“Nutraceuticals” in relation to human skeletal muscle and exercise

American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 312, Issue 4, 2017, Pages E282-E299

  Deane, Colleen S ^a,b,c   Wilkinson, Daniel J ^a   Phillips, Bethan E ^a   Smith, Kenneth ^a   Etheridge, Timothy ^c   Atherton, Philip J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Exercise; Metabolism; Nutraceuticals; Nutrients; Skeletal muscle

Indexed keywords

BETA ALANINE; BETA METHYLBUTYRATE; BUTYRIC ACID; CARBOHYDRATE; CARNITINE; CARNOSINE; CREATINE; FAT; HYDROXYL GROUP; LEUCINE; NITRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; NUTRACEUTICAL; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PHOSPHATIDIC ACID; TRACE ELEMENT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; URSOLIC ACID; VITAMIN D;

CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; EXERCISE; FAT INTAKE; HUMAN; MACRONUTRIENT; MUSCLE EXERCISE; MUSCLE MASS; MUSCLE METABOLISM; MUSCLE STRENGTH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN METABOLISM; REVIEW; SKELETAL MUSCLE; ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; ENDURANCE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSIOLOGY;

ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; EXERCISE; HUMANS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE;

EID: 85016988862     PISSN: 01931849     EISSN: 15221555     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00230.2016     Document Type: Review

References (274)

1. Abramowicz WN, Galloway SDR. Effects of acute versus chronic L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on metabolic responses to steady state exercise in males and females. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 15: 386–400, 2005. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.15.4.386.
2. Affourtit C, Bailey SJ, Jones AM, Smallwood MJ, Winyard PG. On the mechanism by which dietary nitrate improves human skeletal muscle function. Front Physiol 6: 211, 2015. doi:10.3389/fphys.2015.00211.
3. Agergaard J, Trøstrup J, Uth J, Iversen JV, Boesen A, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Langberg H. Does vitamin-D intake during resistance training improve the skeletal muscle hypertrophic and strength response in young and elderly men? - a randomized controlled trial. Nutr Metab (Lond) 12: 32, 2015. doi:10.1186/s12986-015-0029-y.
4. Alexander JW, Saito H, Trocki O, Ogle CK. The importance of lipid type in the diet after burn injury. Ann Surg 204: 1–8, 1986. doi:10.1097/00000658-198607000-00001.
5. Anderson JE. A role for nitric oxide in muscle repair: nitric oxidemediated activation of muscle satellite cells. Mol Biol Cell 11: 1859–1874, 2000. doi:10.1091/mbc.11.5.1859.
6. Arnold JT, Oliver SJ, Lewis-Jones TM, Wylie LJ, Macdonald JH. Beetroot juice does not enhance altitude running performance in welltrained athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 40: 590–595, 2015. doi:10.1139/apnm-2014-0470.
7. Atherton PJ, Etheridge T, Watt PW, Wilkinson D, Selby A, Rankin D, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Muscle full effect after oral protein: timedependent concordance and discordance between human muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. Am J Clin Nutr 92: 1080–1088, 2010. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2010.29819.
8. Atherton PJ, Smith K. Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise. J Physiol 590: 1049–1057, 2012. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2011.225003.
9. Atherton PJ, Smith K, Etheridge T, Rankin D, Rennie MJ. Distinct anabolic signalling responses to amino acids in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. Amino Acids 38: 1533–1539, 2010. doi:10.1007/s00726-009-0377-x.
10. Baier S, Johannsen D, Abumrad N, Rathmacher JA, Nissen S, Flakoll P. Year-long changes in protein metabolism in elderly men and women supplemented with a nutrition cocktail of beta-hydroxy-betamethylbutyrate (HMB), L-arginine, and L-lysine. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 33: 71–82, 2009. doi:10.1177/0148607108322403.
11. Bailey SJ, Winyard P, Vanhatalo A, Blackwell JR, Dimenna FJ, Wilkerson DP, Tarr J, Benjamin N, Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2 cost of low-intensity exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 107: 1144–1155, 2009. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00722.2009.
12. Bang HS, Seo DY, Chung YM, Oh KM, Park JJ, Arturo F, Jeong SH, Kim N, Han J. Ursolic Acid-induced elevation of serum irisin augments muscle strength during resistance training in men. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol 18: 441–446, 2014. doi:10.4196/kjpp.2014.18.5.441.
13. Beaudart C, Buckinx F, Rabenda V, Gillain S, Cavalier E, Slomian J, Petermans J, Reginster J-Y, Bruyère O. The effects of vitamin D on skeletal muscle strength, muscle mass, and muscle power: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99: 4336–4345, 2014. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-1742.
14. Beelen M, Koopman R, Gijsen AP, Vandereyt H, Kies AK, Kuipers H, Saris WH, van Loon LJ. Protein coingestion stimulates muscle protein synthesis during resistance-type exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 295: E70–E77, 2008. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00774.2007.
15. Bennet WM, Connacher AA, Scrimgeour CM, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Increase in anterior tibialis muscle protein synthesis in healthy man during mixed amino acid infusion: studies of incorporation of [1-13C]leucine. Clin Sci (Lond) 76: 447–454, 1989. doi:10.1042/cs0760447.
16. Bex T, Chung W, Baguet A, Stegen S, Stautemas J, Achten E, Derave W. Muscle carnosine loading by beta-alanine supplementation is more pronounced in trained vs. untrained muscles. J Appl Physiol (1985) 116: 204–209, 2014. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01033.2013.
17. Bhat M, Kalam R, Qadri SS, Madabushi S, Ismail A. Vitamin D deficiency-induced muscle wasting occurs through the ubiquitin proteasome pathway and is partially corrected by calcium in male rats. Endocrinology 154: 4018–4029, 2013. doi:10.1210/en.2013-1369.
18. Birch R, Noble D, Greenhaff PL. The influence of dietary creatine supplementation on performance during repeated bouts of maximal isokinetic cycling in man. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 69: 268–276, 1994. doi:10.1007/BF01094800.
19. Bjørnsen T, Salvesen S, Berntsen S, Hetlelid KJ, Stea TH, Lohne- Seiler H, Rohde G, Haraldstad K, Raastad T, Køpp U, Haugeberg G, Mansoor MA, Bastani NE, Blomhoff R, Stølevik SB, Seynnes OR, Paulsen G. Vitamin C and E supplementation blunts increases in total lean body mass in elderly men after strength training. Scand J Med Sci Sports 26: 755–763, 2016. doi:10.1111/sms.12506.
20. Bloch K, Schoenheimer R. Biological precursors of creatine. J Biol Chem 138: 167–194, 1940.
21. Bobeuf F, Labonte M, Dionne IJ, Khalil A. Combined effect of antioxidant supplementation and resistance training on oxidative stress markers, muscle and body composition in an elderly population. J Nutr Health Aging 15: 883–889, 2011. doi:10.1007/s12603-011-0097-2.
22. Bobeuf F, Labonté M, Khalil A, Dionne IJ. Effects of resistance training combined with antioxidant supplementation on fat-free mass and insulin sensitivity in healthy elderly subjects. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 87: e1–e3, 2010. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.001.
23. Bode-Böger SM, Böger RH, Galland A, Tsikas D, Frölich JC. L-arginine- induced vasodilation in healthy humans: pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship. Br J Clin Pharmacol 46: 489–497, 1998. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2125.1998.00803.x.
24. Bosaeus I, Rothenberg E. Nutrition and physical activity for the prevention and treatment of age-related sarcopenia. Proc Nutr Soc 75: 174–180, 2016. doi:10.1017/S002966511500422X.
25. Branch JD. Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 13: 198–226, 2003. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.13.2.198.
26. Brass EP. Pharmacokinetic considerations for the therapeutic use of carnitine in hemodialysis patients. Clin Ther 17: 176–185, 1995. doi:10.1016/0149-2918(95)80017-4.
27. Broad EM, Maughan RJ, Galloway SDR. Effects of four weeks L-carnitine L-tartrate ingestion on substrate utilization during prolonged exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 15: 665–679, 2005. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.15.6.665.
28. Brook MS, Wilkinson DJ, Mitchell WK, Lund JN, Phillips BE, Szewczyk NJ, Greenhaff PL, Smith K, Atherton PJ. Synchronous deficits in cumulative muscle protein synthesis and ribosomal biogenesis underlie age-related anabolic resistance to exercise in humans. J Physiol 594: 7399–7417, 2016. doi:10.1113/JP272857.
29. Brook MS, Wilkinson DJ, Mitchell WK, Lund JN, Szewczyk NJ, Greenhaff PL, Smith K, Atherton PJ. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy adaptations predominate in the early stages of resistance exercise training, matching deuterium oxide-derived measures of muscle protein synthesis and mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 signaling. FASEB J 29: 4485–4496, 2015. doi:10.1096/fj.15-273755.
30. Brook MS, Wilkinson DJ, Phillips BE, Perez-Schindler J, Philp A, Smith K, Atherton PJ. Skeletal muscle homeostasis and plasticity in youth and ageing: impact of nutrition and exercise. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 216: 15–41, 2016. doi:10.1111/apha.12532.
31. Brose A, Parise G, Tarnopolsky MA. Creatine supplementation enhances isometric strength and body composition improvements following strength exercise training in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 58: 11–19, 2003. doi:10.1093/gerona/58.1.B11.
32. Buford TW, Kreider RB, Stout JR, Greenwood M, Campbell B, Spano M, Ziegenfuss T, Lopez H, Landis J, Antonio J. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 4: 6, 2007. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-4-6.
33. Buitrago CG, Arango NS, Boland RL. 1a. 25(OH)2D3-dependent modulation of Akt in proliferating and differentiating C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. J Cell Biochem 113: 1170–1181, 2012. doi:10.1002/jcb.23444.
34. Bunout D, Barrera G, Leiva L, Gattas V, de la Maza MP, Avendaño M, Hirsch S. Effects of vitamin D supplementation and exercise training on physical performance in Chilean vitamin D deficient elderly subjects. Exp Gerontol 41: 746–752, 2006. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2006.05.001.
35. Buono R, Vantaggiato C, Pisa V, Azzoni E, Bassi MT, Brunelli S, Sciorati C, Clementi E. Nitric oxide sustains long-term skeletal muscle regeneration by regulating fate of satellite cells via signaling pathways requiring Vangl2 and cyclic GMP. Stem Cells 30: 197–209, 2012. doi:10.1002/stem.783.
36. Burd NA, West DWD, Moore DR, Atherton PJ, Staples AW, Prior T, Tang JE, Rennie MJ, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Enhanced amino acid sensitivity of myofibrillar protein synthesis persists for up to 24 h after resistance exercise in young men. J Nutr 141: 568–573, 2011. doi:10.3945/jn.110.135038.
37. Burdge GC, Calder PC. Introduction to fatty acids and lipids. World Rev Nutr Diet 112: 1–16, 2015. doi:10.1159/000365423.
38. Campia U, Panza JA. Flavanol-rich cocoa a promising new dietary intervention to reduce cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes? J Am Coll Cardiol 51: 2150–2152, 2008. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2008.02.058.
39. Capiati D, Benassati S, Boland RL. 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 induces translocation of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) to the plasma membrane in skeletal muscle cells. J Cell Biochem 86: 128–135, 2002. doi:10.1002/jcb.10191.
40. Carrillo AE, Flynn MG, Pinkston C, Markofski MM, Jiang Y, Donkin SS, Teegarden D. Impact of vitamin D supplementation during a resistance training intervention on body composition, muscle function, and glucose tolerance in overweight and obese adults. Clin Nutr 32: 375–381, 2013. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2012.08.014.
41. Casey A, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Howell S, Hultman E, Greenhaff PL. Creatine ingestion favorably affects performance and muscle metabolism during maximal exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 271: E31–E37, 1996.
42. Casey A, Greenhaff PL. Does dietary creatine supplementation play a role in skeletal muscle metabolism and performance? Am J Clin Nutr 72, Suppl: 607S–617S, 2000.
43. Casperson SL, Sheffield-Moore M, Hewlings SJ, Paddon-Jones D. Leucine supplementation chronically improves muscle protein synthesis in older adults consuming the RDA for protein. Clin Nutr 31: 512–519, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2012.01.005.
44. Ceglia L. Vitamin D and its role in skeletal muscle. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 12: 628–633, 2009. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328331c707.
45. Ceglia L, Niramitmahapanya S, da Silva Morais M, Rivas DA, Harris SS, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Fielding RA, Dawson-Hughes B. A randomized study on the effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on skeletal muscle morphology and vitamin D receptor concentration in older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98: E1927–E1935, 2013. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-2820.
46. Cermak NM, van Loon LJ. The use of carbohydrates during exercise as an ergogenic aid. Sports Med 43: 1139–1155, 2013. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0079-0.
47. Cermak NM, Res P, Stinkens R, Lundberg JO, Gibala MJ, van Loon LJ. No improvement in endurance performance after a single dose of beetroot juice. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 22: 470–478, 2012. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.22.6.470.
48. Cermak NM, Res PT, de Groot LC, Saris WH, van Loon LJC. Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 96: 1454–1464, 2012. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.037556.
49. Church DD, Schwarz NA, Spillane MB, McKinley-Barnard SK, Andre TL, Ramirez AJ, Willoughby DS. l-Leucine Increases Skeletal Muscle IGF-1 but Does Not Differentially Increase Akt/mTORC1 Signaling and Serum IGF-1 Compared to Ursolic Acid in Response to Resistance Exercise in Resistance-Trained Men. J Am Coll Nutr 35: 627–638, 2016. doi:10.1080/07315724.2015.1132019.
50. Churchward-Venne TA, Breen L, Di Donato DM, Hector AJ, Mitchell CJ, Moore DR, Stellingwerff T, Breuille D, Offord EA, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Leucine supplementation of a low-protein mixed macronutrient beverage enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis in young men: a double-blind, randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 99: 276–286, 2014. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.068775.
51. Churchward-Venne TA, Cotie LM, MacDonald MJ, Mitchell CJ, Prior T, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Citrulline does not enhance blood flow, microvascular circulation, or myofibrillar protein synthesis in elderly men at rest or following exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 307: E71–E83, 2014. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00096.2014.
52. Close GL, Hamilton DL, Philp A, Burke LM, Morton JP. New strategies in sport nutrition to increase exercise performance. Free Radic Biol Med 98: 144–158, 2016. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.01.016.
53. Cooke MB, Rybalka E, Williams AD, Cribb PJ, Hayes A. Creatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentricallyinduced muscle damage in healthy individuals. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 6: 13, 2009. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-6-13.
54. Cooke WH, Grandjean PW, Barnes WS. Effect of oral creatine supplementation on power output and fatigue during bicycle ergometry. J Appl Physiol (1985) 78: 670–673, 1995.
55. Crossland H, Kazi AA, Lang CH, Timmons JA, Pierre P, Wilkinson DJ, Smith K, Szewczyk NJ, Atherton PJ. Focal adhesion kinase is required for IGF-I-mediated growth of skeletal muscle cells via a TSC2/ mTOR/S6K1-associated pathway. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 305: E183–E193, 2013. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00541.2012.
56. Culbertson JY, Kreider RB, Greenwood M, Cooke M. Effects of beta-alanine on muscle carnosine and exercise performance: a review of the current literature. Nutrients 2: 75–98, 2010. doi:10.3390/nu2010075.
57. Cuthbertson D, Smith K, Babraj J, Leese G, Waddell T, Atherton P, Wackerhage H, Taylor PM, Rennie MJ. Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle. FASEB J 19: 422–424, 2005. doi:10.1096/fj.04-2640fje.
58. Cuthbertson DJ, Babraj J, Smith K, Wilkes E, Fedele MJ, Esser K, Rennie M. Anabolic signaling and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle after dynamic shortening or lengthening exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 290: E731–E738, 2006. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00415.2005.
59. Décombaz J, Beaumont M, Vuichoud J, Bouisset F, Stellingwerff T. Effect of slow-release -alanine tablets on absorption kinetics and paresthesia. Amino Acids 43: 67–76, 2012. doi:10.1007/s00726-011-1169-7.
60. Delarue J, Couet C, Cohen R, Bréchot JF, Antoine JM, Lamisse F. Effects of fish oil on metabolic responses to oral fructose and glucose loads in healthy humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 270: E353–E362, 1996.
61. Delarue J, Labarthe F, Cohen R. Fish-oil supplementation reduces stimulation of plasma glucose fluxes during exercise in untrained males. Br J Nutr 90: 777–786, 2003. doi:10.1079/BJN2003964.
62. Dempsey RL, Mazzone MF, Meurer LN. Does oral creatine supplementation improve strength? A meta-analysis. J Fam Pract 51: 945–951, 2002.
63. Derave W, Ozdemir MS, Harris RC, Pottier A, Reyngoudt H, Koppo K, Wise JA, Achten E. beta-Alanine supplementation augments muscle carnosine content and attenuates fatigue during repeated isokinetic contraction bouts in trained sprinters. J Appl Physiol (1985) 103: 1736–1743, 2007. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00397.2007.
64. Deutz NE, Pereira SL, Hays NP, Oliver JS, Edens NK, Evans CM, Wolfe RR. Effect of β-hydroxy- β-methylbutyrate (HMB) on lean body mass during 10 days of bed rest in older adults. Clin Nutr 32: 704–712, 2013. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2013.02.011.
65. Devries MC, Phillips SM. Creatine supplementation during resistance training in older adults-a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 46: 1194–1203, 2014. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000220.
66. Dieck ST, Heuer H, Ehrchen J, Otto C, Bauer K. The peptide transporter PepT2 is expressed in rat brain and mediates the accumulation of the fluorescent dipeptide derivative β -Ala-Lys-Ne-AMCA in astrocytes. Glia 25: 10–20, 1999. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(19990101)25:1 10::AID-GLIA2+3.0.CO;2-Y.
67. Duncan C, Dougall H, Johnston P, Green S, Brogan R, Leifert C, Smith L, Golden M, Benjamin N. Chemical generation of nitric oxide in the mouth from the enterosalivary circulation of dietary nitrate. Nat Med 1: 546–551, 1995. doi:10.1038/nm0695-546.
68. Dyle MC, Ebert SM, Cook DP, Kunkel SD, Fox DK, Bongers KS, Bullard SA, Dierdorff JM, Adams CM. Systems-based discovery of tomatidine as a natural small molecule inhibitor of skeletal muscle atrophy. J Biol Chem 289: 14913–14924, 2014. doi:10.1074/jbc.M114.556241.
69. Earnest CP, Snell PG, Rodriguez R, Almada AL, Mitchell TL. The effect of creatine monohydrate ingestion on anaerobic power indices, muscular strength and body composition. Acta Physiol Scand 153: 207–209, 1995. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1995.tb09854.x.
70. Ebert SM, Dyle MC, Bullard SA, Dierdorff JM, Murry DJ, Fox DK, Bongers KS, Lira VA, Meyerholz DK, Talley JJ, Adams CM. Identification and small molecule inhibition of an ATF4-dependent pathway to age-related skeletal muscle weakness and atrophy. J Biol Chem 290: 25497–25511, 2015. doi:10.1074/jbc.M115.681445.
71. El-Hajj Fuleihan G, Nabulsi M, Tamim H, Maalouf J, Salamoun M, Khalife H, Choucair M, Arabi A, Vieth R. Effect of vitamin D replacement on musculoskeletal parameters in school children: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91: 405–412, 2006. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-1436.
72. Escalante G, Alencar M, Haddock B, Harvey P. The effects of phosphatidic acid supplementation on strength, body composition, muscular endurance, power, agility, and vertical jump in resistance trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 13: 24, 2016. doi:10.1186/s12970-016-0135-x.
73. Escobar J, Frank JW, Suryawan A, Nguyen HV, Van Horn CG, Hutson SM, Davis TA. Leucine and alpha-ketoisocaproic acid, but not norleucine, stimulate skeletal muscle protein synthesis in neonatal pigs. J Nutr 140: 1418–1424, 2010. doi:10.3945/jn.110.123042.
74. Evans WJ. Skeletal muscle loss: cachexia, sarcopenia, and inactivity. Am J Clin Nutr 91: 1123S–1127S, 2010. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2010.28608a.
75. Everaert I, Mooyaart A, Baguet A, Zutinic A, Baelde H, Achten E, Taes Y, De Heer E, Derave W. Vegetarianism, female gender and increasing age, but not CNDP1 genotype, are associated with reduced muscle carnosine levels in humans. Amino Acids 40: 1221–1229, 2011. doi:10.1007/s00726-010-0749-2.
76. Fang Y, Vilella-Bach M, Bachmann R, Flanigan A, Chen J. Phosphatidic acid-mediated mitogenic activation of mTOR signaling. Science 294: 1942–1945, 2001. doi:10.1126/science.1066015.
77. Fetterman JW Jr, Zdanowicz MM. Therapeutic potential of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in disease. Am J Health Syst Pharm 66: 1169–1179, 2009. doi:10.2146/ajhp080411.
78. Fischer R, Konkel A, Mehling H, Blossey K, Gapelyuk A, Wessel N, von Schacky C, Dechend R, Muller DN, Rothe M, Luft FC, Weylandt K, Schunck W-H. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids modulate the eicosanoid profile in man primarily via the CYP-epoxygenase pathway. J Lipid Res 55: 1150–1164, 2014. doi:10.1194/jlr.M047357.
79. Fisher NDL, Hughes M, Gerhard-Herman M, Hollenberg NK. Flavanol- rich cocoa induces nitric-oxide-dependent vasodilation in healthy humans. J Hypertens 21: 2281–2286, 2003. doi:10.1097/00004872-200312000-00016.
80. Forman HJ, Augusto O, Brigelius-Flohe R, Dennery PA, Kalyanaraman B, Ischiropoulos H, Mann GE, Radi R, Roberts LJ II, Vina J, Davies KJA. Even free radicals should follow some rules: a guide to free radical research terminology and methodology. Free Radic Biol Med 78: 233–235, 2015. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.10.504.
81. Fuller JC, Sharp RL, Angus HF, Khoo PY, Rathmacher JA. Comparison of availability and plasma clearance rates of -hydroxy-- methylbutyrate delivery in the free acid and calcium salt forms. Br J Nutr 114: 1403–1409, 2015. doi:10.1017/S0007114515003050.
82. Gallagher JC. The effects of calcitriol on falls and fractures and physical performance tests. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 89-90: 497–501, 2004. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.03.059.
83. Gaudichon C, Mahé S, Benamouzig R, Luengo C, Fouillet H, Daré S, Van Oycke M, Ferrière F, Rautureau J, Tomé D. Net postprandial utilization of [15N]-labeled milk protein nitrogen is influenced by diet composition in humans. J Nutr 129: 890–895, 1999.
84. Gingras A-A, White PJ, Chouinard PY, Julien P, Davis TA, Dombrowski L, Couture Y, Dubreuil P, Myre A, Bergeron K, Marette A, Thivierge MC. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids regulate bovine wholebody protein metabolism by promoting muscle insulin signalling to the Akt-mTOR-S6K1 pathway and insulin sensitivity. J Physiol 579: 269–284, 2007. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2006.121079.
85. Girgis CM. Vitamin D and muscle function in the elderly: the elixir of youth? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 17: 546–550, 2014. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000104.
86. Girgis CM, Clifton-Bligh RJ, Hamrick MW, Holick MF, Gunton JE. The roles of vitamin D in skeletal muscle: form, function, and metabolism. Endocr Rev 34: 33–83, 2013. doi:10.1210/er.2012-1012.
87. Girgis CM, Clifton-Bligh RJ, Mokbel N, Cheng K, Gunton JE. Vitamin D signaling regulates proliferation, differentiation, and myotube size in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. Endocrinology 155: 347–357, 2014. doi:10.1210/en.2013-1205.
88. Girgis CM, Mokbel N, Cha KM, Houweling PJ, Abboud M, Fraser DR, Mason RS, Clifton-Bligh RJ, Gunton JE. The vitamin D receptor (VDR) is expressed in skeletal muscle of male mice and modulates 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) uptake in myofibers. Endocrinology 155: 3227–3237, 2014. doi:10.1210/en.2014-1016.
89. Di Girolamo FG, Situlin R, Mazzucco S, Valentini R, Toigo G, Biolo G. Omega-3 fatty acids and protein metabolism: enhancement of anabolic interventions for sarcopenia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 17: 145–150, 2014. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000032.
90. Glynn EL, Fry CS, Timmerman KL, Drummond MJ, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB. Addition of carbohydrate or alanine to an essential amino acid mixture does not enhance human skeletal muscle protein anabolism. J Nutr 143: 307–314, 2013. doi:10.3945/jn.112.168203.
91. Gomez-Cabrera MC, Borrás C, Pallardó FV, Sastre J, Ji LL, Viña J. Decreasing xanthine oxidase-mediated oxidative stress prevents useful cellular adaptations to exercise in rats. J Physiol 567: 113–120, 2005. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2004.080564.
92. Gomez-Cabrera MC, Domenech E, Romagnoli M, Arduini A, Borras C, Pallardo FV, Sastre J, Viña J. Oral administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations in endurance performance. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 142–149, 2008.
93. Gonzalez JT, Stevenson EJ. New perspectives on nutritional interventions to augment lipid utilisation during exercise. Br J Nutr 107: 339–349, 2012. doi:10.1017/S0007114511006684.
94. Gorissen SHM, Burd NA, Hamer HM, Gijsen AP, Groen BB, van Loon LJ. Carbohydrate coingestion delays dietary protein digestion and absorption but does not modulate postprandial muscle protein accretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99: 2250–2258, 2014. doi:10.1210/jc.2013-3970.
95. Graham TE, Battram DS, Dela F, El-Sohemy A, Thong FS. Does caffeine alter muscle carbohydrate and fat metabolism during exercise? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33: 1311–1318, 2008. doi:10.1139/H08-129.
96. Green AL, Hultman E, Macdonald IA, Sewell DA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 271: E821–E826, 1996.
97. Green AL, Simpson EJ, Littlewood JJ, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments creatine retention during creatine feeding in humans. Acta Physiol Scand 158: 195–202, 1996. doi:10.1046/j.1365-201X.1996.528300000.x.
98. Greenhaff PL, Bodin K, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Effect of oral creatine supplementation on skeletal muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 266: E725–E730, 1994.
99. Greenhaff PL, Casey A, Short AH, Harris R, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Influence of oral creatine supplementation of muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man. Clin Sci (Lond) 84: 565–571, 1993. doi:10.1042/cs0840565.
100. Greenhaff PL, Hultman E, Harris RC. Carbohydrate Metabolism. In: Principles of Exercise Biochemistry. Basel, Switzerland: Karger, 2003, p. 108–151. doi:10.1159/000074367
101. Greenhaff PL, Karagounis LG, Peirce N, Simpson EJ, Hazell M, Layfield R, Wackerhage H, Smith K, Atherton P, Selby A, Rennie MJ. Disassociation between the effects of amino acids and insulin on signaling, ubiquitin ligases, and protein turnover in human muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 295: E595–E604, 2008. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.90411.2008.
102. Le Guen M, Chaté V, Hininger-Favier I, Laillet B, Morio B, Pieroni G, Schlattner U, Pison C, Dubouchaud H. A 9-wk docosahexaenoic acid-enriched supplementation improves endurance exercise capacity and skeletal muscle mitochondrial function in adult rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 310: E213–E224, 2016. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00468.2014.
103. Guo Z, Burguera B, Jensen MD. Kinetics of intramuscular triglyceride fatty acids in exercising humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 89: 2057–2064, 2000.
104. Han JM, Jeong SJ, Park MC, Kim G, Kwon NH, Kim HK, Ha SH, Ryu SH, Kim S. Leucyl-tRNA synthetase is an intracellular leucine sensor for the mTORC1-signaling pathway. Cell 149: 410–424, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.02.044.
105. Harper P, Elwin CE, Cederblad G. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral bolus doses of L-carnitine in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 35: 555–562, 1988. doi:10.1007/BF00558253.
106. 106a. Harris RC, Dunnett M, Greenhaff PL. Carnosine and taurine contents in individual fibres of human vastus lateralis muscle. J Sports Sci 16: 639–643, 1998. doi:10.1080/026404198366443.
107. Harris RC, Söderlund K, Hultman E. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci (Lond) 83: 367–374, 1992. doi:10.1042/cs0830367.
108. Harris RC, Tallon MJ, Dunnett M, Boobis L, Coakley J, Kim HJ, Fallowfield JL, Hill CA, Sale C, Wise JA. The absorption of orally supplied -alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids 30: 279–289, 2006. doi:10.1007/s00726-006-0299-9.
109. Heiss C, Kleinbongard P, Dejam A, Perré S, Schroeter H, Sies H, Kelm M. Acute consumption of flavanol-rich cocoa and the reversal of endothelial dysfunction in smokers. J Am Coll Cardiol 46: 1276–1283, 2005. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2005.06.055.
110. Heymsfield SB, Arteaga C, McManus C, Smith J, Moffitt S. Measurement of muscle mass in humans: validity of the 24-hour urinary creatinine method. Am J Clin Nutr 37: 478–494, 1983.
111. Higashida K, Kim SH, Higuchi M, Holloszy JO, Han DH. Normal adaptations to exercise despite protection against oxidative stress. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 301: E779–E784, 2011. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00655.2010.
112. Hill CA, Harris RC, Kim HJ, Harris BD, Sale C, Boobis LH, Kim CK, Wise JA. Influence of -alanine supplementation on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations and high intensity cycling capacity. Amino Acids 32: 225–233, 2007. doi:10.1007/s00726-006-0364-4.
113. Hirsh S, Huber L, Zhang P, Stein R, Joyal S. A single ascending dose, initial clinical pharmacokinetic and safety study of ursolic acid in healthy adult volunteers (Abstract). FASEB J 28: 1044.6, 2014.
114. Hodgson AB, Randell RK, Jeukendrup AE. The effect of green tea extract on fat oxidation at rest and during exercise: evidence of efficacy and proposed mechanisms. Adv Nutr 4: 129–140, 2013. doi:10.3945/an.112.003269.
115. Hoffman JR, Stout JR, Williams DR, Wells AJ, Fragala MS, Mangine GT, Gonzalez AM, Emerson NS, McCormack WP, Scanlon TC, Purpura M, Jäger R. Efficacy of phosphatidic acid ingestion on lean body mass, muscle thickness and strength gains in resistance-trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 9: 47, 2012. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-9-47.
116. Holick MF. Resurrection of vitamin D deficiency and rickets. J Clin Invest 116: 2062–2072, 2006. doi:10.1172/JCI29449.
117. Holick MF. High prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and implications for health. Mayo Clin Proc 81: 353–373, 2006. doi:10.4065/81.3.353.
118. Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, Murad MH, Weaver CM; Endocrine Society. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: 1911–1930, 2011. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0385.
119. Huffman DM, Michaelson JL, Thomas TR, Derek M, Huffman JL, Michaelson TR. Chronic supplementation with fish oil increases fat oxidation during exercise in young men. J Exerc Physiol 7: 48–57, 2004.
120. Hulmi JJ, Kovanen V, Selänne H, Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K, Mero AA. Acute and long-term effects of resistance exercise with or without protein ingestion on muscle hypertrophy and gene expression. Amino Acids 37: 297–308, 2009. doi:10.1007/s00726-008-0150-6.
121. Ivy JL, Katz AL, Cutler CL, Sherman WM, Coyle EF. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J Appl Physiol (1985) 64: 1480–1485, 1988.
122. Jaafar R, De Larichaudy J, Chanon S, Euthine V, Durand C, Naro F, Bertolino P, Vidal H, Lefai E, Némoz G. Phospholipase D regulates the size of skeletal muscle cells through the activation of mTOR signaling. Cell Commun Signal 11: 55, 2013. doi:10.1186/1478-811X-11-55.
123. Janssen I, Heymsfield SB, Wang ZM, Ross R. Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18-88 yr. J Appl Physiol (1985) 89: 81–88, 2000.
124. Jeong JW, Shim JJ, Choi ID, Kim SH, Ra J, Ku HK, Lee DE, Kim TY, Jeung W, Lee J-H, Lee KW, Huh CS, Sim JH, Ahn YT. Apple Pomace Extract Improves Endurance in Exercise Performance by Increasing Strength and Weight of Skeletal Muscle. J Med Food 18: 1380–1386, 2015. doi:10.1089/jmf.2014.3401.
125. Jobgen W, Meininger CJ, Jobgen SC, Li P, Lee MJ, Smith SB, Spencer TE, Fried SK, Wu G. Dietary L-arginine supplementation reduces white fat gain and enhances skeletal muscle and brown fat masses in diet-induced obese rats. J Nutr 139: 230–237, 2009. doi:10.3945/jn.108.096362.
126. Joncquel-Chevalier Curt M, Voicu PM, Fontaine M, Dessein AF, Porchet N, Mention-Mulliez K, Dobbelaere D, Soto-Ares G, Cheillan D, Vamecq J. Creatine biosynthesis and transport in health and disease. Biochimie 119: 146–165, 2015. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2015.10.022.
127. Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Sports Med 44, Suppl 1: S35–S45, 2014. doi:10.1007/s40279-014-0149-y.
128. Jouris KB, McDaniel JL, Weiss EP. The effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on the inflammatory response to eccentric strength exercise. J Sports Sci Med 10: 432–438, 2011.
129. Joy JM, Gundermann DM, Lowery RP, Jäger R, McCleary SA, Purpura M, Roberts MD, Wilson SM, Hornberger TA, Wilson JM. Phosphatidic acid enhances mTOR signaling and resistance exercise induced hypertrophy. Nutr Metab (Lond) 11: 29, 2014. doi:10.1186/1743-7075-11-29.
130. Kalyani RR, Stein B, Valiyil R, Manno R, Maynard JW, Crews DC. Vitamin D treatment for the prevention of falls in older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 58: 1299–1310, 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.02949.x.
131. Kamolrat T, Gray SR. The effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid on protein synthesis and breakdown in murine C2C12 myotubes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 432: 593–598, 2013. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.02.041.
132. Karim M, McCormick K, Kappagoda CT. Effects of cocoa extracts on endothelium-dependent relaxation. J Nutr 130, Suppl: 2105S–2108S, 2000.
133. Kendrick IP, Harris RC, Kim HJ, Kim CK, Dang VH, Lam TQ, Bui TT, Smith M, Wise JA. The effects of 10 weeks of resistance training combined with beta-alanine supplementation on whole body strength, force production, muscular endurance and body composition. Amino Acids 34: 547–554, 2008. doi:10.1007/s00726-007-0008-3.
134. Kerksick CM, Rasmussen CJ, Lancaster SL, Magu B, Smith P, Melton C, Greenwood M, Almada AL, Earnest CP, Kreider RB. The effects of protein and amino acid supplementation on performance and training adaptations during ten weeks of resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 20: 643–653, 2006. doi:10.1519/R-17695.1.
135. Kimball SR. Integration of signals generated by nutrients, hormones, and exercise in skeletal muscle. Am J Clin Nutr 99: 237S–242S, 2014. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.068387.
136. Knitter AE, Panton L, Rathmacher JA, Petersen A, Sharp R. Effects of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate on muscle damage after a prolonged run. J Appl Physiol (1985) 89: 1340–1344, 2000.
137. Koopman R, Beelen M, Stellingwerff T, Pennings B, Saris WH, Kies AK, Kuipers H, van Loon LJ. Coingestion of carbohydrate with protein does not further augment postexercise muscle protein synthesis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 293: E833–E842, 2007. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00135.2007.
138. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Deschenes MR. Exercise Physiology: Integrating Theory and Application. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011.
139. Kreider RB, Ferreira M, Wilson M, Almada AL. Effects of calcium -hydroxy--methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation during resistancetraining on markers of catabolism, body composition and strength. Int J Sports Med 20: 503–509, 1999. doi:10.1055/s-1999-8835.
140. Kunkel SD, Elmore CJ, Bongers KS, Ebert SM, Fox DK, Dyle MC, Bullard SA, Adams CM. Ursolic acid increases skeletal muscle and brown fat and decreases diet-induced obesity, glucose intolerance and fatty liver disease. PLoS One 7: e39332, 2012. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039332.
141. Kunkel SD, Suneja M, Ebert SM, Bongers KS, Fox DK, Malmberg SE, Alipour F, Shields RK, Adams CM. mRNA expression signatures of human skeletal muscle atrophy identify a natural compound that increases muscle mass. Cell Metab 13: 627–638, 2011. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.03.020.
142. Labonté M, Dionne IJ, Bouchard DR, Sénéchal M, Tessier D, Khalil A, Labonté M, Bobeuf F, Tessier D, Khalil A, Dionne IJ. Effects of antioxidant supplements combined with resistance exercise on gains in fat-free mass in healthy elderly subjects: a pilot study. J Am Geriatr Soc 56: 1766–1768, 2008. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.01810.x.
143. Lamboley CRH, Royer D, Dionne IJ. Effects of beta-hydroxy-betamethylbutyrate on aerobic-performance components and body composition in college students. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 17: 56–69, 2007. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.17.1.56.
144. Lansley KE, Winyard PG, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Wilkerson DP, Blackwell JR, Gilchrist M, Benjamin N, Jones AM. Acute dietary nitrate supplementation improves cycling time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43: 1125–1131, 2011. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31821597b4.
145. Lanza IR, Blachnio-Zabielska A, Johnson ML, Schimke JM, Jakaitis DR, Lebrasseur NK, Jensen MD, Sreekumaran Nair K, Zabielski P. Influence of fish oil on skeletal muscle mitochondrial energetics and lipid metabolites during high-fat diet. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 304: E1391–E1403, 2013. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00584.2012.
146. Larsen FJ, Schiffer TA, Borniquel S, Sahlin K, Ekblom B, Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E. Dietary inorganic nitrate improves mitochondrial efficiency in humans. Cell Metab 13: 149–159, 2011. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.01.004.
147. Larsen FJ, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO, Ekblom B. Effects of dietary nitrate on oxygen cost during exercise. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 191: 59–66, 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2007.01713.x.
148. Lemon PW, Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD, Atkinson SA. Protein requirements and muscle mass/strength changes during intensive training in novice bodybuilders. J Appl Physiol (1985) 73: 767–775, 1992.
149. Li YP, Chen Y, Li AS, Reid MB. Hydrogen peroxide stimulates ubiquitin-conjugating activity and expression of genes for specific E2 and E3 proteins in skeletal muscle myotubes. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 285: C806–C812, 2003. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00129.2003.
150. Logan SL, Spriet LL. Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation for 12 Weeks Increases Resting and Exercise Metabolic Rate in Healthy Community- Dwelling Older Females. PLoS One 10: e0144828, 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144828.
151. Louis M, Poortmans JR, Francaux M, Berré J, Boisseau N, Brassine E, Cuthbertson DJR, Smith K, Babraj JA, Waddell T, Rennie MJ. No effect of creatine supplementation on human myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein synthesis after resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 285: E1089–E1094, 2003. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00195.2003.
152. Louis M, Poortmans JR, Francaux M, Hultman E, Berre J, Boisseau N, Young VR, Smith K, Meier-Augenstein W, Babraj JA, Waddell T, Rennie MJ. Creatine supplementation has no effect on human muscle protein turnover at rest in the postabsorptive or fed states. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 284: E764–E770, 2003. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00338.2002.
153. Luiking YC, Ten Have GA, Wolfe RR, Deutz NE. Arginine de novo and nitric oxide production in disease states. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 303: E1177–E1189, 2012. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00284.2012.
154. Makanae Y, Kawada S, Sasaki K, Nakazato K, Ishii N. Vitamin C administration attenuates overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy in rats. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 208: 57–65, 2013. doi:10.1111/apha.12042.
155. Mandel H, Levy N, Izkovitch S, Korman SH. Elevated plasma citrulline and arginine due to consumption of Citrullus vulgaris (watermelon). J Inherit Metab Dis 28: 467–472, 2005. doi:10.1007/s10545-005-0467-1.
156. Marzani B, Balage M, Vénien A, Astruc T, Papet I, Dardevet D, Mosoni L. Antioxidant supplementation restores defective leucine stimulation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle from old rats. J Nutr 138: 2205–2211, 2008. doi:10.3945/jn.108.094029.
157. McCarthy JJ, Esser KA. Counterpoint: Satellite cell addition is not obligatory for skeletal muscle hypertrophy. J Appl Physiol (1985) 103: 1100–1102, 2007. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00101.2007a.
158. McConell GK, Bradley SJ, Stephens TJ, Canny BJ, Kingwell BA, Lee-Young RS. Skeletal muscle nNOS mu protein content is increased by exercise training in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 293: R821–R828, 2007. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00796.2006.
159. McGlory C, Galloway SDR, Hamilton DL, McClintock C, Breen L, Dick JR, Bell JG, Tipton KD. Temporal changes in human skeletal muscle and blood lipid composition with fish oil supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 90: 199–206, 2014. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2014.03.001.
160. McGlory C, Wardle SL, Macnaughton LS, Witard OC, Scott F, Dick J, Bell JG, Phillips SM, Galloway SD, Hamilton DL, Tipton KD. Fish oil supplementation suppresses resistance exercise and feeding-induced increases in anabolic signaling without affecting myofibrillar protein synthesis in young men. Physiol Rep 4: e12715, 2016. doi:10.14814/phy2.12715.
161. McLellan TM, Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR. Effects of protein in combination with carbohydrate supplements on acute or repeat endurance exercise performance: a systematic review. Sports Med 44: 535–550, 2014. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0133-y.
162. Miramonti AA, Stout JR, Fukuda DH, Robinson EH IV, Wang R, La Monica MB, Hoffman JR. The effects of four weeks of high intensity interval training and +-hydroxy-+-methylbutyric free acid supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue. J Strength Cond Res 30: 626–634, 2016. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000001140.
163. Mitchell WK, Phillips BE, Wilkinson DJ, Williams JP, Rankin D, Lund JN, Smith K, Atherton PJ. Supplementing essential amino acids with the nitric oxide precursor, l-arginine, enhances skeletal muscle perfusion without impacting anabolism in older men. Clin Nutr S0261- 5614: 31271–31277, 2016. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2016.09.031.
164. Mobley CB, Hornberger TA, Fox CD, Healy JC, Ferguson BS, Lowery RP, McNally RM, Lockwood CM, Stout JR, Kavazis AN, Wilson JM, Roberts MD. Effects of oral phosphatidic acid feeding with or without whey protein on muscle protein synthesis and anabolic signaling in rodent skeletal muscle. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 12: 32, 2015. doi:10.1186/s12970-015-0094-7.
165. Moore DR, Churchward-Venne TA, Witard O, Breen L, Burd NA, Tipton KD, Phillips SM. Protein ingestion to stimulate myofibrillar protein synthesis requires greater relative protein intakes in healthy older versus younger men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 70: 57–62, 2015. doi:10.1093/gerona/glu103.
166. Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, Tang JE, Glover EI, Wilkinson SB, Prior T, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 161–168, 2009. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26401.
167. Moylan JS, Reid MB. Oxidative stress, chronic disease, and muscle wasting. Muscle Nerve 35: 411–429, 2007. doi:10.1002/mus.20743.
168. Muggeridge DJ, Howe CC, Spendiff O, Pedlar C, James PE, Easton C. A single dose of beetroot juice enhances cycling performance in simulated altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc 46: 143–150, 2014. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182a.dc51.
169. Mujika I, Chatard JC, Lacoste L, Barale F, Geyssant A. Creatine supplementation does not improve sprint performance in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 1435–1441, 1996. doi:10.1097/00005768-199611000-00014.
170. Naderi A, de Oliveira EP, Ziegenfuss TN, Willems ME. Timing, Optimal Dose and Intake Duration of Dietary Supplements with Evidence- Based Use in Sports Nutrition. J Exerc Nutrition Biochem 20: 1–12, 2016. doi:10.20463/jenb.2016.0031.
171. Newsholme P, Bender K, Kiely A, Brennan L. Amino acid metabolism, insulin secretion and diabetes. Biochem Soc Trans 35: 1180–1186, 2007. doi:10.1042/BST0351180.
172. Newsholme P, Krause M. Nutritional regulation of insulin secretion: implications for diabetes. Clin Biochem Rev 33: 35–47, 2012.
173. Nissen S, Sharp R, Ray M, Rathmacher JA, Rice D, Fuller JC Jr, Connelly AS, Abumrad N. Effect of leucine metabolite β-hydroxy- β - methylbutyrate on muscle metabolism during resistance-exercise training. J Appl Physiol (1985) 81: 2095–2104, 1996.
174. Nissen SL, Abumrad NN. Nutritional role of the leucine metabolite -hydroxy -methylbutyrate (HMB). J Nutr Biochem 8: 300–311, 1997. doi:10.1016/S0955-2863(97)00048-X.
175. O’Neil TK, Duffy LR, Frey JW, Hornberger TA. The role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and phosphatidic acid in the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin following eccentric contractions. J Physiol 587: 3691–3701, 2009. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2009.173609.
176. Ogasawara R, Sato K, Higashida K, Nakazato K, Fujita S. Ursolic acid stimulates mTORC1 signaling after resistance exercise in rat skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 305: E760–E765, 2013. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00302.2013.
177. Olsen S, Aagaard P, Kadi F, Tufekovic G, Verney J, Olesen JL, Suetta C, Kjaer M. Creatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength training. J Physiol 573: 525–534, 2006. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2006.107359.
178. Osowska S, Duchemann T, Walrand S, Paillard A, Boirie Y, Cynober L, Moinard C. Citrulline modulates muscle protein metabolism in old malnourished rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 291: E582–E586, 2006. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00398.2005.
179. Ou X, Liu M, Luo H, Dong LQ, Liu F. Ursolic acid inhibits leucine-stimulated mTORC1 signaling by suppressing mTOR localization to lysosome. PLoS One 9: e95393, 2014. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095393.
180. Panton LB, Rathmacher JA, Baier S, Nissen S. Nutritional supplementation of the leucine metabolite β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (hmb) during resistance training. Nutrition 16: 734–739, 2000. doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00376-2.
181. Patel J, McLeod LE, Vries RG, Flynn A, Wang X, Proud CG. Cellular stresses profoundly inhibit protein synthesis and modulate the states of phosphorylation of multiple translation factors. Eur J Biochem 269: 3076–3085, 2002. doi:10.1046/j.1432-1033.2002.02992.x.
182. Paulsen G, Cumming KT, Holden G, Hallén J, Rønnestad BR, Sveen O, Skaug A, Paur I, Bastani NE, Østgaard HN, Buer C, Midttun M, Freuchen F, Wiig H, Ulseth ET, Garthe I, Blomhoff R, Benestad HB, Raastad T. Vitamin C and E supplementation hampers cellular adaptation to endurance training in humans: a double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. J Physiol 592: 1887–1901, 2014. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2013.267419.
183. Paulsen G, Hamarsland H, Cumming KT, Johansen RE, Hulmi JJ, Børsheim E, Wiig H, Garthe I, Raastad T. Vitamin C and E supplementation alters protein signalling after a strength training session, but not muscle growth during 10 weeks of training. J Physiol 592: 5391–5408, 2014. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.279950.
184. Petersen AC, McKenna MJ, Medved I, Murphy KT, Brown MJ, Della Gatta P, Cameron-Smith D. Infusion with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine attenuates early adaptive responses to exercise in human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 204: 382–392, 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2011.02344.x.
185. Petróczi A, Naughton DP, Pearce G, Bailey R, Bloodworth A, Mc- Namee M. Nutritional supplement use by elite young UK athletes: fallacies of advice regarding efficacy. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 5: 22, 2008. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-5-22.
186. Phillips BE, Atherton PJ, Varadhan K, Limb MC, Wilkinson DJ, Sjøberg KA, Smith K, Williams JP. The effects of resistance exercise training on macro- and micro-circulatory responses to feeding and skeletal muscle protein anabolism in older men. J Physiol 593: 2721–2734, 2015. doi:10.1113/JP270343.
187. Phillips BE, Atherton PJ, Varadhan K, Limb MC, Williams JP, Smith K. Acute cocoa flavanol supplementation improves muscle macro- and microvascular but not anabolic responses to amino acids in older men. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 41: 548–556, 2016. doi:10.1139/apnm-2015-0543.
188. Phillips BE, Atherton PJ, Varadhan K, Wilkinson DJ, Limb M, Selby AL, Rennie MJ, Smith K, Williams JP. Pharmacological enhancement of leg and muscle microvascular blood flow does not augment anabolic responses in skeletal muscle of young men under fed conditions. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 306: E168–E176, 2014. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00440.2013.
189. Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Aarsland A, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 273: E99–E107, 1997.
190. Phillips SM, McGlory C. CrossTalk proposal: The dominant mechanism causing disuse muscle atrophy is decreased protein synthesis. J Physiol 592: 5341–5343, 2014. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.273615.
191. Pike JW. Expression of the vitamin D receptor in skeletal muscle: are we there yet? Endocrinology 155: 3214–3218, 2014. doi:10.1210/en.2014-1624.
192. Le Plénier S, Walrand S, Noirt R, Cynober L, Moinard C. Effects of leucine and citrulline versus non-essential amino acids on muscle protein synthesis in fasted rat: a common activation pathway? Amino Acids 43: 1171–1178, 2012. doi:10.1007/s00726-011-1172-z.
193. Pojednic RM, Ceglia L. The emerging biomolecular role of vitamin D in skeletal muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 42: 76–81, 2014. doi:10.1249/JES.0000000000000013.
194. Poveda JJ, Riestra A, Salas E, Cagigas ML, López-Somoza C, Amado JA, Berrazueta JR. Contribution of nitric oxide to exerciseinduced changes in healthy volunteers: effects of acute exercise and long-term physical training. Eur J Clin Invest 27: 967–971, 1997. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2362.1997.2220763.x.
195. Powers SK, Jackson MJ. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: cellular mechanisms and impact on muscle force production. Physiol Rev 88: 1243–1276, 2008. doi:10.1152/physrev.00031.2007.
196. Purpura M, Jäger R, Joy JM, Lowery RP, Moore JD, Wilson JM. Effect of oral administration of soy-derived phosphatidic acid on concentrations of phosphatidic acid and lyso-phosphatidic acid molecular species in human plasma. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 10, Suppl 1: P22, 2013. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-10-S1-P22.
197. Rankin JW, Goldman LP, Puglisi MJ, Nickols-Richardson SM, Earthman CP, Gwazdauskas FC. Effect of post-exercise supplement consumption on adaptations to resistance training. J Am Coll Nutr 23: 322–330, 2004. doi:10.1080/07315724.2004.10719375.
198. Rasmussen BB, Tipton KD, Miller SL, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. An oral essential amino acid-carbohydrate supplement enhances muscle protein anabolism after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 88: 386–392, 2000.
199. Rennie MJ, Edwards RH, Halliday D, Matthews DE, Wolman SL, Millward DJ. Muscle protein synthesis measured by stable isotope techniques in man: the effects of feeding and fasting. Clin Sci (Lond) 63: 519–523, 1982. doi:10.1042/cs0630519.
200. Robinson MM, Turner SM, Hellerstein MK, Hamilton KL, Miller BF. Long-term synthesis rates of skeletal muscle DNA and protein are higher during aerobic training in older humans than in sedentary young subjects but are not altered by protein supplementation. FASEB J 25: 3240–3249, 2011. doi:10.1096/fj.11-186437.
201. Rodacki CL, Rodacki AL, Pereira G, Naliwaiko K, Coelho I, Pequito D, Fernandes LC. Fish-oil supplementation enhances the effects of strength training in elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr 95: 428–436, 2012. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.021915.
202. Ryan AM, Reynolds JV, Healy L, Byrne M, Moore J, Brannelly N, McHugh A, McCormack D, Flood P. Enteral nutrition enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) preserves lean body mass following esophageal cancer surgery: results of a double-blinded randomized controlled trial. Ann Surg 249: 355–363, 2009. doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e31819a.789.
203. Safdar A, Yardley NJ, Snow R, Melov S, Tarnopolsky MA. Global and targeted gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of young men following short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation. Physiol Genomics 32: 219–228, 2008. doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00157.2007.
204. Sahlin K, Ren JM. Relationship of contraction capacity to metabolic changes during recovery from a fatiguing contraction. J Appl Physiol (1985) 67: 648–654, 1989.
205. Salles J, Chanet A, Giraudet C, Patrac V, Pierre P, Jourdan M, Luiking YC, Verlaan S, Migné C, Boirie Y, Walrand S. 1,25(OH)2- vitamin D3 enhances the stimulating effect of leucine and insulin on protein synthesis rate through Akt/PKB and mTOR mediated pathways in murine C2C12 skeletal myotubes. Mol Nutr Food Res 57: 2137–2146, 2013. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201300074.
206. Sancak Y, Bar-Peled L, Zoncu R, Markhard AL, Nada S, Sabatini DM. Ragulator-Rag complex targets mTORC1 to the lysosomal surface and is necessary for its activation by amino acids. Cell 141: 290–303, 2010. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.02.024.
207. Sato Y, Iwamoto J, Kanoko T, Satoh K. Low-dose vitamin D prevents muscular atrophy and reduces falls and hip fractures in women after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Cerebrovasc Dis 20: 187–192, 2005. doi:10.1159/000087203.
208. Scott D, Blizzard L, Fell J, Giles G, Jones G. Associations between dietary nutrient intake and muscle mass and strength in communitydwelling older adults: the Tasmanian Older Adult Cohort Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 58: 2129–2134, 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03147.x.
209. Shad BJ, Smeuninx B, Atherton PJ, Breen L. The mechanistic and ergogenic effects of phosphatidic acid in skeletal muscle. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 40: 1233–1241, 2015. doi:10.1139/apnm-2015-0350.
210. Shannon CE, Nixon AV, Greenhaff PL, Stephens FB. Protein ingestion acutely inhibits insulin-stimulated muscle carnitine uptake in healthy young men. Am J Clin Nutr 103: 276–282, 2016. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.119826.
211. Muita JW. Micronutrients in health and disease. East Afr Med J 78: 449–450, 2001. doi:10.4314/eamj.v78i9.8971.
212. Shenkin A. The key role of micronutrients. Clin Nutr 25: 1–13, 2006. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2005.11.006.
213. Slater G, Jenkins D, Logan P, Lee H, Vukovich M, Rathmacher JA, Hahn AG. Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) supplementation does not affect changes in strength or body composition during resistance training in trained men. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 11: 384–396, 2001. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.11.3.384.
214. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Mittendorfer B. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 93: 402–412, 2011. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.005611.
215. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Mittendorfer B. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinaemia-hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clin Sci (Lond) 121: 267–278, 2011. doi:10.1042/CS20100597.
216. Smith GI, Julliand S, Reeds DN, Sinacore DR, Klein S, Mittendorfer B. Fish oil-derived n-3 PUFA therapy increases muscle mass and function in healthy older adults. Am J Clin Nutr 102: 115–122, 2015. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.105833.
217. Smith K, Reynolds N, Downie S, Patel A, Rennie MJ. Effects of flooding amino acids on incorporation of labeled amino acids into human muscle protein. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 275: E73–E78, 1998.
218. Snow RJ, McKenna MJ, Selig SE, Kemp J, Stathis CG, Zhao S. Effect of creatine supplementation on sprint exercise performance and muscle metabolism. J Appl Physiol (1985) 84: 1667–1673, 1998.
219. Soop M, Björkman O, Cederblad G, Hagenfeldt L, Wahren J. Influence of carnitine supplementation on muscle substrate and carnitine metabolism during exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 64: 2394–2399, 1988.
220. Sørensen OH, Lund B, Saltin B, Lund B, Andersen RB, Hjorth L, Melsen F, Mosekilde L. Myopathy in bone loss of ageing: improvement by treatment with 1 alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol and calcium. Clin Sci (Lond) 56: 157–161, 1979. doi:10.1042/cs0560157.
221. Stellingwerff T, Decombaz J, Harris RC, Boesch C. Optimizing human in vivo dosing and delivery of β-alanine supplements for muscle carnosine synthesis. Amino Acids 43: 57–65, 2012. doi:10.1007/s00726-012-1245-7.
222. Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Greenhaff PL. New insights concerning the role of carnitine in the regulation of fuel metabolism in skeletal muscle. J Physiol 581: 431–444, 2007. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2006.125799.
223. Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Laithwaite D, Simpson EJ, Greenhaff PL. An acute increase in skeletal muscle carnitine content alters fuel metabolism in resting human skeletal muscle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91: 5013–5018, 2006. doi:10.1210/jc.2006-1584.
224. Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Laithwaite D, Simpson EJ, Greenhaff PL. Insulin stimulates L-carnitine accumulation in human skeletal muscle. FASEB J 20: 377–379, 2006. doi:10.1096/fj.05-4985fje.
225. Stephens FB, Evans CE, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments L-carnitine retention in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 102: 1065–1070, 2007. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01011.2006.
226. Stephens FB, Wall BT, Marimuthu K, Shannon CE, Constantin- Teodosiu D, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Skeletal muscle carnitine loading increases energy expenditure, modulates fuel metabolism gene networks and prevents body fat accumulation in humans. J Physiol 591: 4655–4666, 2013. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2013.255364.
227. Stout JR, Cramer JT, Zoeller RF, Torok D, Costa P, Hoffman JR, Harris RC, O’Kroy J. Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue and ventilatory threshold in women. Amino Acids 32: 381–386, 2007. doi:10.1007/s00726-006-0474-z.
228. Suzuki Y, Ito O, Mukai N, Takahashi H, Takamatsu K. High level of skeletal muscle carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise performance during 30-s maximal cycle ergometer sprinting. Jpn J Physiol 52: 199–205, 2002. doi:10.2170/jjphysiol.52.199.
229. Symons TB, Sheffield-Moore M, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D. A moderate serving of high-quality protein maximally stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis in young and elderly subjects. J Am Diet Assoc 109: 1582–1586, 2009. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.06.369.
230. Tanaka T, Kassai A, Ohmoto M, Morito K, Kashiwada Y, Takaishi Y, Urikura M, Morishige J, Satouchi K, Tokumura A. Quantification of phosphatidic acid in foodstuffs using a thin-layer-chromatographyimaging technique. J Agric Food Chem 60: 4156–4161, 2012. doi:10.1021/jf300147y.
231. Tang JE, Lysecki PJ, Manolakos JJ, MacDonald MJ, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Bolus arginine supplementation affects neither muscle blood flow nor muscle protein synthesis in young men at rest or after resistance exercise. J Nutr 141: 195–200, 2011. doi:10.3945/jn.110.130138.
232. Taylor PM. Absorbing competition for carnitine. J Physiol 532: 283, 2001. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0283f.x.
233. Thompson CH, Kemp GJ, Sanderson AL, Dixon RM, Styles P, Taylor DJ, Radda GK. Effect of creatine on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle in swimmers. Br J Sports Med 30: 222–225, 1996. doi:10.1136/bjsm.30.3.222.
234. Thwaites DT, Anderson CMH. H-coupled nutrient, micronutrient and drug transporters in the mammalian small intestine. Exp Physiol 92: 603–619, 2007. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2005.029959.
235. Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, Aarsland AA, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR. Stimulation of net muscle protein synthesis by whey protein ingestion before and after exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 292: E71–E76, 2007. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00166.2006.
236. Tomi M, Tajima A, Tachikawa M, Hosoya K. Function of taurine transporter (Slc6a./TauT) as a GABA transporting protein and its relevance to GABA transport in rat retinal capillary endothelial cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1778: 2138–2142, 2008. doi:10.1016/j.bbamem.2008.04.012.
237. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Stout JR, Hoffman JR, Wilborn CD, Sale C, Kreider RB, Jäger R, Earnest CP, Bannock L, Campbell B, Kalman D, Ziegenfuss TN, Antonio J. International society of sports nutrition position stand: Beta-Alanine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 12: 30, 2015. doi:10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y.
238. Vanhatalo A, Fulford J, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Winyard PG, Jones AM. Dietary nitrate reduces muscle metabolic perturbation and improves exercise tolerance in hypoxia. J Physiol 589: 5517–5528, 2011. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2011.216341.
239. 239a. Van Koevering M, Nissen S. Oxidation of leucine and a-ketoisocaproate to ß-hydroxy-ß-methylbutyrate in vivo. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 262: E27–E31, 1992.
240. Vaughan RA, Gannon NP, Carriker CR. Nitrate-containing beetroot enhances myocyte metabolism and mitochondrial content. J Tradit Complement Med 6: 17–22, 2015. doi:10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.11.033.
241. Verdijk LB, Gleeson BG, Jonkers RA, Meijer K, Savelberg HH, Dendale P, van Loon LJ. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy following resistance training is accompanied by a fiber type-specific increase in satellite cell content in elderly men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 64: 332–339, 2009. doi:10.1093/gerona/gln050.
242. Verdijk LB, Jonkers RA, Gleeson BG, Beelen M, Meijer K, Savelberg HH, Wodzig WK, Dendale P, van Loon LJ. Protein supplementation before and after exercise does not further augment skeletal muscle hypertrophy after resistance training in elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 608–616, 2009. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26626.
243. Verreijen AM, de Wilde J, Engberink MF, Swinkels S, Verlaan S, Weijs PJ. A High Whey Protein, Leucine Enriched Supplement Preserves Muscle Mass During Intentional Weight Loss in Obese Older Adults: a Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial. Clin Nutr 32: S3, 2013. doi:10.1016/S0261-5614(13)60009-6.
244. Visser M, Deeg DJH, Lips P; Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. Low vitamin D and high parathyroid hormone levels as determinants of loss of muscle strength and muscle mass (sarcopenia): the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 5766–5772, 2003. doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030604.
245. Volek JS, Duncan ND, Mazzetti SA, Staron RS, Putukian M, Gómez AL, Pearson DR, Fink WJ, Kraemer WJ. Performance and muscle fiber adaptations to creatine supplementation and heavy resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31: 1147–1156, 1999. doi:10.1097/00005768-199908000-00011.
246. Vukovich MD, Dreifort GD. Effect of beta-hydroxy beta-methylbutyrate on the onset of blood lactate accumulation and V(O)(2) peak in endurance-trained cyclists. J Strength Cond Res 15: 491–497, 2001.
247. Wächter S, Vogt M, Kreis R, Boesch C, Bigler P, Hoppeler H, Krähenbühl S. Long-term administration of L-carnitine to humans: effect on skeletal muscle carnitine content and physical performance. Clin Chim Acta 318: 51–61, 2002. doi:10.1016/S0009-8981(01)00804-X.
248. Wadley GD. A role for reactive oxygen species in the regulation of skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 208: 9–10, 2013. doi:10.1111/apha.12078.
249. Wall BT, Hamer HM, de Lange A, Kiskini A, Groen BBL, Senden JMG, Gijsen AP, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJC. Leucine co-ingestion improves post-prandial muscle protein accretion in elderly men. Clin Nutr 32: 412–419, 2013. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2012.09.002.
250. Wall BT, Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Marimuthu K, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Chronic oral ingestion of L-carnitine and carbohydrate increases muscle carnitine content and alters muscle fuel metabolism during exercise in humans. J Physiol 589: 963–973, 2011. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2010.201343.
251. Wang Y, DeLuca HF. Is the vitamin d receptor found in muscle? Endocrinology 152: 354–363, 2011. doi:10.1210/en.2010-1109.
252. Ward KA, Das G, Roberts SA, Berry JL, Adams JE, Rawer R, Mughal MZ. A randomized, controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation upon musculoskeletal health in postmenarchal females. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 4643–4651, 2010. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-2725.
253. Welch AA. Nutritional influences on age-related skeletal muscle loss. Proc Nutr Soc 73: 16–33, 2014. doi:10.1017/S0029665113003698.
254. Wilkerson DP, Hayward GM, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Blackwell JR, Jones AM. Influence of acute dietary nitrate supplementation on 50 mile time trial performance in well-trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 112: 4127–4134, 2012. doi:10.1007/s00421-012-2397-6.
255. Wilkes EA, Selby AL, Atherton PJ, Patel R, Rankin D, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Blunting of insulin inhibition of proteolysis in legs of older subjects may contribute to age-related sarcopenia. Am J Clin Nutr 90: 1343–1350, 2009. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27543.
256. Wilkinson DJ, Hossain T, Hill DS, Phillips BE, Crossland H, Williams J, Loughna P, Churchward-Venne TA, Breen L, Phillips SM, Etheridge T, Rathmacher JA, Smith K, Szewczyk NJ, Atherton PJ. Effects of leucine and its metabolite β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate on human skeletal muscle protein metabolism. J Physiol 591: 2911–2923, 2013. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2013.253203.
257. Willoughby DS, Rosene J. Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myosin heavy chain expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 1674–1681, 2001. doi:10.1097/00005768-200110000-00010.
258. Willoughby DS, Rosene JM. Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myogenic regulatory factor expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 923–929, 2003. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000069746.05241.F0.
259. Willoughby DS, Stout JR, Wilborn CD. Effects of resistance training and protein plus amino acid supplementation on muscle anabolism, mass, and strength. Amino Acids 32: 467–477, 2007. doi:10.1007/s00726-006-0398-7.
260. Wilson GJ, Wilson JM, Manninen AH. Effects of beta-hydroxy-betamethylbutyrate (HMB) on exercise performance and body composition across varying levels of age, sex, and training experience: A review. Nutr Metab (Lond) 5: 1–17, 2008. doi:10.1186/1743-7075-5-1.
261. Wilson JM, Lowery RP, Joy JM, Andersen JC, Wilson SM, Stout JR, Duncan N, Fuller JC, Baier SM, Naimo MA, Rathmacher J. The effects of 12 weeks of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate free acid supplementation on muscle mass, strength, and power in resistance-trained individuals: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur J Appl Physiol 114: 1217–1227, 2014. doi:10.1007/s00421-014-2854-5.
262. Winter JN, Fox TE, Kester M, Jefferson LS, Kimball SR. Phosphatidic acid mediates activation of mTORC1 through the ERK signaling pathway. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 299: C335–C344, 2010. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00039.2010.
263. Witard OC, Jackman SR, Breen L, Smith K, Selby A, Tipton KD. Myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis rates subsequent to a meal in response to increasing doses of whey protein at rest and after resistance exercise. Am J Clin Nutr 99: 86–95, 2014. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.055517.
264. Wolfe RR. The underappreciated role of muscle in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr 84: 475–482, 2006.
265. Wolfson RL, Chantranupong L, Saxton RA, Shen K, Scaria SM, Cantor JR, Sabatini DM. Sestrin2 is a leucine sensor for the mTORC1 pathway. Science 351: 43–48, 2016. doi:10.1126/science.aab2674.
266. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF. Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 72: 690–693, 2000.
267. Wu G, Bazer FW, Davis TA, Kim SW, Li P, Marc Rhoads J, Carey Satterfield M, Smith SB, Spencer TE, Yin Y. Arginine metabolism and nutrition in growth, health and disease. Amino Acids 37: 153–168, 2009. doi:10.1007/s00726-008-0210-y.
268. Wu H, Xia Y, Jiang J, Du H, Guo X, Liu X, Li C, Huang G, Niu K. Effect of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate supplementation on muscle loss in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 61: 168–175, 2015. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2015.06.020.
269. Wylie LJ, Mohr M, Krustrup P, Jackman SR, Ermdis G, Kelly J, Black MI, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation improves team sport-specific intense intermittent exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 113: 1673–1684, 2013. doi:10.1007/s00421-013-2589-8.
270. Wylie LJ, Kelly J, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Skiba PF, Winyard PG, Jeukendrup AE, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM. Beetroot juice and exercise: pharmacodynamic and dose-response relationships. J Appl Physiol (1985) 115: 325–336, 2013. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00372.2013.
271. Xia E-Q, Wang B-W, Xu X-R, Zhu L, Song Y, Li HB. Microwaveassisted extraction of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid from Ligustrum lucidum Ait. Int J Mol Sci 12: 5319–5329, 2011. doi:10.3390/ijms12085319.
272. Yfanti C, Akerström T, Nielsen S, Nielsen AR, Mounier R, Mortensen OH, Lykkesfeldt J, Rose AJ, Fischer CP, Pedersen BK. Antioxidant supplementation does not alter endurance training adaptation. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 1388–1395, 2010. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181cd76be.
273. Ziegenfuss T, Lowery LM, Lemon PW. Acute fluid volume changes in men during three days of creatine supplementation. J Exerc Physiol 1: 1–9, 1998.
274. Zorzano A, Fandos C, Palacín M. Role of plasma membrane transporters in muscle metabolism. Biochem J 349: 667–688, 2000. doi:10.1042/bj3490667.