Looking beyond the terrestrial: The potential of seaweed derived bioactives to treat non-communicable diseases

Marine Drugs

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 2016, Pages

  Collins, Kenneth G ^a   Fitzgerald, Gerald F ^b   Stanton, Catherine ^a,c   Ross, R Paul ^a,c  

^a TEAGASC   (Ireland)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE CORK   (Ireland)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE CORK   (Ireland)

Author keywords

Bioactives; Cancer; Cardiovascular disease; Diabetes; Fucoidan; Non communicable disease; Prebiotics; Seaweed; Short chain fatty acids

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; CAROTENOID; CHEMICAL COMPOUND; FATTY ACID; GLUCOSE; POLYSACCHARIDE; PREBIOTIC AGENT; SHORT CHAIN FATTY ACID; TERPENE;

ALLERGY; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; BLOOD LEVEL; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIETARY FIBER; DIETARY INTAKE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG RESPONSE; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASE; NONHUMAN; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; SEAWEED; ANIMAL; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHRONIC DISEASE; METABOLISM; NEOPLASMS; ORIENTAL MEDICINE; SECONDARY METABOLISM;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHRONIC DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMANS; MEDICINE, EAST ASIAN TRADITIONAL; NEOPLASMS; SEAWEED; SECONDARY METABOLISM;

EID: 84962214176     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16603397     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/md14030060     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. Mouritsen, O.G.; Mouritsen, J.D.; Johansen, M. Seaweeds: Edible, Available, and Sustainable; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 2013.
2. Stabili, L.; Acquaviva, M.I.; Biandolino, F.; Cavallo, R.A.; De Pascali, S.A.; Fanizzi, F.P.; Narracci, M.; Petrocelli, A.; Cecere, E. The lipidic extract of the seaweed Gracilariopsis longissima (Rhodophyta, Gracilariales): A potential resource for biotechnological purposes? New Biotechnol. 2012, 29, 443-450. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. El-Said, G.; El-Sikaily, A. Chemical composition of some seaweed from Mediterranean Sea coast, Egypt. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2013, 185, 6089-6099. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. López-Mosquera, M.E.; Fernández-Lema, E.; Villares, R.; Corral, R.; Alonso, B.; Blanco, C. Composting fish waste and seaweed to produce a fertilizer for use in organic agriculture. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2011, 9, 113-117. [CrossRef]
5. Lola-Luz, T.; Hennequart, F.; Gaffney, M. Effect on health promoting phytochemicals following seaweed application, in potato and onion crops grown under a low input agricultural system. Sci. Hortic. 2014, 170, 224-227. [CrossRef]
6. Gómez-Ordóñez, E.; Jiménez-Escrig, A.; Rupérez, P. Dietary fibre and physicochemical properties of several edible seaweeds from the northwestern Spanish coast. Food Res. Int. 2010, 43, 2289-2294. [CrossRef]
7. Rupérez, P. Mineral content of edible marine seaweeds. Food Chem. 2002, 79, 23-26. [CrossRef]
8. Besada, V.; Andrade, J.M.; Schultze, F.; González, J.J. Heavy metals in edible seaweeds commercialised for human consumption. J. Mar. Syst. 2009, 75, 305-313. [CrossRef]
9. Kumar, M.; Kumari, P.; Trivedi, N.; Shukla, M.; Gupta, V.; Reddy, C.R.K.; Jha, B. Minerals, PUFAs and antioxidant properties of some tropical seaweeds from Saurashtra coast of India. J. Appl Phycol. 2011, 23, 797-810. [CrossRef]
10. Rioux, L.-E.; Turgeon, S.L.; Beaulieu, M. Effect of season on the composition of bioactive polysaccharides from the brown seaweed Saccharina longicruris. Phytochemistry 2009, 70, 1069-1075. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Ortiz, J.; Romero, N.; Robert, P.; Araya, J.; Lopez-Hernández, J.; Bozzo, C.; Navarrete, E.; Osorio, A.; Rios, A. Dietary fiber, amino acid, fatty acid and tocopherol contents of the edible seaweeds Ulva lactuca and Durvillaea antarctica. Food Chem. 2006, 99, 98-104. [CrossRef]
12. Dawczynski, C.; Schubert, R.; Jahreis, G. Amino acids, fatty acids, and dietary fibre in edible seaweed products. Food Chem. 2007, 103, 891-899. [CrossRef]
13. Cofrades, S.; López-López, I.; Solas, M.T.; Bravo, L.; Jiménez-Colmenero, F. Influence of different types and proportions of added edible seaweeds on characteristics of low-salt gel/emulsion meat systems. Meat Sci. 2008, 79, 767-776. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Paull, R.E.; Chen, N.J. Postharvest handling and storage of the edible red seaweed Gracilaria. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2008, 48, 302-308. [CrossRef]
15. Yuan, Y.V.; Walsh, N.A. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of extracts from a variety of edible seaweeds. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2006, 44, 1144-1150. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Wijesinghe, W.A.J.P.; Jeon, Y.-J. Enzyme-assistant extraction (EAE) of bioactive components: A useful approach for recovery of industrially important metabolites from seaweeds: A review. Fitoterapia 2012, 83, 6-12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Kim, M.S.; Kim, J.Y.; Choi, W.H.; Lee, S.S. Effects of seaweed supplementation on blood glucose concentration, lipid profile, and antioxidant enzyme activities in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2008, 2, 62-67. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Ramnani, P.; Chitarrari, R.; Tuohy, K.; Grant, J.; Hotchkiss, S.; Philp, K.; Campbell, R.; Gill, C.; Rowland, I. In vitro fermentation and prebiotic potential of novel low molecular weight polysaccharides derived from agar and alginate seaweeds. Anaerobe 2012, 18, 1-6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Pereira, L. A review of the nutrient composition of selected edible seaweeds. In Seaweed: Ecology, Nutrient Composition and Medicinal Uses; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2011; pp. 15-47.
20. Jiménez-Escrig, A.; Sánchez-Muniz, F.J. Dietary fibre from edible seaweeds: Chemical structure, physicochemical properties and effects on cholesterol metabolism. Nutr. Res. 2000, 20, 585-598. [CrossRef]
21. Kwon, M.-J.; Nam, T.-J. A polysaccharide of the marine alga Capsosiphon fulvescens induces apoptosis in AGS gastric cancer cells via an IGF-IR-mediated PI3K/Akt pathway. Cell Biol. Int. 2007, 31, 768-775. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Moo-Puc, R.; Robledo, D.; Freile-Pelegrin, Y. Evaluation of selected tropical seaweeds for in vitro anti-trichomonal activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 120, 92-97. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Youngmin, B.; Chang-Hyun, J.; Beom-Joon, L.; Gajin, H.; Seok-Jae, K.; Hyuk-Sang, J.; Jinhyun, B.; Yumi, B.; Jae-Woo, P. The protective effects of seaweeds on a DSS-induced mice colitis model. Eur. J. Integr. Med. 2012, 4 (Suppl. 1), 197. [CrossRef]
24. WHO Noncommunicable Diseases Fact Sheet. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ factsheets/fs355/en/ (accessed on 21 January 2014).
25. Hughes, P.; Hancock, C.; Cooper, K. Non-communicable diseases: Calling healthcare educators to action. Nurse Educ. Today 2012, 32, 757-759. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Castellanos, A.; Vicente-Dueñas, C.; Campos-Sánchez, E.; Cruz, J.J.; García-Criado, F.J.; García-Cenador, M.B.; Lazo, P.A.; Pérez-Losada, J.; Sánchez-García, I. Cancer as a reprogramming-like disease: Implications in tumor development and treatment. Semin. Cancer Biol. 2010, 20, 93-97. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. WHO Cancer Fact Sheet No 297. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/ (accessed on 21 Jaunary 2014).
28. Senthilkumar, K.; Manivasagan, P.; Venkatesan, J.; Kim, S.-K. Brown seaweed fucoidan: Biological activity and apoptosis, growth signaling mechanism in cancer. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2013, 60, 366-374. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Menshova, R.V.; Ermakova, S.P.; Anastyuk, S.D.; Isakov, V.V.; Dubrovskaya, Y.V.; Kusaykin, M.I.; Um, B.-H.; Zvyagintseva, T.N. Structure, enzymatic transformation and anticancer activity of branched high molecular weight laminaran from brown alga Eisenia bicyclis. Carbohydr. Polym. 2014, 99, 101-109. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Nobre, L.T.D.B.; Vidal, A.A.J.; Almeida-Lima, J.; Oliveira, R.M.; Paredes-Gamero, E.J.; Medeiros, V.P.; Trindade, E.S.; Franco, C.R.C.; Nader, H.B.; Rocha, H.A.O. Fucan effect on CHO cell proliferation and migration. Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 98, 224-232. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Kim, K.-T.; Rioux, L.-E.; Turgeon, S.L. Molecular weight and sulfate content modulate the inhibition of α-amylase by fucoidan relevant for type 2 diabetes management. PharmaNutrition 2015, 3, 108-114. [CrossRef]
32. Choi, J.-I.; Kim, H.-J. Preparation of low molecular weight fucoidan by gamma-irradiation and its anticancer activity. Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 97, 358-362. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Yang, M.; Ma, C.; Sun, J.; Shao, Q.; Gao, W.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Z.; Xie, Q.; Dong, Z.; Qu, X. Fucoidan stimulation induces a functional maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2008, 8, 1754-1760. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Teruya, T.; Tatemoto, H.; Konishi, T.; Tako, M. Structural characteristics and in vitro macrophage activation of acetyl fucoidan from Cladosiphon okamuranus. Glycoconj. J. 2009, 26, 1019-1028. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Jeong, B.-E.; Ko, E.-J.; Joo, H.-G. Cytoprotective effects of fucoidan, an algae-derived polysaccharide on 5-fluorouracil-treated dendritic cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 1480-1484. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Ale, M.T.; Maruyama, H.; Tamauchi, H.; Mikkelsen, J.D.; Meyer, A.S. Fucoidan from Sargassum sp. and Fucus vesiculosus reduces cell viability of lung carcinoma and melanoma cells in vitro and activates natural killer cells in mice in vivo. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2011, 49, 331-336. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Synytsya, A.; Kim, W.-J.; Kim, S.-M.; Pohl, R.; Synytsya, A.; Kvasnička, F.; Čopíková, J.; Il Park, Y. Structure and antitumour activity of fucoidan isolated from sporophyll of Korean brown seaweed Undaria pinnatifida. Carbohydr. Polym. 2010, 81, 41-48. [CrossRef]
38. Vishchuk, O.S.; Ermakova, S.P.; Zvyagintseva, T.N. Sulfated polysaccharides from brown seaweeds Saccharina japonica and Undaria pinnatifida: Isolation, structural characteristics, and antitumor activity. Carbohydr. Res. 2011, 346, 2769-2776. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Lee, K.W.; Jeong, D.; Na, K. Doxorubicin loading fucoidan acetate nanoparticles for immune and chemotherapy in cancer treatment. Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 94, 850-856. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Ale, M.T.; Mikkelsen, J.D.; Meyer, A.S. Important Determinants for Fucoidan Bioactivity: A Critical Review of Structure-Function Relations and Extraction Methods for Fucose-Containing Sulfated Polysaccharides from Brown Seaweeds. Mar. Drugs 2011, 9, 2106-2130. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Patankar, M.S.; Oehninger, S.; Barnett, T.;Williams, R.L.; Clark, G.F. A revised structure for fucoidan may explain some of its biological activities. J. Biol. Chem. 1993, 268, 21770-21776. [PubMed]
42. Kuda, T.; Yano, T.; Matsuda, N.; Nishizawa, M. Inhibitory effects of laminaran and low molecular alginate against the putrefactive compounds produced by intestinal microflora in vitro and in rats. Food Chem. 2005, 91, 745-749. [CrossRef]
43. Ermakova, S.; Men'shova, R.; Vishchuk, O.; Kim, S.-M.; Um, B.-H.; Isakov, V.; Zvyagintseva, T. Water-soluble polysaccharides from the brown alga Eisenia bicyclis: Structural characteristics and antitumor activity. Algal Res. 2013, 2, 51-58. [CrossRef]
44. Gamal-Eldeen, A.M.; Ahmed, E.F.; Abo-Zeid, M.A. In vitro cancer chemopreventive properties of polysaccharide extract from the brown alga, Sargassum latifolium. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47, 1378-1384. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Suresh, V.; Senthilkumar, N.; Thangam, R.; Rajkumar, M.; Anbazhagan, C.; Rengasamy, R.; Gunasekaran, P.; Kannan, S.; Palani, P. Separation, purification and preliminary characterization of sulfated polysaccharides from Sargassum plagiophyllum and its in vitro anticancer and antioxidant activity. Process Biochem. 2013, 48, 364-373. [CrossRef]
46. Kwon, M.-J.; Nam, T.-J. Porphyran induces apoptosis related signal pathway in AGS gastric cancer cell lines. Life Sci. 2006, 79, 1956-1962. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Stephanie, B.; Eric, D.; Sophie, F.M.; Christian, B.; Yu, G. Carrageenan from Solieria chordalis (Gigartinales): Structural analysis and immunological activities of the low molecular weight fractions. Carbohydr. Polym. 2010, 81, 448-460. [CrossRef]
48. Huang, C.-Y.; Wu, S.-J.; Yang, W.-N.; Kuan, A.-W.; Chen, C.-Y. Antioxidant activities of crude extracts of fucoidan extracted from Sargassum glaucescens by a compressional-puffing-hydrothermal extraction process. Food Chem. 2016, 197, 1121-1129. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Hu, P.; Li, Z.; Chen, M.; Sun, Z.; Ling, Y.; Jiang, J.; Huang, C. Structural elucidation and protective role of a polysaccharide from Sargassum fusiforme on ameliorating learning and memory deficiencies in mice. Carbohydr. Polym. 2016, 139, 150-158. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Wang, J.; Hu, S.; Jiang, W.; Song, W.; Cai, L.; Wang, J. Fucoidan from sea cucumber may improve hepatic inflammatory response and insulin resistance in mice. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2016, 31, 15-23. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Cong, Q.; Chen, H.; Liao, W.; Xiao, F.; Wang, P.; Qin, Y.; Dong, Q.; Ding, K. Structural characterization and effect on anti-angiogenic activity of a fucoidan from Sargassum fusiforme. Carbohydr. Polym. 2016, 136, 899-907. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
52. Imbs, T.I.; Ermakova, S.P.; Malyarenko, O.S.; Isakov, V.V.; Zvyagintseva, T.N. Structural elucidation of polysaccharide fractions from the brown alga Coccophora langsdorfii and in vitro investigation of their anticancer activity. Carbohydr. Polym. 2016, 135, 162-168. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Dinesh, S.; Menon, T.; Hanna, L.E.; Suresh, V.; Sathuvan, M.; Manikannan, M. In vitro anti-HIV-1 activity of fucoidan from Sargassum swartzii. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2016, 82, 83-88. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Shan, X.; Liu, X.; Hao, J.; Cai, C.; Fan, F.; Dun, Y.; Zhao, X.; Liu, X.; Li, C.; Yu, G. In vitro and in vivo hypoglycemic effects of brown algal fucoidans. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2016, 82, 249-255. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Feliziani, E.; Landi, L.; Romanazzi, G. Preharvest treatments with chitosan and other alternatives to conventional fungicides to control postharvest decay of strawberry. Carbohydr. Polym. 2015, 132, 111-117. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
56. Moroney, N.C.; O'Grady, M.N.; O'Doherty, J.V.; Kerry, J.P. Effect of a brown seaweed (Laminaria digitata) extract containing laminarin and fucoidan on the quality and shelf-life of fresh and cooked minced pork patties. Meat Sci. 2013, 94, 304-311. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Kelishomi, Z.H.; Goliaei, B.; Mahdavi, H.; Nikoofar, A.; Rahimi, M.; Moosavi-Movahedi, A.A.; Mamashli, F.; Bigdeli, B. Antioxidant activity of low molecular weight alginate produced by thermal treatment. Food Chem. 2016, 196, 897-902. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Nakazono, S.; Cho, K.; Isaka, S.; Abu, R.; Yokose, T.; Murata, M.; Ueno, M.; Tachibana, K.; Hirasaka, K.; Kim, D.; et al. Anti-obesity effects of enzymatically-digested alginate oligomer in mice model fed a high-fat-diet. Bioact. Carbohydr. Diet. Fibre 2016, 7, 1-8. [CrossRef]
59. Jiang, R.-W.; Hay, M.E.; Fairchild, C.R.; Prudhomme, J.; Roch, K.L.; Aalbersberg, W.; Kubanek, J. Antineoplastic unsaturated fatty acids from Fijian macroalgae. Phytochemistry 2008, 69, 2495-2500. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
60. Eid, S.Y.; El-Readi, M.Z.;Wink, M. Carotenoids reverse multidrug resistance in cancer cells by interfering with ABC-transporters. Phytomedicine 2012, 19, 977-987. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61. Nishino, H.; Murakoshi, M.; Tokuda, H.; Satomi, Y. Cancer prevention by carotenoids. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2009, 483, 165-168. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Hosokawa, M.; Kudo, M.; Maeda, H.; Kohno, H.; Tanaka, T.; Miyashita, K. Fucoxanthin induces apoptosis and enhances the antiproliferative effect of the PPAR ligand, troglitazone, on colon cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2004, 1675, 113-119. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Liu, C.-L.; Huang, Y.-S.; Hosokawa, M.; Miyashita, K.; Hu, M.-L. Inhibition of proliferation of a hepatoma cell line by fucoxanthin in relation to cell cycle arrest and enhanced gap junctional intercellular communication. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2009, 182, 165-172. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Nakazawa, Y.; Sashima, T.; Hosokawa, M.; Miyashita, K. Comparative evaluation of growth inhibitory effect of stereoisomers of fucoxanthin in human cancer cell lines. J. Funct. Foods 2009, 1, 88-97. [CrossRef]
65. Satomi, Y.; Nishino, H. Implication of mitogen-activated protein kinase in the induction of G1 cell cycle arrest and gadd45 expression by the carotenoid fucoxanthin in human cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2009, 1790, 260-266. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Chung, T.-W.; Choi, H.-J.; Lee, J.-Y.; Jeong, H.-S.; Kim, C.-H.; Joo, M.; Choi, J.-Y.; Han, C.-W.; Kim, S.-Y.; Choi, J.-S.; et al. Marine algal fucoxanthin inhibits the metastatic potential of cancer cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2013, 439, 580-585. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Ganesan, P.; Noda, K.; Manabe, Y.; Ohkubo, T.; Tanaka, Y.; Maoka, T.; Sugawara, T.; Hirata, T. Siphonaxanthin, a marine carotenoid from green algae, effectively induces apoptosis in human leukemia (HL-60) cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2011, 1810, 497-503. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Antunes, E.M.; Afolayan, A.F.; Chiwakata, M.T.; Fakee, J.; Knott, M.G.; Whibley, C.E.; Hendricks, D.T.; Bolton, J.J.; Beukes, D.R. Identification and in vitro anti-esophageal cancer activity of a series of halogenated monoterpenes isolated from the South African seaweeds Plocamium suhrii and Plocamium cornutum. Phytochemistry 2011, 72, 769-772. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Knott, M.G.; Mkwananzi, H.; Arendse, C.E.; Hendricks, D.T.; Bolton, J.J.; Beukes, D.R. Plocoralides A-C, polyhalogenated monoterpenes from the marine alga Plocamium corallorhiza. Phytochemistry 2005, 66, 1108-1112. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Lynch, M.B.; Sweeney, T.; Callan, J.J.; O'Sullivan, J.T.; O'Doherty, J.V. The effect of dietary Laminaria-derived laminarin and fucoidan on nutrient digestibility, nitrogen utilisation, intestinal microflora and volatile fatty acid concentration in pigs. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2010, 90, 430-437. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Chattopadhyay, N.; Ghosh, T.; Sinha, S.; Chattopadhyay, K.; Karmakar, P.; Ray, B. Polysaccharides from Turbinaria conoides: Structural features and antioxidant capacity. Food Chem. 2010, 118, 823-829. [CrossRef]
72. Gupta, S.; Abu-Ghannam, N. Recent developments in the application of seaweeds or seaweed extracts as a means for enhancing the safety and quality attributes of foods. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2011, 12, 600-609. [CrossRef]
73. Namvar, F.; Mohamed, S.; Fard, S.G.; Behravan, J.; Mustapha, N.M.; Alitheen, N.B.M.; Othman, F. Polyphenol-rich seaweed (Eucheuma cottonii) extract suppresses breast tumour via hormone modulation and apoptosis induction. Food Chem. 2012, 130, 376-382. [CrossRef]
74. Wang, R.; Paul, V.J.; Luesch, H. Seaweed extracts and unsaturated fatty acid constituents from the green alga Ulva lactuca as activators of the cytoprotective Nrf2-ARE pathway. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2013, 57, 141-153. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75. Dellai, A.; Laajili, S.; Le Morvan, V.; Robert, J.; Bouraoui, A. Antiproliferative activity and phenolics of the Mediterranean seaweed Laurencia obusta. Ind. Crops Products 2013, 47, 252-255. [CrossRef]
76. Lee, H.; Kang, C.; Jung, E.S.; Kim, J.S.; Kim, E. Antimetastatic activity of polyphenol-rich extract of Ecklonia cava through the inhibition of the Akt pathway in A549 human lung cancer cells. Food Chem 2011, 127, 1229-1236. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Athukorala, Y.; Kim, K.-N.; Jeon, Y.-J. Antiproliferative and antioxidant properties of an enzymatic hydrolysate from brown alga, Ecklonia cava. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2006, 44, 1065-1074. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Kong, C.-S.; Kim, J.-A.; Yoon, N.-Y.; Kim, S.-K. Induction of apoptosis by phloroglucinol derivative from Ecklonia Cava in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47, 1653-1658. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Hyun, Y.J.; Piao, M.J.; Ko, M.H.; Lee, N.H.; Kang, H.K.; Yoo, E.S.; Koh, Y.S.; Hyun, J.W. Photoprotective effect of Undaria crenata against ultraviolet B-induced damage to keratinocytes. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2013, 116, 256-264. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. Nishibori, N.; Itoh, M.; Kashiwagi, M.; Arimochi, H.; Morita, K. In vitro cytotoxic effect of ethanol extract prepared from sporophyll of Undaria pinnatifida on human colorectal cancer cells. Phytother. Res. 2012, 26, 191-196. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Go, H.; Hwang, H.-J.; Nam, T.-J. A glycoprotein from Laminaria japonica induces apoptosis in HT-29 colon cancer cells. Toxicol. Vitro 2010, 24, 1546-1553. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Eitsuka, T.; Nakagawa, K.; Igarashi, M.; Miyazawa, T. Telomerase inhibition by sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol from edible purple laver (Porphyra yezoensis). Cancer Lett. 2004, 212, 15-20. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Okai, Y.; Higashi-Okai, K.; Yano, Y.; Otani, S. Identification of antimutagenic substances in an extract of edible red alga, Porphyra tenera (Asadusa-nori). Cancer Lett. 1996, 100, 235-240. [CrossRef]
84. Hiqashi-Okaj, K.; Otani, S.; Okai, Y. Potent suppressive effect of a Japanese edible seaweed, Enteromorpha prolifera (Sujiao-nori) on initiation and promotion phases of chemically induced mouse skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Lett. 1999, 140, 21-25. [CrossRef]
85. Lin, H.-C.; Chou, S.-T.; Chuang, M.-Y.; Liao, T.-Y.; Tsai, W.-S.; Chiu, T.-H. The effects of Caulerpa microphysa enzyme-digested extracts on ACE-inhibitory activity and in vitro anti-tumour properties. Food Chem. 2012, 134, 2235-2241. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Cramer, H.; Lauche, R.; Haller, H.; Steckhan, N.; Michalsen, A.; Dobos, G. Effects of yoga on cardiovascular disease risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Cardiol. 2014, 173, 170-183. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Hankey, G.J. Nutrition and the risk of stroke. Lancet Neurol. 2012, 11, 66-81. [CrossRef]
88. Sheih, I.C.; Fang, T.J.;Wu, T.-K. Isolation and characterisation of a novel angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptide from the algae protein waste. Food Chem. 2009, 115, 279-284. [CrossRef]
89. Carretero, O.A.; Oparil, S. Essential hypertension. Part I: Definition and etiology. Circulation 2000, 101, 329-335. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
90. Chen, Y.Y.; Ji, W.; Du, J.R.; Yu, D.K.; He, Y.; Yu, C.X.; Li, D.S.; Zhao, C.Y.; Qiao, K.Y. Preventive effects of low molecular mass potassium alginate extracted from brown algae on DOCA salt-induced hypertension in rats. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2010, 64, 291-295. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
91. Wilson, J.; Hayes, M.; Carney, B. Angiotensin-I-converting enzyme and prolyl endopeptidase inhibitory peptides from natural sources with a focus on marine processing by-products. Food Chem. 2011, 129, 235-244. [CrossRef]
92. Terakado, S.; Ueno, M.; Tamura, Y.; Toda, N.; Yoshinaga, M.; Otsuka, K.; Numabe, A.; Kawabata, Y.; Murota, I.; Sato, N.; et al. Sodium alginate oligosaccharides attenuate hypertension and associated kidney damage in Dahl salt-sensitive rats fed a high-salt diet. Clin. Exp. Hypertens. 2012, 34, 99-106. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
93. Kimura, S.; Saito, H.; Minami, M.; Togashi, H.; Nakamura, N.; Ueno, K.; Shimamura, K.; Nemoto, M.; Parvez, H. Docosahexaenoic acid attenuated hypertension and vascular dementia in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 2002, 24, 683-693. [CrossRef]
94. Li, J.; Wang, S.; Yang, X.; Pang, G.; Zheng, H.; Shen, B.; Li, G.; Shi, D.; Wang, J.; Feng, L.; et al. Effect of sulfated polysaccharides from Laminaria japonica on vascular endothelial cells in psychological stress rats. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 151, 601-608. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Ikeda, K.; Kitamura, A.; Machida, H.;Watanabe, M.; Negishi, H.; Hiraoka, J.; Nakano, T. Effect of Undaria pinnatifida (Wakame) on the development of cerebrovascular diseases in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2003, 30, 44-48. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Krotkiewski, M.; Aurell, M.; Holm, G.; Grimby, G.; Szczepanik, J. Effects of a sodium-potassium ion-exchanging seaweed preparation in mild hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 1991, 4, 483-488. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Wada, K.; Nakamura, K.; Tamai, Y.; Tsuji, M.; Sahashi, Y.;Watanabe, K.; Ohtsuchi, S.; Yamamoto, K.; Ando, K.; Nagata, C. Seaweed intake and blood pressure levels in healthy pre-school Japanese children. Nutr. J. 2011, 10, 83. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Huang, C.; Ceng, C.;Wang, C.; Zhan, H.; Ding, X. Synergistic effects of colchicine combined with atorvastatin in rats with hyperlipidemia. Lipids Health Dis. 2014, 13, 67. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Schultz Moreira, A.R.; Benedí, J.; González-Torres, L.; Olivero-David, R.; Bastida, S.; Sánchez-Reus, M.I.; González-Muñoz, M.J.; Sánchez-Muniz, F.J. Effects of diet enriched with restructured meats, containing Himanthalia elongata, on hypercholesterolaemic induction, CYP7A1 expression and antioxidant enzyme activity and expression in growing rats. Food Chem. 2011, 129, 1623-1630. [CrossRef]
100. He, R.; Malomo, S.A.; Alashi, A.; Girgih, A.T.; Ju, X.; Aluko, R.E. Purification and hypotensive activity of rapeseed protein-derived renin and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory peptides. J. Funct. Foods 2013, 5, 781-789. [CrossRef]
101. Fitzgerald, C.; Gallagher, E.; Doran, L.; Auty, M.; Prieto, J.; Hayes, M. Increasing the health benefits of bread: Assessment of the physical and sensory qualities of bread formulated using a renin inhibitory Palmaria palmata protein hydrolysate. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 56, 398-405. [CrossRef]
102. Chen, J.; Wang, Y.; Zhong, Q.; Wu, Y.; Xia, W. Purification and characterization of a novel angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptide derived from enzymatic hydrolysate of grass carp protein. Peptides 2012, 33, 52-58. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Ono, A.; Shibaoka, M.; Yano, J.; Asai, Y.; Fujita, T. Eating habits and intensity of medication in elderly hypertensive outpatients. Hypertens. Res. 2000, 23, 195-200. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
104. Suetsuna, K.; Maekawa, K.; Chen, J.-R. Antihypertensive effects of Undaria pinnatifida (wakame) peptide on blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2004, 15, 267-272. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Cian, R.E.; Martínez-Augustin, O.; Drago, S.R. Bioactive properties of peptides obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis from protein byproducts of Porphyra columbina. Food Res. Int. 2012, 49, 364-372. [CrossRef]
106. Qu, W.; Ma, H.; Pan, Z.; Luo, L.; Wang, Z.; He, R. Preparation and antihypertensive activity of peptides from Porphyra yezoensis. Food Chem. 2010, 123, 14-20. [CrossRef]
107. Thomes, P.; Rajendran, M.; Pasanban, B.; Rengasamy, R. Cardioprotective activity of Cladosiphon okamuranus fucoidan against isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction in rats. Phytomedicine 2010, 18, 52-57. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
108. Mohankumar, K.; Meenakshi, S.; Balasubramanian, T.; Manivasagam, T. Sulfated polysaccharides of Turbinaria conoides dose-dependently mitigate oxidative stress by ameliorating antioxidants in isoproterenol induced myocardial injured rats: Evidence from histopathological study. Egypt. Heart J. 2012, 64, 147-153. [CrossRef]
109. Zhu, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Chen, L.; Ren, S.; Xu, P.; Tang, Y.; Luo, D. Higher specificity of the activity of low molecular weight fucoidan for thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. Thromb. Res. 2010, 125, 419-426. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
110. Wang, J.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Song, H.; Li, P. Potential antioxidant and anticoagulant capacity of low molecular weight fucoidan fractions extracted from Laminaria japonica. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2010, 46, 6-12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
111. Jude, S.; Roger, S.; Martel, E.; Besson, P.; Richard, S.; Bougnoux, P.; Champeroux, P.; Le Guennec, J.Y. Dietary long-chain omega-3 fatty acids of marine origin: A comparison of their protective effects on coronary heart disease and breast cancers. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 2006, 90, 299-325. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Manav, M.; Su, J.; Hughes, K.; Lee, H.P.; Ong, C.N. υ-3 fatty acids and selenium as coronary heart disease risk modifying factors in Asian Indian and Chinese males. Nutrition 2004, 20, 967-973. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Harris, W.S.; Miller, M.; Tighe, A.P.; Davidson, M.H.; Schaefer, E.J. Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: Clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis 2008, 197, 12-24. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Chattipakorn, N.; Settakorn, J.; Petsophonsakul, P.; Suwannahoi, P.; Mahakranukrauh, P.; Srichairatanakool, S.; Chattipakorn, S.C. Cardiac mortality is associated with low levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the heart of cadavers with a history of coronary heart disease. Nutr. Res. 2009, 29, 696-704. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
115. Arumugam, T.V.; Magnus, T.; Woodruff, T.M.; Proctor, L.M.; Shiels, I.A.; Taylor, S.M. Complement mediators in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Clin. Chim. Acta 2006, 374, 33-45. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
116. Liu, S.; Sun, Q.; Tao, H.; Sun, X. Oral administration of mannitol may be an effective treatment for ischemia-reperfusion injury. Med. Hypotheses 2010, 75, 620-622. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
117. Nagao, K.; Yanagita, T. Conjugated fatty acids in food and their health benefits. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2005, 100, 152-157. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
118. Kang, C.; Jin, Y.B.; Lee, H.; Cha, M.; Sohn, E.T.; Moon, J.; Park, C.; Chun, S.; Jung, E.S.; Hong, J.S.; et al. Brown alga Ecklonia cava attenuates type 1 diabetes by activating AMPK and Akt signaling pathways. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 509-516. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119. Li, F.;Wu, X.; Zou, Y.; Zhao, T.; Zhang, M.; Feng, W.; Yang, L. Comparing anti-hyperglycemic activity and acute oral toxicity of three different trivalent chromium complexes in mice. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 1623-1631. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
120. World Health Organization. About Diabetes; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014.
121. Oboh, G.; Ademiluyi, A.O.; Akinyemi, A.J.; Henle, T.; Saliu, J.A.; Schwarzenbolz, U. Inhibitory effect of polyphenol-rich extracts of jute leaf (Corchorus olitorius) on key enzyme linked to type 2 diabetes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) and hypertension (angiotensin I converting) in vitro. J. Funct. Foods 2012, 4, 450-458. [CrossRef]
122. Sharifuddin, Y.; Chin, Y.-X.; Lim, P.-E.; Phang, S.-M. Potential Bioactive Compounds from Seaweed for Diabetes Management. Mar. Drugs 2015, 13, 5447-5491. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Heo, S.-J.; Hwang, J.-Y.; Choi, J.-I.; Lee, S.-H.; Park, P.-J.; Kang, D.-H.; Oh, C.; Kim, D.-W.; Han, J.-S.; Jeon, Y.-J.; et al. Protective effect of diphlorethohydroxycarmalol isolated from Ishige okamurae against high glucose-induced-oxidative stress in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 1448-1454. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
124. Nampoothiri, S.V.; Prathapan, A.; Cherian, O.L.; Raghu, K.G.; Venugopalan, V.V.; Sundaresan, A. In vitro antioxidant and inhibitory potential of Terminalia bellerica and Emblica officinalis fruits against LDL oxidation and key enzymes linked to type 2 diabetes. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2011, 49, 125-131. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
125. Meenakshi, S.; Umayaparvathi, S.; Arumugam, M.; Balasubramanian, T. In vitro antioxidant properties and FTIR analysis of two seaweeds of Gulf of Mannar. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2011, 1, S66-S70. [CrossRef]
126. Chakraborty, K.; Praveen, N.K.; Vijayan, K.K.; Rao, G.S. Evaluation of phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of brown seaweeds belonging to Turbinaria spp. (Phaeophyta, Sargassaceae) collected from Gulf of Mannar. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2013, 3, 8-16. [CrossRef]
127. O'Sullivan, A.M.; O'Callaghan, Y.C.; O'Grady, M.N.; Hayes, M.; Kerry, J.P.; O'Brien, N.M. The effect of solvents on the antioxidant activity in Caco-2 cells of Irish brown seaweed extracts prepared using accelerated solvent extraction (ASE®). J. Funct. Foods 2013, 5, 940-948. [CrossRef]
128. Devi, G.K.; Manivannan, K.; Thirumaran, G.; Rajathi, F.A.; Anantharaman, P. In vitro antioxidant activities of selected seaweeds from Southeast coast of India. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2011, 4, 205-211. [CrossRef]
129. Vijayabaskar, P.; Shiyamala, V. Antioxidant properties of seaweed polyphenol from Turbinaria ornata (Turner) J. Agardh, 1848. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2012, 2, S90-S98. [CrossRef]
130. Kang, S.I.; Ko, H.C.; Shin, H.S.; Kim, H.M.; Hong, Y.S.; Lee, N.H.; Kim, S.J. Fucoxanthin exerts differing effects on 3T3-L1 cells according to differentiation stage and inhibits glucose uptake in mature adipocytes. Biochem Biophys Res. Commun 2011, 409, 769-774. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
131. López-López, I.; Bastida, S.; Ruiz-Capillas, C.; Bravo, L.; Larrea, M.T.; Sánchez-Muniz, F.; Cofrades, S.; Jiménez-Colmenero, F. Composition and antioxidant capacity of low-salt meat emulsion model systems containing edible seaweeds. Meat Sci. 2009, 83, 492-498. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
132. O'Sullivan, A.M.; O'Callaghan, Y.C.; O'Grady, M.N.; Queguineur, B.; Hanniffy, D.; Troy, D.J.; Kerry, J.P.; O'Brien, N.M. In vitro and cellular antioxidant activities of seaweed extracts prepared from five brown seaweeds harvested in spring from the west coast of Ireland. Food Chem. 2011, 126, 1064-1070. [CrossRef]
133. Heo, S.-J.; Hwang, J.-Y.; Choi, J.-I.; Han, J.-S.; Kim, H.-J.; Jeon, Y.-J. Diphlorethohydroxycarmalol isolated from Ishige okamurae, a brown algae, a potent α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitor, alleviates postprandial hyperglycemia in diabetic mice. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2009, 615, 252-256. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
134. Lee, S.-H.; Park, M.-H.; Heo, S.-J.; Kang, S.-M.; Ko, S.-C.; Han, J.-S.; Jeon, Y.-J. Dieckol isolated from Ecklonia cava inhibits α-glucosidase and α-amylase in vitro and alleviates postprandial hyperglycemia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 2633-2637. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
135. Lordan, S.; Smyth, T.J.; Soler-Vila, A.; Stanton, C.; Ross, R.P. The α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory effects of Irish seaweed extracts. Food Chem. 2013, 141, 2170-2176. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
136. Nwosu, F.; Morris, J.; Lund, V.A.; Stewart, D.; Ross, H.A.; McDougall, G.J. Anti-proliferative and potential anti-diabetic effects of phenolic-rich extracts from edible marine algae. Food Chem. 2011, 126, 1006-1012. [CrossRef]
137. Teixeira, V.L.; Rocha, F.D.; Houghton, P.J.; Kaplan, M.A.C.; Pereira, R.C. α-Amylase inhibitors from Brazilian seaweeds and their hypoglycemic potential. Fitoterapia 2007, 78, 35-36. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
138. Kang, S.I.; Jin, Y.J.; Ko, H.C.; Choi, S.Y.; Hwang, J.H.; Whang, I.; Kim, M.H.; Shin, H.S.; Jeong, H.B.; Kim, S.J. Petalonia improves glucose homeostasis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2008, 373, 265-269. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
139. Celikler, S.; Tas, S.; Vatan, O.; Ziyanok-Ayvalik, S.; Yildiz, G.; Bilaloglu, R. Anti-hyperglycemic and antigenotoxic potential of Ulva rigida ethanolic extract in the experimental diabetes mellitus. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47, 1837-1840. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
140. Park, E.; Ahn, G.-N.; Lee, N.H.; Kim, J.M.; Yun, J.S.; Hyun, J.W.; Jeon, Y.-J.;Wie, M.B.; Lee, Y.J.; Park, J.W.; et al. Radioprotective properties of eckol against ionizing radiation in mice. FEBS Lett. 2008, 582, 925-930. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
141. Min, K.-H.; Kim, H.-J.; Jeon, Y.-J.; Han, J.-S. Ishige okamurae ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2011, 93, 70-76. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
142. Harden, C.J.; Craig Richardson, J.; Dettmar, P.W.; Corfe, B.M.; Paxman, J.R. An ionic-gelling alginate drink attenuates postprandial glycaemia in males. J. Funct. Foods 2012, 4, 122-128. [CrossRef]
143. Yang, W.; Yu, X.; Zhang, Q.; Lu, Q.; Wang, J.; Cui, W.; Zheng, Y.; Wang, X.; Luo, D. Attenuation of streptozotocin-induced diabetic retinopathy with low molecular weight fucoidan via inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor. Exp. Eye Res. 2013, 115, 96-105. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
144. Kim, M.-J.; Kim, H.K. Insulinotrophic and hypolipidemic effects of Ecklonia cava in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2012, 5, 374-379. [CrossRef]
145. John, J.; Teuner, C.M. Combating pediatric obesity in Germany: The role of economic findings in informing policy. Expert Rev. Pharmacoecon. Outcomes Res. 2012, 12, 733-743. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
146. Knarr, M.; Adden, R.; Anderson, W.H.K.; Hübner-Keese, B. Characterization of in vitro gel performance of novel MC with respect to the suitability for satiety applications. Food Hydrocoll. 2012, 29, 317-325. [CrossRef]
147. Solah, V.A.; Kerr, D.A.; Adikara, C.D.; Meng, X.; Binns, C.W.; Zhu, K.; Devine, A.; Prince, R.L. Differences in satiety effects of alginate- and whey protein-based foods. Appetite 2010, 54, 485-491. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
148. Dettmar, P.W.; Strugala, V.; Craig Richardson, J. The key role alginates play in health. Food Hydrocoll. 2011, 25, 263-266. [CrossRef]
149. Georg Jensen, M.; Knudsen, J.C.; Viereck, N.; Kristensen, M.; Astrup, A. Functionality of alginate based supplements for application in human appetite regulation. Food Chem. 2012, 132, 823-829. [CrossRef]
150. Shin, A.; Lim, S.-Y.; Sung, J.; Shin, H.-R.; Kim, J. Dietary Intake, Eating Habits, and Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Men. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2009, 109, 633-640. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
151. Kim, K.-J.; Lee, B.-Y. Fucoidan from the sporophyll of Undaria pinnatifida suppresses adipocyte differentiation by inhibition of inflammation-related cytokines in 3T3-L1 cells. Nutr. Res. 2012, 32, 439-447. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
152. Rodrigues, M.; Alves, G.; Abrantes, J.; Falcão, A. Herb-drug interaction of Fucus vesiculosus extract and amiodarone in rats: A potential risk for reduced bioavailability of amiodarone in clinical practice. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 52, 121-128. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
153. Beaglehole, R.; Bonita, R.; Horton, R.; Adams, C.; Alleyne, G.; Asaria, P.; Baugh, V.; Bekedam, H.; Billo, N.; Casswell, S.; et al. Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. The Lancet 2011, 377, 1438-1447. [CrossRef]
154. Van Bussel, B.C.T.; Soedamah-Muthu, S.S.; Henry, R.M.A.; Schalkwijk, C.G.; Ferreira, I.; Chaturvedi, N.; Toeller, M.; Fuller, J.H.; Stehouwer, C.D.A. Unhealthy dietary patterns associated with inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in type 1 diabetes: The EURODIAB study. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2013, 23, 758-764. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
155. Kendall, C.W.C.; Esfahani, A.; Jenkins, D.J.A. The link between dietary fibre and human health. Food Hydrocoll. 2010, 24, 42-48. [CrossRef]
156. Syad, A.N.; Shunmugiah, K.P.; Kasi, P.D. Seaweeds as nutritional supplements: Analysis of nutritional profile, physicochemical properties and proximate composition of G. acerosa and S. wightii. Biomed. Prev. Nutr. 2013, 3, 139-144. [CrossRef]
157. Bengmark, S. Immunonutrition: Role of biosurfactants, fiber, and probiotic bacteria. Nutrition 1998, 14, 585-594. [CrossRef]
158. Goñi, I.; Martin-Carrón, N. In vitro fermentation and hydration properties of commercial dietary fiber-rich supplements. Nutr. Res. 1998, 18, 1077-1089. [CrossRef]
159. O'Sullivan, L.; Murphy, B.; McLoughlin, P.; Duggan, P.; Lawlor, P.G.; Hughes, H.; Gardiner, G.E. Prebiotics from marine macroalgae for human and animal health applications. Mar. Drugs 2010, 8, 2038-2064. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
160. Urbano, M.G.; Goñi, I. Bioavailability of nutrients in rats fed on edible seaweeds, Nori (Porphyra tenera) and Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), as a source of dietary fibre. Food Chem. 2002, 76, 281-286. [CrossRef]
161. McDonnell, P.; Figat, S.; O'Doherty, J.V. The effect of dietary laminarin and fucoidan in the diet of the weanling piglet on performance, selected faecal microbial populations and volatile fatty acid concentrations. Animal 2010, 4, 579-585. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
162. Roberfroid, M.; Gibson, G.R.; Hoyles, L.; McCartney, A.L.; Rastall, R.; Rowland, I.; Wolvers, D.; Watzl, B.; Szajewska, H.; Stahl, B.; et al. Prebiotic effects: Metabolic and health benefits. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104 (Suppl. 2), S1-S63. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
163. Sarkar, S. Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics for Infant Feeding-A Review. J. Microb. Biochem Technol. 2011, S1. [CrossRef]
164. Zhao, J.; Cheung, P.C. Comparative Proteome Analysis of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis Grown on beta-Glucans from Different Sources and a Model for Their Utilization. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 4360-4370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
165. Pokusaeva, K.; Fitzgerald, G.; Sinderen, D. Carbohydrate metabolism in Bifidobacteria. Genes Nutr. 2011, 6, 285-306. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
166. Hoentjen, F.; Welling, G.W.; Harmsen, H.J.; Zhang, X.; Snart, J.; Tannock, G.W.; Lien, K.; Churchill, T.A.; Lupicki, M.; Dieleman, L.A. Reduction of colitis by prebiotics in HLA-B27 transgenic rats is associated with microflora changes and immunomodulation. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 2005, 11, 977-985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
167. Sweeney, T.; Dillon, S.; Fanning, J.; Egan, J.; O'Shea, C.J.; Figat, S.; Gutierrez, J.J.M.; Mannion, C.; Leonard, F.; O'Doherty, J.V. Evaluation of seaweed-derived polysaccharides on indices of gastrointestinal fermentation and selected populations of microbiota in newly weaned pigs challenged with Salmonella Typhimurium. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2011, 165, 85-94. [CrossRef]
168. Nazzaro, F.; Fratianni, F.; Coppola, R.; Sada, A.; Orlando, P. Fermentative ability of alginate-prebiotic encapsulated Lactobacillus acidophilus and survival under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. J. Funct. Foods 2009, 1, 319-323. [CrossRef]
169. Weng, L.-C.; Lee, N.-J.; Yeh, W.-T.; Ho, L.-T.; Pan, W.-H. Lower intake of magnesium and dietary fiber increases the incidence of type 2 diabetes in Taiwanese. J. Formos. Med.Assoc. 2012, 111, 651-659. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
170. Hu, B.; Gong, Q.;Wang, Y.; Ma, Y.; Li, J.; Yu, W. Prebiotic effects of neoagaro-oligosaccharides prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis of agarose. Anaerobe 2006, 12, 260-266. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
171. Huang, Y.-L.; Chau, C.-F. Improvement in intestinal function of hamsters as influenced by consumption of polysaccharide-rich sage weed extracts. Food Chem. 2012, 133, 1618-1623. [CrossRef]
172. Pryde, S.E.; Duncan, S.H.; Hold, G.L.; Stewart, C.S.; Flint, H.J. The microbiology of butyrate formation in the human colon. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2002, 217, 133-139. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
173. Al-Lahham, S.A.H.; Peppelenbosch, M.P.; Roelofsen, H.; Vonk, R.J.; Venema, K. Biological effects of propionic acid in humans; metabolism, potential applications and underlying mechanisms. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2010, 1801, 1175-1183. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
174. Topping, D.L.; Clifton, P.M. Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: Roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides. Physiol. Rev. 2001, 81, 1031-1064. [PubMed]
175. Sengupta, S.; Muir, J.G.; Gibson, P.R. Does butyrate protect from colorectal cancer? J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2006, 21, 209-218. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
176. Scheppach, W. Effects of short chain fatty acids on gut morphology and function. Gut 1994, 35, S35-S38. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
177. Gómez-Ordóñez, E.; Jiménez-Escrig, A.; Rupérez, P. Effect of the red seaweed Mastocarpus stellatus intake on lipid metabolism and antioxidant status in healthy Wistar rats. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 806-811. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
178. Jung, W.-K.; Choi, I.; Oh, S.; Park, S.-G.; Seo, S.-K.; Lee, S.-W.; Lee, D.-S.; Heo, S.-J.; Jeon, Y.-J.; Je, J.-Y.; et al. Anti-asthmatic effect of marine red alga (Laurencia undulata) polyphenolic extracts in a murine model of asthma. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47, 293-297. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
179. WHO Asthma Fact Sheet No 307. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/ index.html (accessed on 25 January 2014).
180. Kim, S.-K.; Lee, D.-Y.; Jung, W.-K.; Kim, J.-H.; Choi, I.; Park, S.-G.; Seo, S.-K.; Lee, S.-W.; Lee, C.M.; Yea, S.S.; et al. Effects of Ecklonia cava ethanolic extracts on airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in a murine asthma model: Role of suppressor of cytokine signaling. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2008, 62, 289-296. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
181. Le, Q.-T.; Li, Y.; Qian, Z.-J.; Kim, M.-M.; Kim, S.-K. Inhibitory effects of polyphenols isolated from marine alga Ecklonia cava on histamine release. Process Biochem. 2009, 44, 168-176. [CrossRef]
182. Howarth, P.H.; Persson, C.G.A.; Meltzer, E.O.; Jacobson, M.R.; Durham, S.R.; Silkoff, P.E. Objective monitoring of nasal airway inflammation in rhinitis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2005, 115, S414-S441. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
183. Miyake, Y.; Sasaki, S.; Ohya, Y.; Miyamoto, S.; Matsunaga, I.; Yoshida, T.; Hirota, Y.; Oda, H. Dietary Intake of Seaweed and Minerals and Prevalence of Allergic Rhinitis in Japanese Pregnant Females: Baseline Data From the Osaka Maternal and Child Health Study. Ann. Epidemiol. 2006, 16, 614-621. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
184. Oomizu, S.; Yanase, Y.; Suzuki, H.; Kameyoshi, Y.; Hide, M. Fucoidan prevents Cε germline transcription and NFκB p52 translocation for IgE production in B cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 350, 501-507. [CrossRef] [PubM]