN, Pollard, RB and Suzuki, F. (2002) Effect of a combination therapy between IL-12 and soluble IL-4 receptor (sIL-4R) on Candida albicans and herpes simplex virus type I infections in thermally injured mice. Can J Microbiol, 48, pp. 886-894.
330. Lavigne, LM, Schopf, LR, Chung, CL, Maylor, R. and Sypek, JP. (1998) The role of recombinant murine IL-12 and IFN-γ in the pathogenesis of a murine systemic Candida albicans infection. J Immunol, 160, pp. 284-292.
331. Zhou, P., Sieve, MC and Bennett, J. (1995) IL-12 prevents mortality in mice infected with Histoplasma capsulatum through induction of IFN-γ. J Immunol, 155, pp. 785-795.
332. Zhou, P., Sieve, MC, Tewari, RP and Seder, RA. (1997) Interleukin-12 modulates the protective immune response in SCID mice infected with Histoplasma capsulatum. Infect Immun, 65, pp. 936-942.
333. Brummer, E., Hanson, LH and Stevens, DA. (1993) IL-4, IgE, and interferon-γ production in pulmonary blastomycosis: Comparison in mice untreated, immunized, or treated with an antifungal (SCH 39304). Cell Immunol, 149, pp. 258-267.
334. Ortoneda, M., Capilla, J. and Pujol, I. (2002) Liposomal amphotericin B and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor therapy in a murine model of invasive infection by Scedosporium prolificans. J Antimicrob Chemother, 49, pp. 525-529.
335. Vonk, AG, Netea, MG and van Krieken, JH (2003) Treatment of intra-abdominal abscesses caused by Candida albicans with antifungal agents and recombinant murine granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, pp. 3688-3693.
336. Graybill, JR, Bocanegra, R., Lambros, C. and Luther, MF. (1997) Granulocyte colony stimulating factor therapy of experimental cryptococcal meningitis. J Med Vet Mycol, 35, pp. 243-247.
337. Yamamoto, Y., Uchida, K., Klein, TW, Friedman, H. and Yamaguchi, H. (1992) Immunomodulators and fungal infections: Use of antifungal drugs in combination with G-CSF. Adv Exp Med Biol, 319, pp. 231-241.
338. Vitt, CR, Fidler, JM, Ando, D., Zimmerman, RJ and Aukerman, SL. (1994) Antifungal activity of recombinant human macrophage colony-stimulating factor in models of acute and chronic candidiasis in the rat. J Infect Dis, 169, pp. 369-374.
339. Deepe Jr, GS and Gibbons, R. (2000) Recombinant murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor modulates the course of pulmonary histoplasmosis in immunocompetent and immunodeficient mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 44, pp. 3328-3336.
340. Sionov, E., Mendlovic, S. and Segal, E. (2005) Experimental systemic murine aspergillosis: Treatment with polyene and caspofungin combination and G-CSF. J Antimicrob Chemother, 56, pp. 594-597.
341. Polak-Wyss, A. (1991) Protective effect of human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (hG-CSF) on Cryptococcus and Aspergillus infections in normal and immunosuppressed mice. Mycoses, 34, pp. 205-215.
342. Casadevall, A. and Pirofski, LA. (2005) Feasibility and prospects for a vaccine to prevent cryptococcosis. Med Mycol, 43, pp. 667-680.
343. Dan, JM and Levitz, SM. (2006) Prospects for development of vaccines against fungal diseases. Drug Resist Updat, 9, pp. 105-110.
344. Datta, K. and Pirofski, LA. (2006) Towards a vaccine for Cryptococcus neoformans: Principles and caveats. FEMS Yeast Res, 6, pp. 525-536.
345. Deepe Jr, GS, Wuthrich, M. and Klein, BS. (2005) Progress in vaccination for histoplasmosis and blastomycosis: Coping with cellular immunity. Med Mycol, 43, pp. 381-389.
346. Dixon, DM, Casadevall, A. and Klein, B. (1998) Development of vaccines and their use in the prevention of fungal infections. Med Mycol, 36, pp. S57-S67.
347. Feldmesser, M. (2005) Prospects of vaccines for invasive aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 43, pp. 571-587.
348. Lehmann, PF and White, LO. (1976) Acquired immunity to Aspergillus fumigatus. Infect Immun, 13, pp. 1296-1298.
349. Fromtling, RA, Blackstock, R., Hall, NK and Bulmer, GS. (1979) Immunization of mice with an avirulent pseudohyphal form of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathologia, 68, pp. 179-181.
350. Fromtling, RA, Kaplan, AM and Shadomy, HJ. (1983) Immunization of mice with stable, acapsular, yeast-like mutants of Cryptococcus neoformans. Sabouraudia, 21, pp. 113-119.
351. Levine, HB, Cobb, JM and Smith, CE. (1961) Immunogenicity of spherule-endospore vaccines of Coccidioides immitis for mice. J Immunol, 87, pp. 218-227.
352. Levine, HB, Kong, YC and Smith, C. (1965) Immunization of mice to Coccidioides immitis: Dose, regimen and spherulation stage of killed spherule vaccines. J Immunol, 94, pp. 132-142.
353. Levine, HB and Kong, YC. (1966) Immunologic impairment in mice treated intravenously with killed Coccidioides immitis spherules: Suppressed response to intramuscular doses. J Immunol, 97, pp. 297-305.
354. Pappagianis, D. (1993) Evaluation of the protective efficacy of the killed Coccidioides immitis spherule vaccine in humans. The Valley Fever Vaccine Study Group. Am Rev Respir Dis, 148, pp. 656-660.
355. Cole, GT, Xue, JM and Okeke, CN (2004) A vaccine against coccidioidomycosis is justified and attainable. Med Mycol, 42, pp. 189-216.
356. Cox, RA and Magee, DM. (2004) Coccidioidomycosis: Host response and vaccine development. Clin Microbiol Rev, 17, pp. 804-839.
357. Delgado, N., Xue, J., Yu, JJ, Hung, CY and Cole, GT. (2003) A recombinant β-1,3-glucanosyltransferase homolog of Coccidioides posadasii protects mice against coccidioidomycosis. Infect Immun, 71, pp. 3010-3019.
358. Xue, J., Hung, CY, Yu, JJ and Cole, GT. (2005) Immune response of vaccinated and non-vaccinated mice to Coccidioides posadasii infection. Vaccine, 23, pp. 3535-3544.
359. Awasthi, S., Awasthi, V., Magee, DM and Coalson, JJ. (2005) Efficacy of antigen 2/proline-rich antigen cDNA-transfected dendritic cells in immunization of mice against Coccidioides posadasii. J Immunol, 175, pp. 3900-3906.
360. Peng, T., Shubitz, L. and Simons, J. (2002) Localization within a proline-rich antigen (Ag2/PRA) of protective antigenicity against infection with Coccidioides immitis in mice. Infect Immun, 70, pp. 3330-3335.
361. Bozza, S., Gaziano, R. and Lipford, GB (2002) Vaccination of mice against invasive aspergillosis with recombinant Aspergillus proteins and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides as adjuvants. Microbes Infect, 4, pp. 1281-1290.
362. Kirkland, TN, Finley, F., Orsborn, KI and Galgiani, JN. (1998) Evaluation of the proline-rich antigen of Coccidioides immitis as a vaccine candidate in mice. Infect Immun, 66, pp. 3519-3522.
363. Ito, S., Pedras-Vasconcelos, J. and Klinman, DM. (2005) CpG oligodeoxynucleotides increases the susceptibility of normal mice to infection by Candida albicans. Infect Immun, 73, pp. 6154-6156.
364. Polonelli, L., Casadevall, A. and Han, Y. (2000) The efficacy of acquired humoral and cellular immunity in the prevention and therapy of experimental fungal infections. Med Mycol, 38, pp. S281-S292.
365. Chan, CM, Woo, PC and Leung, AS (2002) Detection of antibodies specific to an antigenic cell wall galactomannoprotein for serodiagnosis of Aspergillus fumigatus aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol, 40, pp. 2041-2045.
366. Centeno-Lima, S., de Lacerda, JM and Carmo, JA do (2002) Follow-up of anti-Aspergillus IgG and IgA antibodies in bone marrow transplanted patients with invasive aspergillosis. J Clin Lab Anal, 16, pp. 156-162.
367. Chow, LP, Liu, SL and Yu, CJ (2000) Identification and expression of an allergen Asp f 13 from Aspergillus fumigatus and epitope mapping using human IgE antibodies and rabbit polyclonal antibodies. Biochem J, 346, pp. 423-431.
368. Rydjord, B., Hetland, G. and Wiker, HG. (2005) Immunoglobulin G antibodies against environmental moulds in a Norwegian healthy population shows a bimodal distribution for Aspergillus versicolor. Scand J Immunol, 62, pp. 281-288.
369. Han, Y. and Cutler, JE. (1995) Antibody response that protects against disseminated candidiasis. Infect Immun, 63, pp. 2714-2719.
370. Mukherjee, J., Feldmesser, M., Scharff, MD and Casadevall, A. (1995) Monoclonal antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans glucuronoxylomannan enhance fluconazole efficacy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 39, pp. 1398-1405.
371. Devi, SJ. (1996) Preclinical efficacy of a glucuronoxylomannan-tetanus
372. Torosantucci, A., Bromuro, C. and Chiani, P. (2005) A novel glycol-conjugate vaccine against fungal pathogens. J Exp Med, 202, pp. 597-606.
373. Stevens, DA. (2004) Vaccinate against aspergillosis! A call to arms of the immune system. Clin Infect Dis, 38, pp. 1131-1136.
374. Ito, JI and Lyons, JM. (2002) Vaccination of corticosteroid immunosuppressed mice against invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Infect Dis, 186, pp. 869-871.
375. Wuthrich, M., Filutowicz, HI, Warner, T., Deepe Jr, GS and Klein, BS. (2003) Vaccine immunity to pathogenic fungi overcomes the requirement for CD4 help in exogenous antigen presentation to CD8+ T cells: implications for vaccine development in immune-deficient hosts. J Exp Med, 197, pp. 1405-1416.
376. Fierer, J., Waters, C. and Walls, L. (2006) Both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells can mediate vaccine-induced protection against Coccidioides immitis infection in mice. J Infect Dis, 193, pp. 1323-1331.
377. Walsh, TJ, Groll, A. and Hiemenz, J. (2004) Infections due to emerging and uncommon medically important fungal pathogens. Clin Microbiol Infect, 10, pp. S48-S66.
378. Walsh, TJ and Groll, AH. (1999) Emerging fungal pathogens: Evolving challenges to immunocompromised patients for the twenty-first century. Transpl Infect Dis, 1, pp. 247-261.
379. Steinbach, WJ, Stevens, DA and Denning, DW. (2003) Combination and sequential antifungal therapy for invasive aspergillosis: Review of published in vitro and in vivo interactions and 6281 clinical cases from 1966 to 2001. Clin Infect Dis, 37, pp. S188-S224.
380. Walsh, TJ, Viviani, MA and Arathoon, E. (2000) New targets and delivery systems for antifungal therapy. Med Mycol, 38, pp. S335-S347.
381. Boucher, HW, Groll, AH, Chiou, CC and Walsh, TJ. (2004) Newer systemic antifungal agents: Pharmacokinetics, safety and efficacy. Drugs, 64, pp. 1997-2020.
382. Wingard, JR and Leather, H. (2004) A new era of antifungal therapy. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant, 10, pp. 73-90.
383. Fuhr, U. (1998) Drug interactions with grapefruit juice. Extent, probable mechanism and clinical relevance. Drug Saf, 18, pp. 251-272.
384. Sugar, AM and Liu, XP. (2000) Effect of grapefruit juice on serum voriconazole concentrations in the mouse. Med Mycol, 38, pp. 209-212.
385. Clemons, KV, Espiritu, M., Parmar, R. and Stevens, DA. (2005) Comparative efficacies of conventional amphotericin b, liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome), caspofungin, micafungin, and voriconazole alone and in combination against experimental murine central nervous system aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 49, pp. 4867-4875.
386. Luque, JC, Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2003) Efficacy of micafungin alone or in combination against systemic murine aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47, pp. 1452-1455.
387. Clemons, KV and Stevens, DA. (2006) Efficacy of micafungin alone or in combination against experimental pulmonary aspergillosis. Med Mycol, 44, pp. 69-73.
388. Wiederhold, NP, Tam, VH and Chi, J. (2006) Pharmacodynamic activity of amphotericin B deoxycholate is associated with peak plasma concentrations in a neutropenic murine model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 50, pp. 469-473.
389. Clemons, KV, Parmar, R., Martinez, M. and Stevens, DA. (2006) Efficacy of Abelcet alone, or in combination therapy, against experimental central nervous system aspergillosis. J Antimicrob Chemother, 58, pp. 466-469.
390. Schinabeck, MK, Long, LA and Hossain, MA (2004) Rabbit model of Candida albicans biofilm infection: Liposomal amphotericin B antifungal lock therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 48, pp. 1727-1732.
391. Mukherjee, PK, Mohamed, S. and Chandra, J. (2006) Alcohol dehydrogenase restricts the ability of the pathogen Candida albicans to form a biofilm on catheter surfaces through an ethanol-based mechanism. Infect Immun, 74, pp. 3804-3816.
392. Stevens, DA. (1998) Combination immunotherapy and antifungal chemotherapy. Clin Infect Dis, 26, pp. 1266-1269.
393. Dodds, ES, Drew, RH and Perfect, JR. (2000) Antifungal pharmacodynamics: review of the literature and clinical applications. Pharmacother, 20, pp. 1335-1355.
394. Andes, D. (2003) Clinical pharmacodynamics of antifungals. Infect Dis Clin North Am, 17, pp. 635-649.
395. Andes, D. (2004) Clinical utility of antifungal pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Curr Opin Infect Dis, 17, pp. 533-540.
396. Hosseini-Yeganeh, M. and McLachlan, AJ. (2002) Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for terbinafine in rats and humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 46, pp. 2219-2228.
397. Grosso, DS, Boyden, TW and Pamenter, RW (1983) Ketoconazole inhibition of testicular secretion of testosterone and displacement of steroid hormones from serum transport proteins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 23, pp. 207-212.
398. Clemons, KV, Sobel, RA and Stevens, DA. (2000) Toxicity of LY303366, an echinocandin antifungal, in mice pretreated with glucocorticoids. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 44, pp. 378-381.
399. Clemons, KV, Sobel, RA, Williams, PL and Stevens, DA. (2001) Comparative toxicities and pharmacokinetics of intrathecal lipid (amphotericin B colloidal dispersion) and conventional deoxycholate formulations of amphotericin B in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 45, pp. 612-615.
400. Clemons, KV, Ranney, DF and Stevens, DA. (2001) A novel heparin-coated hydrophilic preparation of amphotericin B hydrosomes. Curr Opin Investig Drugs, 2, pp. 480-487.
401. Francis, P., Lee, JW and Hoffman, A. (1994) Efficacy of unilamellar liposomal amphotericin B in treatment of pulmonary aspergillosis in persistently granulocytopenic rabbits: The potential role of bronchoalveolar D-mannitol and serum galactomannan as markers of infection. J Infect Dis, 169, pp. 356-368.
402. Dupont, B., Huber, M., Kim, SJ and Bennett, JE. (1987) Galactomannan antigenemia and antigenuria in aspergillosis: Studies in patients and experimentally infected rabbits. J Infect Dis, 155, pp. 1-11.
403. Loeffler, J., Kloepfer, K. and Hebart, H. (2002) Polymerase chain reaction detection of Aspergillus DNA in experimental models of invasive aspergillosis. J Infect Dis, 185, pp. 1203-1206.
404. Marr, KA, Balajee, SA and McLaughlin, L. (2004) Detection of galactomannan antigenemia by enzyme immunoassay for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: Variables that affect performance. J Infect Dis, 190, pp. 641-649.
405. Becker, MJ, de Marie, S., Willemse, D., Verbrugh, HA and Bakker-Woudenberg, IA. (2000) Quantitative galactomannan detection is superior to PCR in diagnosing and monitoring invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in an experimental rat model. J Clin Microbiol, 38, pp. 1434-1438.
406. Hurst, SF, Reyes, GH, McLaughlin, DW, Reiss, E. and Morrison, CJ. (2000) Comparison of commercial latex agglutination and sandwich enzyme immunoassays with a competitive binding inhibition enzyme immunoassay for detection of antigenemia and antigenuria in a rabbit model of invasive aspergillosis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol, 7, pp. 477-485.
407. Segal, BH, Barnhart, LA and Anderson, VL (2005) Posaconazole as salvage therapy in patients with chronic granulomatous disease and invasive filamentous fungal infection. Clin Infect Dis, 40, pp. 1684-1688.
408. Verweij, PE. (2005) Advances in diagnostic testing. Med Mycol, 43, pp. S121-S124.
409. Goldman, D., Lee, SC and Casadevall, A. (1994) Pathogenesis of pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection in the rat. Infect Immun, 62, pp. 4755-4761.
410. Wong, B., Perfect, JR, Beggs, S. and Wright, KA. (1990) Production of the hexitol D-mannitol by Cryptococcus neoformans in vitro and in rabbits with experimental meningitis. Infect Immun, 58, pp. 1664-1670.