Rapid and innovative instrumental approaches for quality and authenticity of olive oils

European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology

Volumn 118, Issue 11, 2016, Pages 1601-1619

  Valli, Enrico ^a   Bendini, Alessandra ^a   Berardinelli, Annachiara ^a   Ragni, Luigi ^a   Riccò, Bruno ^a   Grossi, Marco ^a   Gallina Toschi, Tullia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Electrical properties; Electronic nose; Electronic tongue; Optical techniques; Quality; Rapid approaches; Spectroscopy; Virgin olive oils

Indexed keywords

EID: 84994201997     PISSN: 14387697     EISSN: 14389312     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201600065     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. European Commission, Council Regulation (EC) No 1513/2001 of 23 July 2001 amending regulations No 136/66/EEC and (EC) No 1638/98 as regards the extension of the period of validity of the aid scheme and the quality strategy for olive oil. Off. J. Eur. Commun. 2001, L201, 4–7.
2. European Union, Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2015/1830 amending regulation (EEC) No 2568/91 on the characteristics of olive oil and olive-residue oil and on the relevant methods of analysis. Off. J. Eur. Union 2015, L266, 9–13.
3. International Olive Council, Trade standard applying to olive oils and olive-pomace oils. Stand. Int. Olive Council 2015, 1–16.
4. Codex Alimentarius, 1981, Standard for olive oils and olive pomace oils CODEX STAN 33–1981, Adoptedin 1981. Revision: 1989, 2003, 2015. Amendment: 2009, 2013, 1–9.
5. Boskou, D., in: Simopoulos, A. P., Visioli, F. (Eds.), Olive Oil. More on Mediterranean Diets, World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, Basel 2007, pp. 180–210.
6. Gómez-Caravaca, A. M., Maggio, R. M., Cerretani, L., Chemometric applications to assess quality and critical parameters of virgin and extra-virgin olive oil. A review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2016, 913, 1–21.
7. Moore, J. C., Spink, J., Lipp, M., Development and application of a database of food ingredient fraud and economically motivated adulteration from 1980 to 2010. J. Food Sci. 2012, 77, 118–126.
8. European Union Parliament resolution of 14 January 2014 on the food crisis [Document reference 2013/2091(INI).
9. Frankel, E. N., Chemistry of extra virgin olive oil: Adulteration, oxidative stability, and antioxidants. J. Agric. Food Chem 2010, 58, 5991–6006.
10. Tena, N., Wang, S. C., Aparicio-Ruiz, R., García-González, D. L., Aparicio, R., In-depth assessment of analytical methods for olive oil purity, safety, and quality characterization. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 4509–4526.
11. European Union, Commission implementing regulation (EU) no 1335/2013 amending implementing regulation (EU) No 29/2012 on marketing standards for olive oil. Off. J. Eur. Union 2013, L335, 14–16.
12. Firestone, D., Reina, R. J., in: Ashurst, P. R., Dennis, M. J. (Eds.), Food Authentication. Blackie Academic and Professional, London 1996, pp. 198–258.
13. Kiritsakis, A., Kanavouras, A., Kiritsakis, K., Chemical analysis, quality control and packaging issues of olive oil. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol 2002, 104, 628–638.
14. Angerosa, F., Campestre, C., Giansante, L., in: Boskou, D. (Ed.) Olive Oil: Chemistry and Technology, AOCS Press, Champaign, USA 2006, pp. 113–154.
15. Arvanitoyannis, I. S., Vlachos, A., Implementation of physicochemical and sensory analysis in conjunction with multivariate analysis towards assessing olive oil authentication/adulteration. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2007, 47, 441–498.
16. Dais, P., Hatzakis, E., Quality assessment and authentication of virgin olive oil by NMR spectroscopy: A critical review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2013, 765, 1–27.
17. Nenadis, N., Tsimidou, M., Perspective of vibrational spectroscopy analytical methods in on-field/official control of olives and virgin olive oil. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, in press. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejlt.201600148/abstract
18. Torrecilla, J. S., Cancilla, J. C., Matute, G., Díaz-Rodríguez, P., Flores, A. I., Selforganizing maps based on chaotic parameters to detect adulterations of extra virgin olive oil with inferior edible oils. J. Food Eng. 2013, 118, 400–405.
19. Torrecilla, J. S., Rojo, E., Domínguez, J. C., Rodríguez, F., Linear and non linear chemometric models to quantify the adulteration of extra virgin olive oil. Talanta 2010, 83, 404–409.
20. Pizarro, C., Rodríguez-Tecedor, S., Pérez-del-Notario, N., Esteban-Díez, I., González-Sáiz, J. M., Classification of Spanish extra virgin olive oils by data fusion of visible spectroscopic fingerprints and chemical descriptors. Food Chem. 2013, 138, 915–922.
21. Casale, M., Armanino, C., Casolino, C., Forina, M., Combining information from headspace mass spectrometry and visible spectroscopy in the classification of the Ligurian olive oils. Anal. Chim. Acta 2007, 589, 89–95.
22. Casale, M., Casolino, C., Oliveri, P., Forina, M., The potential of coupling information using three analytical techniques for identifying the geographical origin of Liguria extra virgin olive oil. Food Chem. 2010, 118, 163–170.
23. Grossi, M., Di Lecce, G., Arru, M., Gallina Toschi, T., Riccò, B., An opto-electronic system for in-situ determination of peroxide value and total phenol content in olive oil. J. Food Eng. 2015, 146, 1–7.
24. Abbass, O., Dardenne, P., Baeten, V., Near-Infrared, mid-Infrared, and raman spectroscopy. Chemical Analysis of Food: Techniques and Applications Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam 2012, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384862-8.00003–0.
25. Pasquini, C., Near infrared spectroscopy: Fundamentals, practical aspects and analytical applications. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 2003, 14, 198–219.
26. Casale, M., Simonetti, R., Review: Near Infrared spectroscopy for analysing olive oils. J. Near Infrared Spectrosc. 2014, 22, 59–80.
27. Galtier, O., Dupuy, N., Le Dréau, Y., Ollivier, D., et al., Geographic origins and compositions of virgin olive oils determinated by chemometric analysis of NIR spectra. Anal. Chim. Acta 2007, 595, 136–144.
28. Inarejos-García, A. M., Gómez-Alonso, S., Fregapane, G., Salvador, M. D., Evaluation of minor components, sensory characteristics and quality of virgin olive oil by near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Food Res. Int. 2013, 50, 250–258.
29. Armenta, S., Garrigues, S., De la Guardia, M., Determination of edible oil parameters by near infrared spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2007, 596, 330–337.
30. Mailer, R. J., Rapid evaluation of olive oil quality by NIR reflectance spectroscopy. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2004, 81, 823–827.
31. Martínez Gila, D. M., Beltrán Ortega, J., Gámez García, J., Gómez Ortega, J., Rapid quantification of total polyphenol content in EVOO using NIR sensor with wavelength selection and FS-MLR. IEEE Int. Conf. Imaging Syst. Techn. (IST) 2015, 233–238.
32. Bendini, A., Cerretani, L., Di Virgilio, F., Belloni, P., et al., In process monitoring in industrial olive mill by means of FT-NIR. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2007, 109, 498–504.
33. Manley, M., Eberle, K., Comparison of Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy partial least square regression models for South African extra virgin olive oil using spectra collected on two spectro­photometers at different resolutions and path lengths. J. Near Infrared Spec. 2006, 14, 111–126.
34. Wesley, I. J., Barnes, R. J., McGill, A. E. J., Measurement of adulteration of olive oils by near-Infrared spectroscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 72, 289–292.
35. Downey, G., McIntyre, P., Davies, A. N., Detecting and quantifying sunflower oil adulteration in extra virgin olive oils from the eastern mediterranean by visible and near-Infrared spectroscopy. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 5520–5525.
36. Yang, H., Irudayaraj, J., Comparison of near-Infrared, fourier transform-Infrared, and fourier transform-Raman methods for determining olive pomace oil adulteration in extra virgin olive oil. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 78, 889–895.
37. Christy, A. A., Kasensumran, S., Du, Y., Uzaki, Y., The detection and quantification of adulteration in olive oil by NIR and chemometrics. Anal. Sci. 2004, 20, 935–940.
38. Kasemsumran, S., Kang, N., Christy, A., Ozaki, Y, Partial least squares processing of near-Infrared spectra for discrimination and quantification of adulterated olive oils. Spectrosc. Lett. 2005, 38, 839–851.
39. Bertran, E., Blanco, M., Coello, J., Iturriaga, H., et al., Near infrared spectrometry and pattern recognition as screening methods for the authentication of virgin olive oils of very close geographical origins. J. Near Infrared Spec. 2000, 8, 45–52.
40. Lin, P., Chen, Y., He, Y., Identification of geographical origin of olive oil using visible and near-infrared spectroscopy technique combined with chemometrics. Food Bioproc. Technol. 2012, 5, 235–242.
41. Woodcock, T., Downey, G., O'Donnell, C. P., Confirmation of declared provenance of european extra virgin olive oil samples by NIR spectroscopy. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 11520–11525.
42. Laroussi-Mezghani, S., Vanloot, P., Molinet, J., Dupuy, N., et al., Authentication of Tunisian virgin olive oils by chemometric analysis of fatty acid compositions and NIR spectra. Comparison with Maghrebian and French virgin olive oils. Food Chem. 2015, 173, 122–132.
43. Downey, G., MCIntyre, P., Davies, A. N., Geographic classification of extra virgin olive oils from the eastern mediterranean by chemometric analysis of visible and near-Infrared spectroscopic data. Appl. Spectrosc. 2003, 57, 158–163.
44. Sinelli, N., Casiraghi, E., Tura, D., Downey, G., Characterisation and classification of Italian virgin olive oils by near- and mid-infrared spectroscopy. J. Near Infrared Spec. 2008, 16, 335–342.
45. Sinelli, N., Casale, M., Di Egidio, V., Oliveri, P., et al., Varietal discrimination of extra virgin olive oils by near and mid infrared spectroscopy. Food Res. Int. 2010a, 43, 2126–2131.
46. Sinelli, N., Cerretani, L., Di Egidio, V., Bendini, A., Casiraghi, E., Application of near (NIR) infrared and mid (MIR) infrared spectroscopy as a rapid tool to classify extra virgin olive oil on the basis of fruity attribute intensity. Food Res. Int. 2010b, 43, 369–375.
47. Guillén, M. D., Cabo, N., Infrared spectroscopy in the study of edible oils and fats. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1997, 75, 1–11.
48. Christy, A. A., Egeberg, P. K., Quantitative determination of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in edible oils by infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. Chemometr. Intell. Lab. 2006, 82, 130–136.
49. Galtier, O., Le Dréau, Y., Ollivier, D., Kister, J., et al., Lipid compositions and French registered designations of origins of virgin olive oils predicted by chemometric analysis of mid-infrared spectra. Appl. Spectrosc. 2008, 62, 583–590.
50. Maggio, R. M., Kaufman, T. S., Del Carlo, M., Cerretani, L., et al., Monitoring of fatty acid composition in virgin olive oil by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy coupled with partial least squares. Food Chem. 2009, 114, 1549–1554.
51. Cerretani, L., Giuliani, A., Maggio, R. M., Bendini, A., et al., Rapid FTIR determination of water, phenolics and antioxidant activity of olive oil. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2010, 112, 1150–1157.
52. Uncu, O., Ozen, B., Prediction of various chemical parameters of olive oils with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. LWT – Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 63, 978–984.
53. Valli, E., Bendini, A., Maggio, R. M., Cerretani, L., et al., Detection of low-quality extra virgin olive oils by fatty acid alkyl esters evaluation: A preliminary and fast mid-infrared spectroscopy discrimination by a chemometric approach. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2013, 48, 548–555.
54. Guillén, M. D., Cabo, N., Some of the most significant changes in the Fourier transform infrared spectra of edible oils under oxidative conditions. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 2000, 80, 2028–2036.
55. Guillén, M. D., Cabo, N., Fourier transform infrared spectra data versus peroxide and anisidine values to determine oxidative stability of edible oils. Food Chem. 2002, 77, 503–510.
56. Pizarro, C., Esteban-Díez, I., Rodríguez-Tecedor, S., González-Sáiz, J. M., Determination of the peroxide value in extra virgin olive oils through the application of the stepwise orthogonalisation of predictors to mid-infrared spectra. Food Control 2013, 34, 158–167.
57. Lerma-García, M. J., Simó-Alfonso, E. F., Bendini, A., Cerretani, L., Rapid evaluation of oxidised fatty acid concentration in virgin olive oil using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and multiple linear regression. Food Chem. 2011, 124, 679–684.
58. Gurdeniz, G., Ozen, B., Detection of adulteration of extra-virgin olive oil by chemometric analysis of mid-infrared spectral data. Food Chem. 2009, 116, 519–525.
59. Maggio, R. M., Cerretani, L., Chiavaro, E., Kaufman, T. S., Bendini, A., A novel chemometric strategy for the estimation of extra virgin olive oil adulteration with edible oils. Food Control 2010, 21, 890–895.
60. Rohman, A., Che Man, Y. B., Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for analysis of extra virgin olive oil adulterated with palm oil. Food Res. Int. 2010, 43, 886–892.
61. Vlachos, N., Skopelitis, Y., Psaroudaki, M., Konstantinidou, V., et al., Applications of Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy to edible oils. Anal. Chim. Acta 2006, 459–465.
62. Yang, H., Irudayaraj, J., Paradkar, M. M., Discriminant analysis of edible oils and fats by FTIR, FT-NIR and FT-Raman spectroscopy. Food Chem. 2005, 93, 25–32.
63. Gurdeniz, G., Ozen, B., Tokatli, F., Comparison of fatty acid profiles and midinfrared spectral data for classification of olive oils. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2010, 112, 218–226.
64. Javidnia, K., Parish, M., Karimi, S., Hemmateenejad, B., Discrimination of edible oils and fats by combination of multivariate pattern recognition and FT-IR spectroscopy: A comparative study between different modeling methods, Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2013, 104, 175–181.
65. Hennessy, S., Downey, G., O'Donnell, C. P., Confirmation of food origin claims by −Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics: Extra virgin olive oil from Liguria. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 1735–1741.
66. De Luca, M., Terouzi, W., Ioele, G., Kzaiber, F., et al., Derivative FTIR spectroscopy for cluster analysis and classification of morocco olive oils. Food Chem. 2011, 124, 1113–1118.
67. Caetano, S., Üstün, B., Hennesy, S., Smeyers-Verbeke, J., et al., Geographical classification of olive oils by the application of CART and SVM to their FT-IR. J. Chemom. 2007, 21, 324–334.
68. Gurdeniz, G., Tokatli, F., Ozen, B., Differentiation of mixtures of monovarietal olive oils by mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2007, 109, 1194–1202.
69. Sinelli, N., Casiraghi, E., Tura, D., Downey, G., Characterisation and classification of Italian virgin olive oils by near- and mid-infrared spectroscopy. J. Near Infrared Spectrosc. 2008, 16, 335–342.
70. Bevilacqua, M., Bucci, R., Magrì, A. D., Magrì, A. L., Marini, F., Tracing the origin of extra virgin olive oils by infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics: A case study. Anal. Chim. Acta 2012, 717, 39–51.
71. Borràs, E., Mestres, M., Aceña, L., Busto, O., et al., Identification of olive oil sensory defects by multivariate analysis of midinfrared spectra. Food Chem. 2015, 187, 197–203.
72. De Luca, M., Restuccia, D., Clodoveo, M. L., Puoci, F., Ragno, G., Chemometric analysis for discrimination of extra virgin olive oils from whole and stoned olive pastes. Food Chem. 2016, 202, 432–437.
73. Sinelli, N., Cosio, M. S., Gigliotti, C., Casiraghi, E., Preliminary study on application of mid infrared spectroscopy for the evaluation of the virgin olive oil “freshness”. Anal. Chim. Acta 2007, 598, 128–134.
74. Maggio, R. M., Valli, E., Bendini, A., Gómez-Caravaca, A. M., et al., A spectroscopic and chemometric study of virgin olive oils subjected to thermal stress. Food Chem. 2011, 127, 216–221.
75. Martínez Gila, D. M., Cano Marchal, P., Gámez García, J., Gómez Ortega, J., On-line system based on hyperspectral information to estimate acidity, moisture and peroxides in olive oil samples. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2015, 116, 1–7.
76. Mignani, A. G., Ciaccheri, L., Thienpont, H., Ottevaere, H., et al., Toward a hyperspectral optical signature of extra virgin olive oil. Proc. SPIE, Optical Sensing Technology and Applications 2007, 6585, article id. 65852C.
77. Gouvinhas, I., Machado, N., Carvalho, T., De Almeida, J. M. M. M., Barros, A. I. R. N., Short wavelength Raman spectroscopy applied to the discrimination and characterization of three cultivars of extra virgin olive oils in different maturation stages. Talanta 2015, 132, 829–835.
78. El-Abassy, R. M., Donfack, P., Materny, A., Rapid determination of free fatty acid in extra virgin olive oil by raman spectroscopy and multivariate analysis. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2009, 86, 507–511.
79. Muik, B., Lendl, B., Molina-Díaz, A., Ayora-Cañada, M. J., Direct, reagent-free determination of free fatty acid content in olive oil and olives by Fourier transform Raman spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta 2003, 487, 211–220.
80. Sánchez-López, E., Sánchez-Rodríguez, M. I., Marinas, A., Marinas, J. M., et al., Chemometric study of Andalusian extra virgin olive oils Raman spectra: Qualitative and quantitative information. Talanta 2016, 156–157, 180–190.
81. Zou, M. Q., Zhang, X. F., Xiao-Hua, Q. I., Han-Lu, M., et al., Rapid authentication of olive oil adulteration by Raman spectrometry. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 6001–6006.
82. Baeten, V., Pierna, J. A. F., Dardenne, P., Meurens, M., et al., Detection of the presence of hazelnut oil in olive oil by FT-Raman and FT-MIR spectroscopy. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 6201–6206.
83. López-Díez, C., Bianchi, G., Goodacre, R., Rapid quantitative assessment of the adulteration of virgin olive oils with hazelnut oils using Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 6145–6150.
84. Korifi, R., Le Dréau, Y., Molinet, J., Artaud, J., Dupuy, N., Composition and authentication of virgin olive oil from French PDO regions by chemometric treatment of Raman spectra. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2011, 42, 1540–1547.
85. Sikorska, E., Khmelinskii, I., Sikorski, M., in: Boskou, D. (Ed.), Olive Oil − Constituents, Quality, Health Properties and Bioconversions, Intech, Croatia 2012, pp. 63–88. ISBN 978-953-307-921-9.
86. Scott, S. M., James, D., Ali, Z., O'Hare, W. T., Rowell, F. J., Total luminescence spectroscopy with pattern recognition for classification of edible oils. Analyst 2003, 128, 966–973.
87. Guimet, F., Boque, R., Ferre, J., Cluster analysis applied to the exploratory analysis of commercial spanish olive oils by means of excitation-emission fluorescence spectroscopy. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 6673–6679.
88. Guimet, F., Boque, R., Ferre, J., Application of non-negative matrix factorization combined with Fisher's linear discriminant analysis for classification of olive oil excitation-emission fluorescence spectra. Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 2006, 81, 94–106.
89. Poulli, K. I., Mousdis, G. A., Georgiou, C. A., Classification of edible and lampante virgin olive oil based on synchronous fluorescence and total luminescence spectroscopy. Anal. Chim. Acta 2005, 542, 151–156.
90. Dupuy, N., Le Dreau, Y., Ollivier, D., Artaud, J., et al., Origin of french virgin olive oil registered designation of origins predicted by chemometric analysis of synchronous excitation-emission fluorescence spectra. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 9361–9368.
91. Guimet, F., Boque, R., Ferre, J., Study of oils from the protected denomination of origin “Siurana” using excitation-emission fluorescence spectroscopy and three-way methods of analysis. Grasas Aceites 2005, 56, 292–297.
92. Poulli, K. I., Mousdis, G. A., Georgiou, C. A., Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy for quantitative determination of virgin olive oil adulteration with sunflower oil. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2006, 386, 1571–1575.
93. Zandomeneghi, M., Carbonaro, L., Caffarata, C., Fluorescence of vegetable oils: Olive oils. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 759–766.
94. Sikorska, E., Gliszczyńska-Świgło, A., Khmelinskii, I., Sikorski, M., Synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy of edible vegetable oils. quantification of tocopherols. J. Agr. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 6988–6994.
95. Díaz, T. G., Durán-Merás, I., Cáceres, M. I. R., Murillo, B. R., Comparison of different fluorimetric signals for the simultaneous multivariate determination of tocopherols in vegetable oils. Appl. Spectrosc. 2006, 60, 194–202.
96. Papoti, V. T., Tsimidou, M. Z., Looking through the qualities of a fluorimetric assay for the total phenol content estimation in virgin olive oil, olive fruit or leaf polar extract. Food Chem. 2009, 112, 246–252.
97. Guzmán, E., Baeten, V., Fernández Pierna, J. A., García-Mesa, J. A., Evaluation of the overall quality of olive oil using fluorescence spectroscopy. Food Chem., 2015, 173, 927–934.
98. Barsoukov, E., Macdonald, J. R., Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment and Applications, 2nd Edn., John Wiley & Sons Hoboken, New Jersey 2005.
99. Grossi, M., Lanzoni, M., Lazzarini, R., Riccò, B., Automatic ice-cream characterization by impedance measurements for optimal machine setting. Measurement 2012, 45, 1747–1754.
100. Grossi, M., Lazzarini, R., Lanzoni, M., Riccò, B., A novel technique to control ice cream freezing by electrical characteristics analysis. J. Food Eng. 2011, 106, 347–354.
101. Grossi, M., Lanzoni, M., Pompei, A., Lazzarini, R., et al., A portable biosensor system for bacterial concentration measurements in cow's raw milk. 4th IEEE International Workshop on Advances in Sensors and Interfaces 2011, 132–136.
102. Guermazi, M., Troltzsch, U., Kanoun, O., Derbel, N., Assessment of beef meat aging using impedance spectroscopy. Int. MultiConf. Syst. Signals Devices 2011, 1–6.
103. Grossi, M., Lanzoni, M., Lazzarini, R., Riccò, B., Linear non iterative sinusoidal fitting algorithm for microbial impedance biosensor. Sens. Transducers J. 2012, 137, 235–244.
104. Prevc, T., Cigic, B., Vidrih, R., Poklar Ulrih, N., Segatin, N., Correlation of basic oil quality indices and electrical properties of model vegetable oil systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 11355–11362.
105. Fritsch, C. W., Measurements of frying fat deterioration − A brief review. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1981, 58, 272–274.
106. Stevan, S. L., Jr., Paiter, L., Galvao, J. R., Vieira Roque, D., Chaves, E. S., Sensor and metodology for dielectric analysis of vegetable oils submitted to thermal stress. Sensors 2015, 15, 26457–26477.
107. Lizhi, H., Toyoda, K., Ihara, I., Dielectric properties of edible oils and fatty acids as a function of frequency, temperature, moisture and composition. J. Food Eng. 2008, 88, 151–158.
108. Ragni, L., Iaccheri, E., Cevoli, C., Berardinelli, A., et al., A capacitive technique to assess water content in extra virgin olive oils. J. Food Eng. 2013, 116, 246–252.
109. Lizhi, H., Toyoda, K., Ihara, I., Discrimination of olive oil adulterated with vegetable oils using dielectric spectroscopy. J. Food Eng. 2010, 96, 167–171.
110. Grossi, M., Di Lecce, G., Gallina Toschi, T., Riccò, B., Fast and accurate determination of olive oil acidity by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. IEEE Sens. J. 2014, 14, 2947–2954.
111. Grossi, M., Di Lecce, G., Gallina Toschi, T., Riccò, B., A novel electrochemical method for olive oil acidity determination. Microelectron. J. 2014, 45, 1701–1707.
112. Yu, X., Yang, C., Du, S., Gao, J.-M., A new method for determining free fatty acid content in edible oils by using electrical conductivity. Food Anal. Methods 2012, 5, 1453–1458.
113. Yang, Y., Li, Q., Yu, X., Chen, X., Wang, Y., A novel method for determining peroxide value of edible oils using electrical conductivity. Food Control 2014, 39, 198–203.
114. Adhoum, N., Monser, L., Electrochemical sensor for hydroperoxides determination based on Prussian blue film modified electrode. Sens. Actuators B 2008, 133, 588–592.
115. Hammami, A., Kulicek, J., Raouafi, N., A naphthoquinone/SAM-mediated biosensor for olive oil polyphenol content. Food Chem. 2016, 209, 274–278.
116. Jones, S. B., Wraith, J. M., Or, D., Time domain reflectometry measurement principles and applications. Hydrol. Process. 2002, 16, 141–153.
117. Noborio, K., Measurement of soil water content and electrical conductivity by time domain reflectometry: A review. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2001, 31, 213–237.
118. Ragni, L., Berardinelli, A., Cevoli, C., Valli, E., Assessment of the water content in extra virgin olive oils by Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression methods. J. Food Eng. 2012, 111, 66–72.
119. Berardinelli, A., Ragni, L., Bendini, A., Valli, E., et al., Rapid screening of fatty acid alkyl esters in olive oils by time domain reflectometry. J. Agric. Food Chem 2013, 61, 10919–10924.
120. Cataldo, A., Piuzzi, E., Cannazza, G., De Benedetto, E., Tarricone, L., Quality and anti-adulteration control of vegetable oils through microwave dielectric spectroscopy. Measurement 2010, 43, 1031–1039.
121. Cataldo, A., Piuzzi, E., Cannazza, G., De Benedetto, E., Dielectric spectroscopy of liquids through a combined approach: Evaluation of the metrological performance and feasibility study on vegetable oils. IEEE Sens. J. 2009, 9, 1226–1233.
122. Zou, Y., Wan, H., Zhang, X., Ha, D., Wang, P., in: Wang, P. (Ed.), Bioinspired Smell and Taste Sensors. Science Press, Beijing and Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht 2015.
123. Cosio, M. S., Benedetti, S., Buratti, S., Scampicchio, M., Mannino, S., Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention. Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam 2010. pp. 553–559. Chapter 60. ISBN: 978-0-12- 374420-3.
124. Cano, M., Roales, J., Castillero, P., Mendoza, P., et al., Improving the training and data processing of an electronic olfactory system for the classification of virgin olive oil into quality categories. Sens. Actuators B 2011, 160, 916–922.
125. Escuderos, M. E., García, M., Jiménez, A., Horrillo, M. C., Edible and non-edible olive oils discrimination by the application of a sensory olfactory system based on tin dioxide sensors. Food Chem. 2013, 136, 1154–1159.
126. Lerma-García, M. J., Cerretani, L., Cevoli, C., Simó-Alfonso, E. F., et al., Use of electronic nose to determine defect percentage in oils. Comparison with sensory panel results. Sens. Actuators B 2010, 147, 283–289.
127. Xu, L., Yu, X., Liu, L., Zhang, R., A novel method for qualitative analysis of edible oil oxidation using an electronic nose. Food Chem. 2016, 202, 229–235.
128. Lerma-García, M. J., Simó-Alfonso, E. F., Bendini, A., Cerretani, L., Metal oxide semiconductor sensors for monitoring of oxidative status evolution and sensory analysis of virgin olive oils with different phenolic content. Food Chem. 2009, 117, 608–614.
129. Cerrato Oliveros, C., Pérez Pavón, J. L., García Pinto, C., Fernández Laespada, E., et al., Electronic nose based on metal oxide semiconductor sensors as a fast alternative for the detection of adulteration of virgin olive oils. Anal. Chim. Acta 2002, 459, 219–228.
130. Haddi, Z., Alami, H., El Bari, N., Tounsi, M., et al., Electronic nose and tongue combination for improved classification of Moroccan virgin olive oil profiles. Food Res. Int. 2013, 54, 1488–1498.
131. Cosio, M. S., Ballabio, D., Benedetti, S., Gigliotti, C., Geographical origin and authentication of extra virgin olive oils by an electronic nose in combination with artificial neural networks. Anal. Chim. Acta 2006, 567, 202–210.
132. Escuderos, M. E., Sánchez, S., Jiménez, A., Virgin olive oil sensory evaluation by an artificial olfactory system, based on Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) sensors. Sens. Actuators B 2010, 147, 159–164.
133. Guadarrama, A., Rodríguez-Méndez, M. L., Sanz, C., Ríos, J. L., de Saja, J. A., Electronic nose based on conducting polymers for the quality control of the olive oil aroma. Discrimination of quality, variety of olive and geographic origin. Anal. Chim. Acta 2001, 432, 283–292.
134. Rodríguez-Méndez, M. L., Apetrei, C., De Saja, J. A., Olives and Olive Oil in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam 2010. Chapter 57. ISBN: 978-0-12-374420-3.
135. Dias, L. G., Fernandes, A., Veloso, A. C. A., Machado, A. A. S. C., et al., Single-cultivar extra virgin olive oil classification using a potentiometric electronic tongue. Food Chem. 2014, 160, 321–329.
136. Veloso, A. C. A., Dias, L. G., Rodrigues, N., Pereira, J. A., Peres, A. M., Sensory intensity assessment of olive oils using an electronic tongue. Talanta 2016, 146, 585–593.
137. Rodrigues, N., Dias, L. G., Veloso, A. C. A., Pereira, J. A., Peres, A. M., Monitoring olive oils quality and oxidative resistance during storage using an electronic tongue. LWT – Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 73, 683–692.
138. Busch, J. L., Hrncirik, K., Bulukin, E., Boucon, C., Mascini, M., Biosensor measurements of polar phenolics for the assessment of the bitterness and pungency of virgin olive oil. J. Agric. Food Chem 2006, 54, 4371–4377.
139. Qunfeng, N., Shengsheng, C., Li, W., Yanbo, H., Qiao, W., Research of edible oil detection and variety distinguish based on voltammetric electronic tongue. IEEE Proc. Int. Conf. Inform. Autom. 2015, 588–593.
140. Apetrei, C., Gutierez, F., Rodriguez-Mendez, M. L., de Saja, J. A., Novel method based on carbon paste electrodes for the evaluation of bitterness in extra virgin olive oils. Sens. Actuators B 2007, 121, 567–575.
141. Rodríguez-Mendez, M. L., Apetrei, C., de Saja, J. A., Evaluation of the polyphenolic content of extra virgin olive oils using an array of voltammetric sensors. Electrochim. Acta 2008, 53, 5867–5872.
142. Apetrei, I. M., Apetrei, C., Voltammetric e-tongue for the quantification of total polyphenol content in olive oils. Food Res. Int. 2013, 54, 2075–2082.
143. Apetrei, I. M., Apetrei, C., Detection of virgin olive oil adulteration using a voltammetric e-tongue. Comput. Electr. Agric. 2014, 108, 148–154.
144. Apetrei, C., Apetrei, I. M., Villanueva, S., de Saja, J. A., et al., Combination of an e-nose, an e-tongue and an e-eye for the characterisation of olive oils with different degree of bitterness. Anal. Chim. Acta, 2010, 663, 91–97.
145. Cosio, M. S., Ballabio, D., Benedetti, S., Gigliotti, C., Evaluation of different storage conditions of extra virgin olive oils with an innovative recognition tool built by means of electronic nose and electronic tongue. Food Chem. 2007, 101, 485–491.
146. Haddi, Z., Amari, A., Ali, A., El Bari, N., et al., Discrimination and identification of geographical origin virgin olive oil by an e-nose based on MOS sensors and pattern recognition techniques. Procedia Eng. 2011, 25, 1137–1140.
147. Melucci, D., Bendini, A., Tesini, F., Barbieri, S., et al., Rapid direct analysis to discriminate geographic origin of extra virgin olive oils by flash gas chromatography electronic nose and chemometrics. Food Chem. 2016, 204, 263–273.
148. Ruiz-Samblás, C., Tres, A., Koot, A., Van Ruth, S. M., et al., Proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry volatile organic compound fingerprinting for monovarietal extra virgin olive oil identification. Food Chem. 2012, 134, 589–596.
149. Araghipour, N., Colineau, J., Koot, A., Akkermans, W., et al., Geographical origin classification of olive oils by PTR-MS. Food Chem. 2008, 108, 374–383.
150. Aprea, E., Biasioli, F., Sani, G., Cantini, C., et al., Proton transfer reaction- mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) headspace analysis for rapid detection of oxidative alteration of olive oil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 7635–7640.
151. 1H NMR spectroscopy for the analysis of edible oils. Trends Anal. Chem. 2014, 57, 147–158.
152. Van Wetten, I. A., van Herwaarden, A. W., Splinter, R., van Ruth, S. M., Oil analysis by fast DSC. Procedia Eng. 2014, 87, 280–283.