Role of miRNA Let-7 and Its Major Targets in Prostate Cancer

BioMed Research International

Volumn 2014, Issue , 2014, Pages

  Wagner, Siegfried ^a,b   Ngezahayo, Anaclet ^b   Murua Escobar, Hugo ^a,c   Nolte, Ingo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE HANNOVER   (Germany)

^b LEIBNIZ UNIVERSITY HANNOVER   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ROSTOCK   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN RECEPTOR; CYCLIN D2; GLYCOGEN SYNTHASE KINASE 3; HIGH MOBILITY GROUP A PROTEIN; HIGH MOBILITY GROUP A2 PROTEIN; HIGH MOBILITY GROUP B1 PROTEIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 6; LET 7 PROTEIN; MICRORNA; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; MYC PROTEIN; PROTEIN; RAS PROTEIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ARTICLE; DEREGULATION; GENE TARGETING; HUMAN; MALE; NONHUMAN; ONCOGENE C MYC; PROSTATE CANCER; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENETICS; METABOLISM; PROSTATE TUMOR; TUMOR GENE;

GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, NEOPLASTIC; GENES, NEOPLASM; HUMANS; MALE; MICRORNAS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS;

EID: 84930989632     PISSN: 23146133     EISSN: 23146141     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2014/376326     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. L. Kopper and J. Timar, "Genomics of prostate cancer: is there anything to "translate"?" Pathology & Oncology Research, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 197-203, 2005.
2. L. Bubendorf, A. Schopfer, U. Wagner et al., "Metastatic patterns of prostate cancer: an autopsy study of 1, 589 patients, " Human Pathology, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 578-583, 2000.
3. R. T. Divrik, L. Turkeri, A. F. Sahin et al., "Prediction of response to androgen deprivation therapy and castration resistance in primary metastatic prostate cancer, " Urologia Internationalis, vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 25-33, 2012.
4. A. Jemal, F. Bray, M. M. Center, J. Ferlay, E. Ward, and D. Forman, "Global cancer statistics, " CA Cancer Journal for Clinicians, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 69-90, 2011.
5. R. T. Greenlee, T. Murray, S. Bolden, and P. A. Wingo, "Cancer statistics, 2000, " CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 7-33, 2000.
6. G. L. Andriole, E. D. Crawford, R. L. Grubb III et al., "Mortality results from a randomized prostate-cancer screening trial, " New England Journal ofMedicine, vol. 360, no. 13, pp. 1310-1319, 2009.
7. F. H. Schroder, J. Hugosson, M. J. Roobol et al., "Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized european study, " The New England Journal ofMedicine, vol. 360, no. 13, pp. 1320-1328, 2009.
8. E. Basch, T. K. Oliver, A. Vickers et al., "Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen testing: american society of clinical oncology provisional clinical opinion, " Journal of Clinical Oncology, vol. 30, no. 24, pp. 3020-3025, 2012.
9. H. Ramberg, A. Alshbib, V. Berge, A. Svindland, and K. A. Tasken, "Regulation of PBX3 expression by androgen and Let-7d in prostate cancer, "Molecular Cancer, vol. 10, article 50, 2011.
10. N. Nadiminty, R. Tummala, W. Lou et al., "MicroRNA let-7c is downregulated in prostate cancer and suppresses prostate cancer growth, " PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 3, Article ID e32832, 2012.
11. Q. Dong, P. Meng, T. Wang et al., "MicroRNA let-7a inhibits proliferation of human prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo by targeting E2F2 and CCND2, " PLoS ONE, vol. 5, no. 4, Article ID e10147, 2010.
12. N. Nadiminty, R. Tummala, W. Lou et al., "MicroRNA let-7c suppresses androgen receptor expression and activity via regulation of myc expression in prostate cancer cells, " Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 287, no. 2, pp. 1527-1537, 2012.
13. D. P. Bartel, "MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function, " Cell, vol. 116, no. 2, pp. 281-297, 2004.
14. Y. Lee, C. Ahn, J. Han et al., "The nuclear RNase III Drosha initiates microRNA processing, " Nature, vol. 425, no. 6956, pp. 415-419, 2003.
15. G. Meister, "Argonaute proteins: functional insights and emerging roles, " Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 447-459, 2013.
16. V. Mondol and A. E. Pasquinelli, "Lets make it happen: the role of let-7 microRNA in development, " Current Topics in Developmental Biology, vol. 99, pp. 1-30, 2012.
17. W. Filipowicz, S. N. Bhattacharyya, and N. Sonenberg, "Mechanisms of post-transcriptional regulation by microRNAs: are the answers in sight?" Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 102-114, 2008.
18. H.-W. Hwang, E. A. Wentzel, and J. T. Mendell, "A hexanucleotide element directs microRNA nuclear import, " Science, vol. 315, no. 5808, pp. 97-100, 2007.
19. R. F. Place, L.-C. Li, D. Pookot, E. J. Noonan, and R. Dahiya, "MicroRNA-373 induces expression of genes with complementary promoter sequences, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 105, no. 5, pp. 1608-1613, 2008.
20. B. J. Reinhart, F. J. Slack, M. Basson et al., "The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans, " Nature, vol. 403, no. 6772, pp. 901-906, 2000.
21. P.-S. Chen, J.-L. Su, S.-T. Cha et al., "miR-107 promotes tumor progression by targeting the let-7 microRNA in mice and humans, "The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 121, no. 9, pp. 3442-3455, 2011.
22. J. Winter, S. Jung, S. Keller, R. I. Gregory, and S. Diederichs, "Many roads to maturity: microRNA biogenesis pathways and their regulation, " Nature Cell Biology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 228-234, 2009.
23. B. N. Davis and A. Hata, "Regulation ofMicroRNA Biogenesis: a miRiad of mechanisms, " Cell Communication and Signaling, vol. 7, article 18, 2009.
24. A. E. Pasquinelli, B. J. Reinhart, F. Slack et al., "Conservation of the sequence and temporal expression of let-7 heterochronic regulatory RNA, " Nature, vol. 408, no. 6808, pp. 86-89, 2000.
25. S. Roush and F. J. Slack, "The let-7 family of microRNAs, " Trends in Cell Biology, vol. 18, no. 10, pp. 505-516, 2008.
26. B. Boyerinas, S.-M. Park, A. Hau, A. E. Murmann, and M. E. Peter, "The role of let-7 in cell differentiation and cancer, " Endocrine-Related Cancer, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. F19-F36, 2010.
27. J. M. Thomson, M. Newman, J. S. Parker, E. M. Morin-Kensicki, T. Wright, and S. M. Hammond, "Extensive post-transcriptional regulation of microRNAs and its implications for cancer, " Genes and Development, vol. 20, no. 16, pp. 2202-2207, 2006.
28. M. H. Bao, X. Feng, Y. W. Zhang, X. Y. Lou, Y. Cheng, andH. H. Zhou, "Let-7 in cardiovascular diseases, heart development and cardiovascular differentiation from stem cells, " International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 23086-23102, 2013.
29. W. Hou, Q. Tian, N. M. Steuerwald, L. W. Schrum, and H. L. Bonkovsky, "The let-7 microRNA enhances heme oxygenase-1 by suppressing Bach1 and attenuates oxidant injury in human hepatocytes, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta: Gene Regulatory Mechanisms, vol. 1819, no. 11-12, pp. 1113-1122, 2012.
30. S. Polikepahad, J. M. Knight, A. O. Naghavi et al., "Proinflammatory role for let-7 microRNAS in experimental asthma, " Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 285, no. 39, pp. 30139-30149, 2010.
31. D. Iliopoulos, H. A. Hirsch, and K. Struhl, "An epigenetic switch involving NF-κB, Lin28, Let-7MicroRNA, and IL6 links inflammation to cell transformation, " Cell, vol. 139, no. 4, pp. 693-706, 2009.
32. C. D. Johnson, A. Esquela-Kerscher, G. Stefani et al., "The let microRNA represses cell proliferation pathways in human cells, " Cancer Research, vol. 67, no. 16, pp. 7713-7722, 2007.
33. C. Mayr, M. T. Hemann, and D. P. Bartel, "Disrupting the pairing between let-7 andHmga2 enhances oncogenic transformation, " Science, vol. 315, no. 5818, pp. 1576-1579, 2007.
34. F. Meng, R. Henson, H. Wehbe-Janek, H. Smith, Y. Ueno, and T. Patel, "The microRNA let-7a modulates interleukin-6-dependent STAT-3 survival signaling in malignant human cholangiocytes, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 282, no. 11, pp. 8256-8264, 2007.
35. G. A. Calin, C. Sevignani, C. D. Dumitru et al., "Human microRNA genes are frequently located at fragile sites and genomic regions involved in cancers, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 9, pp. 2999-3004, 2004.
36. C. Liu, K. Kelnar, A. V. Vlassov, D. Brown, J. Wang, and D. G. Tang, "Distinct microRNA expression profiles in prostate cancer stem/progenitor cells and tumor-suppressive functions of let-7, " Cancer Research, vol. 72, no. 13, pp. 3393-3405, 2012.
37. T. Reya, S. J. Morrison, M. F. Clarke, and I. L. Weissman, "Stem cells, cancer, and cancer stem cells, " Nature, vol. 414, no. 6859, pp. 105-111, 2001.
38. L. M. Coussens and Z. Werb, "Inflammation and cancer, " Nature, vol. 420, no. 6917, pp. 860-867, 2002.
39. D. Kong, S. Banerjee, A. Ahmad et al., "Epithelial to mesenchymal transition is mechanistically linked with stem cell signatures in prostate cancer cells, " PLoS ONE, vol. 5, no. 8, Article ID e12445, 2010.
40. S. N. Shah, L. Cope, W. Poh et al., "HMGA1: a master regulator of tumor progression in triple-negative breast cancer cells, " PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 5, Article ID e63419, 2013.
41. C. Zhu, J. Li, G. Cheng et al., "MiR-154 inhibits EMT by targeting HMGA2 in prostate cancer cells, " Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, vol. 379, no. 1-2, pp. 69-75, 2013.
42. S. M. Johnson, H. Grosshans, J. Shingara et al., "RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family, " Cell, vol. 120, no. 5, pp. 635-647, 2005.
43. K. Patel, A. Kollory, A. Takashima, S. Sarkar, D. V. Faller, and S. K. Ghosh, "MicroRNA let-7 downregulates STAT3 phosphorylation in pancreatic cancer cells by increasing SOCS3 expression, " Cancer Letters, vol. 347, no. 1, pp. 54-64, 2014.
44. M. M. Rahman, Z. R. Qian, E. L. Wang et al., "Frequent overexpression of HMGA1 and 2 in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours and its relationship to let-7 downregulation, " British Journal of Cancer, vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 501-510, 2009.
45. S. Watanabe, Y. Ueda, S.-I. Akaboshi, Y. Hino, Y. Sekita, and M. Nakao, "HMGA2 maintains oncogenic RAS-induced epithelialmesenchymal transition in human pancreatic cancer cells, " The American Journal of Pathology, vol. 174, no. 3, pp. 854-868, 2009.
46. E. Piskounova, C. Polytarchou, J. E. Thornton et al., "Lin28A and Lin28B inhibit let-7 MicroRNA biogenesis by distinct mechanisms, " Cell, vol. 147, no. 5, pp. 1066-1079, 2011.
47. A. Rybak, H. Fuchs, L. Smirnova et al., "A feedback loop comprising lin-28 and let-7 controls pre-let-7 maturation during neural stem-cell commitment, " Nature Cell Biology, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 987-993, 2008.
48. L. J. Wood, M. Mukherjee, C. E. Dolde et al., "HMG-I/Y, a new c-Myc target gene and potential oncogene, " Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol. 20, no. 15, pp. 5490-5502, 2000.
49. S. Y. Sung, C. H. Liao, H. P. Wu et al., "Loss of let-7 microRNA upregulates IL-6 in bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells triggering a reactive stromal response to prostate cancer, " PloS ONE, vol. 8, no. 8, Article ID e71637, 2013.
50. S. N. Shah, C. Kerr, L. Cope et al., "HMGA1 reprograms somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells by inducing stem cell transcriptional networks, " PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 11, Article ID e48533, 2012.
51. G. M. Pierantoni, C. Rinaldo, M. Mottolese et al., "Highmobility group A1 inhibits p53 by cytoplasmic relocalization of its proapoptotic activator HIPK2, " The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 117, no. 3, pp. 693-702, 2007.
52. T. Ueda and M. Yoshida, "HMGB proteins and transcriptional regulation, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Gene Regulatory Mechanisms, vol. 1799, no. 1-2, pp. 114-118, 2010.
53. S. Lyu, Q. Yu, G. Ying et al., "Androgen receptor decreases CMYC and KRAS expression by upregulating let-7a expression in ER-, PR-, AR+ breast cancer, " International Journal of Oncology, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 229-237, 2013.
54. M. Bustin, "Revised nomenclature for high mobility group (HMG) chromosomal proteins, " Trends in Biochemical Sciences, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 152-153, 2001.
55. K. R. Diener, N. Al-Dasooqi, E. L. Lousberg, and J. D. Hayball, "The multifunctional alarmin HMGB1 with roles in the pathophysiology of sepsis and cancer, " Immunology and Cell Biology, vol. 91, pp. 443-450, 2013.
56. R. Reeves, "Nuclear functions of theHMGproteins, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Gene RegulatoryMechanisms, vol. 1799, no. 1-2, pp. 3-14, 2010.
57. M. Fedele and A. Fusco, "HMGA and cancer, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta: Gene RegulatoryMechanisms, vol. 1799, no. 1-2, pp. 48-54, 2010.
58. Y. Tamimi, H. G. van der Poel, M.-M. Denyn et al., "Increased expression of high mobility group protein I(Y) in high grade prostatic cancer determined by in situ hybridization, " Cancer Research, vol. 53, no. 22, pp. 5512-5516, 1993.
59. J.-J. Wei, X. Wu, Y. Peng et al., "Regulation of HMGA1 expression by MicroRNA-296 affects prostate cancer growth and invasion, " Clinical Cancer Research, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 1297-1305, 2011.
60. J. Hillion, L. J. Wood, M. Mukherjee et al., "Upregulation of MMP-2 by HMGA1 promotes transformation in undifferentiated, large-cell lung cancer, " Molecular Cancer Research, vol. 7, no. 11, pp. 1803-1812, 2009.
61. R. Reeves, D. D. Edberg, and Y. Li, "Architectural transcription factor HMGI(Y) promotes tumor progression and mesenchymal transition of human epithelial cells, "Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 575-594, 2001.
62. N. Takaha, A. L. Hawkins, C. A. Griffin, W. B. Isaacs, and D. S. Coffey, "High mobility group protein I(Y): a candidate architectural protein for chromosomal rearrangements in prostate cancer cells, " Cancer Research, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 647-651, 2002.
63. N. Takaha, L. M. S. Resar, D. Vindivich, and D. S. Coffey, "High mobility group protein HMGI(Y) enhances tumor cell growth, invasion, and matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression in prostate cancer cells, " The Prostate, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 160-167, 2004.
64. A. Cano, M. A. Perez-Moreno, I. Rodrigo et al., "The transcription factor Snail controls epithelial-mesenchymal transitions by repressing E-cadherin expression, " Nature Cell Biology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 76-83, 2000.
65. J. Perez-Losada, M. Sanchez-Martin, A. Rodriguez-Garcia et al., "Zinc-finger transcription factor slug contributes to the function of the stem cell factor c-kit signaling pathway, " Blood, vol. 100, no. 4, pp. 1274-1286, 2002.
66. I. De Martino, R. Visone, M. Fedele et al., "Regulation of microRNA expression by HMGA1 proteins, " Oncogene, vol. 28, no. 11, pp. 1432-1442, 2009.
67. J. Hillion, S. Dhara, T. F. Sumter et al., "The high-mobility group A1a/signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 axis: an achilles heel for hematopoietic malignancies?" Cancer Research, vol. 68, no. 24, pp. 10121-10127, 2008.
68. O. A. Timofeeva, N. I. Tarasova, X. Zhang et al., "STAT3 suppresses transcription of proapoptotic genes in cancer cells with the involvement of its N-terminal domain, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 110, no. 4, pp. 1267-1272, 2013.
69. D. Iliopoulos, S. A. Jaeger, H. A. Hirsch, M. L. Bulyk, and K. Struhl, "STAT3 activation of miR-21 and miR-181b-1 via PTEN and CYLD are part of the epigenetic switch linking inflammation to cancer, " Molecular Cell, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 493-506, 2010.
70. J. Ma, H. Sawai, N. Ochi et al., "PTEN regulate angiogenesis through PI3K/Akt/VEGF signaling pathway in human pancreatic cancer cells, " Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, vol. 331, no. 1-2, pp. 161-171, 2009.
71. R. Sgarra, S. Zammitti, A. Lo Sardo et al., "HMGA molecular network: from transcriptional regulation to chromatin remodeling, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Gene Regulatory Mechanisms, vol. 1799, no. 1-2, pp. 37-47, 2010.
72. G. Mu, H. Liu, F. Zhou et al., "Correlation of overexpression of HMGA1 and HMGA2 with poor tumor differentiation, invasion, and proliferation associated with let-7 down-regulation in retinoblastomas, " Human Pathology, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 493-502, 2010.
73. D. Palmieri, D. DAngelo, T. Valentino et al., "Downregulation of HMGA-targeting microRNAs has a critical role in human pituitary tumorigenesis, " Oncogene, vol. 31, no. 34, pp. 3857-3865, 2012.
74. M. Schubert, M. Spahn, S. Kneitz et al., "Distinct microRNA expression profile in prostate cancer patients with early clinical failure and the impact of let-7 as prognostic marker in highrisk prostate cancer, " PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 6, Article IDe65064, 2013.
75. B. Meyer, S. Loeschke, A. Schultze et al., "HMGA2 overexpression in non-small cell lung cancer, " Molecular Carcinogenesis, vol. 46, no. 7, pp. 503-511, 2007.
76. P. Rogalla, K. Drechsler, B. Kazmierczak, V. Rippe, U. Bonk, and J. Bullerdiek, "Expression of HMGI-C, a member of the highmobility group protein family, in a subset of breast cancers: relationship to histologic grade, " Molecular Carcinogenesis, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 153-156, 1997.
77. S. Winkler, H. M. Escobar, B. Meyer et al., "HMGA2 expression in a canine model of prostate cancer, " Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, vol. 177, no. 2, pp. 98-102, 2007.
78. M. S. Kumar, E. Armenteros-Monterroso, P. East et al., "HMGA2 functions as a competing endogenous RNA to promote lung cancer progression, " Nature, vol. 505, no. 7482, pp. 212-217, 2014.
79. M. T. Berlingieri, G. Manfioletti, M. Santoro et al., "Inhibition of HMGI-C protein synthesis suppresses retrovirally induced neoplastic transformation of rat thyroid cells, " Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1545-1553, 1995.
80. J.-M. Berner, L. A. Meza-Zepeda, P. F. J. Kools et al., "HMGIC, the gene for an architectural transcription factor, is amplified and rearranged in a subset of human sarcomas, " Oncogene, vol. 14, no. 24, pp. 2935-2941, 1997.
81. F. di Cello, J. Hillion, A. Hristov et al., "HMGA2 participates in transformation in human lung cancer, " Molecular Cancer Research, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 743-750, 2008.
82. M. Fedele, S. Battista, G. Manfioletti, C. M. Croce, V. Giancotti, and A. Fusco, "Role of the high mobility group A proteins in human lipomas, " Carcinogenesis, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 1583-1591, 2001.
83. S. Muller, P. Scaffidi, B. Degryse et al., "The double life of HMGB1 chromatin protein: architectural factor and extracellular signal, " The EMBO Journal, vol. 20, no. 16, pp. 4337-4340, 2001.
84. E. Pikarsky, R. M. Porat, I. Stein et al., "NF-κB functions as a tumour promoter in inflammation-associated cancer, " Nature, vol. 431, no. 7007, pp. 461-466, 2004.
85. J. R. van Beijnum, W. A. Buurman, and A. W. Griffioen, "Convergence and amplification of toll-like receptor (TLR) and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) signaling pathways via high mobility group B1 (HMGB1), " Angiogenesis, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 91-99, 2008.
86. J. S. Park, D. Svetkauskaite, Q. He et al., "Involvement of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in cellular activation by high mobility group box 1 protein, "The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 279, no. 9, pp. 7370-7377, 2004.
87. O. Hori, J. Brett, T. Slattery et al., "The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a cellular binding site for amphoterin. Mediation of neurite outgrowth and co-expression of RAGE and amphoterin in the developing nervous system, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 270, no. 43, pp. 25752-25761, 1995.
88. X. M. Chen, P. L. Splinter, S. P. OHara, and N. F. LaRusso, "A cellular micro-RNA, let-7i, regulates Toll-like receptor 4 expression and contributes to cholangiocyte immune responses against Cryptosporidium parvum infection, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 282, no. 39, pp. 28929-28938, 2007.
89. G. Li, J. Xu, and Z. Li, "Receptor for advanced glycation end products inhibits proliferation in osteoblast through suppression of Wnt, PI3K and ERK signaling, " Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 423, no. 4, pp. 684-689, 2012.
90. J. E. Hutti, A. D. Pfefferle, S. C. Russell, M. Sircar, C. M. Perou, and A. S. Baldwin, "Oncogenic PI3K mutations lead to NF-κB-dependent cytokine expression following growth factor deprivation, " Cancer Research, vol. 72, no. 13, pp. 3260-3269, 2012.
91. M. Yu, H. Wang, A. Ding et al., "HMGB1 signals through tolllike receptor (TLR) 4 and TLR2, " Shock, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 174-179, 2006.
92. J. Li and A. M. Schmidt, "Characterization and functional analysis of the promoter of RAGE, the receptor for advanced glycation end products, "The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 272, no. 26, pp. 16498-16506, 1997.
93. A. Taguchi, D. C. Blood, G. Del Toro et al., "Blockade of RAGE-amphoterin signalling suppresses tumour growth and metastases, " Nature, vol. 405, no. 6784, pp. 354-360, 2000.
94. D. Tang, R. Kang, H. J. Zeh III, andM. T. Lotze, "High-mobility group box 1 and cancer, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-Gene Regulatory Mechanisms, vol. 1799, no. 1-2, pp. 131-140, 2010.
95. H. Kuniyasu, Y. Chihara, H. Kondo, H. Ohmori, and R. Ukai, "Amphoterin induction in prostatic stromal cells by androgen deprivation is associated with metastatic prostate cancer., " Oncology Reports, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 1863-1868, 2003.
96. M. Gnanasekar, R. Kalyanasundaram, G. Zheng, A. Chen, M. C. Bosland, and A. Kajdacsy-Balla, "HMGB1: a promising therapeutic target for prostate cancer, " Prostate Cancer, vol. 2013, Article ID 157103, 8 pages, 2013.
97. V. Boonyaratanakornkit, V. Melvin, P. Prendergast et al., "Highmobility group chromatin proteins 1 and 2 functionally interact with steroid hormone receptors to enhance their DNA binding in vitro and transcriptional activity inmammalian cells, " Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 4471-4487, 1998.
98. J. P. Rowell, K. L. Simpson, K. Stott, M. Watson, and J. O. Thomas, "HMGB1-facilitated p53 DNA binding occurs via HMG-Box/p53 transactivation domain interaction, regulated by the acidic tail, " Structure, vol. 20, no. 12, pp. 2014-2024, 2012.
99. H. Uramoto, H. Izumi, G. Nagatani et al., "Physical interaction of tumour suppressor p53/p73 with CCAAT-binding transcription factor 2 (CTF2) and differential regulation of human highmobility group 1 (HMG1) gene expression, " The Biochemical Journal, vol. 371, no. 2, pp. 301-310, 2003.
100. A. D. Saleh, J. E. Savage, L. Cao et al., "Cellular stress induced alterations in microrna let-7a and let-7b expression are dependent on p53, " PLoS ONE, vol. 6, no. 10, Article IDe24429, 2011.
101. M. Malumbres andM. Barbacid, "Cell cycle, CDKs and cancer: a changing paradigm, " Nature Reviews Cancer, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 153-166, 2009.
102. Y. Takano, Y. Kato, P. J. Van Diest, M. Masuda, H. Mitomi, and I. Okayasu, "Cyclin D2 overexpression and lack of p27 correlate positively and cyclin E inverselywith a poor prognosis in gastric cancer cases, " The American Journal of Pathology, vol. 156, no. 2, pp. 585-594, 2000.
103. A. Mermelshtein, A. Gerson, S. Walfisch et al., "Expression of D-type cyclins in colon cancer and in cell lines from colon carcinomas, " British Journal of Cancer, vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 338-345, 2005.
104. T. Igawa, Y. Sato, K. Takata et al., "Cyclin D2 is overexpressed in proliferation centers of chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma, " Cancer Science, vol. 102, no. 11, pp. 2103-2107, 2011.
105. C. Zhu, P. Shao, M. Bao et al., "miR-154 inhibits prostate cancer cell proliferation by targeting CCND2, " Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 31. e9-31. e16, 2014.
106. J. Klaewsongkram, Y. Yang, S. Golech, J. Katz, K. H. Kaestner, and N.-P. Weng, "Kruppel-like factor 4 regulates B cell number and activation-induced B cell proliferation, " Journal of Immunology, vol. 179, no. 7, pp. 4679-4684, 2007.
107. C. Bouchard, O. Dittrich, A. Kiermaier et al., "Regulation of cyclin D2 gene expression by theMyc/Max/Mad network:Mycdependent TRRAP recruitment and histone acetylation at the cyclin D2 promoter, " Genes & Development, vol. 15, no. 16, pp. 2042-2047, 2001.
108. C. E. Nesbit, J. M. Tersak, and E. V. Prochownik, "MYC oncogenes and human neoplastic disease, " Oncogene, vol. 18, no. 19, pp. 3004-3016, 1999.
109. C. V. Dang, "MYC, metabolism, cell growth, and tumorigenesis, " Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, vol. 3, no. 8, 2013.
110. B. Nagy, A. Szendroi, and I. Romics, "Overexpression of CD24, c-myc and phospholipase 2A in prostate cancer tissue samples obtained by needle biopsy, " Pathology and Oncology Research, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 279-283, 2009.
111. R. Buttyan, I. S. Sawczuk, M. C. Benson, J. D. Siegal, and C. Olsson, "Enhanced expression of the c-myc protooncogene in high-grade human prostate cancers, " The Prostate, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 327-337, 1987.
112. J. Gil, P. Kerai, M. Lleonart et al., "Immortalization of primary human prostate epithelial cells by c-Myc, " Cancer Research, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 2179-2185, 2005.
113. S. R. Hann, "Role of post-translational modifications in regulating c-Myc proteolysis, transcriptional activity and biological function, " Seminars in Cancer Biology, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 288-302, 2006.
114. H. K. Hyeon, Y. Kuwano, S. Srikantan, K. L. Eun, J. L. Martindale, and M. Gorospe, "HuR recruits let-7/RISC to repress c-Myc expression, " Genes and Development, vol. 23, no. 15, pp. 1743-1748, 2009.
115. V. B. Sampson, N. H. Rong, J. Han et al., "MicroRNA let-7a down-regulates MYC and reverts MYC-induced growth in Burkitt lymphoma cells, " Cancer Research, vol. 67, no. 20, pp. 9762-9770, 2007.
116. D. Gioeli, J. W. Mandell, G. R. Petroni, H. F. Frierson Jr., and M. J. Weber, "Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase associated with prostate cancer progression, " Cancer research, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 279-284, 1999.
117. F. Marampon, C. Ciccarelli, and B. M. Zani, "Down-regulation of c-Myc following MEK/ERK inhibition halts the expression of malignant phenotype in rhabdomyosarcoma and in non muscle-derived human tumors, "Molecular Cancer, vol. 5, article 31, 2006.
118. C. BradhamandD. R. McClay, "p38MAPK in development and cancer, " Cell Cycle, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 824-828, 2006.
119. T.-C. Chang, L. R. Zeitels, H.-W. Hwang et al., "Lin-28B transactivation is necessary for Myc-mediated let-7 repression and proliferation, " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 106, no. 9, pp. 3384-3389, 2009.
120. K. S. Sfanos and A. M. de Marzo, "Prostate cancer and inflammation: the evidence, " Histopathology, vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 199-215, 2012.
121. T. Hirano, K. Yasukawa, H. Harada et al., "Complementary DNA for a novel human interleukin (BSF-2) that induces B lymphocytes to produce immunoglobulin, " Nature, vol. 324, no. 6092, pp. 73-76, 1986.
122. D. P. Nguyen, J. Li, andA. K. Tewari, "Inflammationandprostate cancer: the role of interleukin 6 (IL-6), " BJU International, vol. 113, no. 6, pp. 986-992, 2014.
123. M. Okamoto, C. Lee, and R. Oyasu, "Interleukin-6 as a paracrine and autocrine growth factor in human prostatic carcinoma cells in vitro, " Cancer Research, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 141-146, 1997.
124. B. Wegiel, A. Bjartell, Z. Culig, and J. L. Persson, "Interleukin-6 activates PI3K/Akt pathway and regulates cyclin A1 to promote prostate cancer cell survival, " International Journal of Cancer, vol. 122, no. 7, pp. 1521-1529, 2008.
125. P. Sivashanmugam, L. Tang, and Y. Daaka, "Interleukin 6 mediates the lysophosphatidic acid-regulated cross-talk between stromal and epithelial prostate cancer cells, " Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 279, no. 20, pp. 21154-21159, 2004.
126. D. Giri, M. Ozen, and M. Ittmann, "Interleukin-6 is an autocrine growth factor in human prostate cancer, " The American Journal of Pathology, vol. 159, no. 6, pp. 2159-2165, 2001.
127. V. Michalaki, K. Syrigos, P. Charles, and J. Waxman, "Serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α correlate with clinicopathological features and patient survival in patients with prostate cancer, " British Journal of Cancer, vol. 90, no. 12, pp. 2312-2316, 2004.
128. R. J. Simpson, A. Hammacher, D. K. Smith, J. M. Matthews, and L. D. Ward, "Interleukin-6: structure-function relationships, " Protein Science, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 929-955, 1997.
129. K. Yamaoka, P. Saharinen, M. Pesu, V. E. T. Holt III, O. Silvennoinen, and J. J. OShea, "The Janus kinases (Jaks), " Genome Biology, vol. 5, no. 12, article 253, 2004.
130. X. Wang, P. Lupardus, S. L. LaPorte, and K. C. Garcia, "Structural biology of shared cytokine receptors, " Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 27, pp. 29-60, 2009.
131. J. N. Ihle, "The stat family in cytokine signaling, " Current Opinion in Cell Biology, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 211-217, 2001.
132. J. Scheller, A. Chalaris, D. Schmidt-Arras, and S. Rose-John, "The pro-and anti-inflammatory properties of the cytokine interleukin-6, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta: Molecular Cell Research, vol. 1813, no. 5, pp. 878-888, 2011.
133. A. Fahmi, N. Smart, A. Punn, R. Jabr, M. Marber, and R. Heads, "P42/p44-MAPK and PI3K are sufficient for IL-6 family cytokines/gp130 to signal to hypertrophy and survival in cardiomyocytes in the absence of JAK/STAT activation, " Cellular Signalling, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 898-909, 2013.
134. T. Ueda, N. Bruchovsky, and M. D. Sadar, "Activation of the androgen receptor N-terminal domain by interleukin-6 via MAPK and STAT3 signal transduction pathways, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 277, no. 9, pp. 7076-7085, 2002.
135. K. Malinowska, H. Neuwirt, I. T. Cavarretta et al., "Interleukin stimulation of growth of prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo through activation of the androgen receptor, " Endocrine-Related Cancer, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 155-169, 2009.
136. L. Yang, L. Wang, H.-K. Lin et al., "Interleukin-6 differentially regulates androgen receptor transactivation via PI3KAkt, STAT3, and MAPK, three distinct signal pathways in prostate cancer cells, " Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 305, no. 3, pp. 462-469, 2003.
137. Y.-S. Pu, T.-C. Hour, S.-E. Chuang, A.-L. Cheng, M.-K. Lai, and M.-L. Kuo, "Interleukin-6 is responsible for drug resistance and anti-apoptotic effects in prostatic cancer cells, " Prostate, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 120-129, 2004.
138. Y. Liu, P.-K. Li, C. Li, and J. Lin, "Inhibition of STAT3 signaling blocks the anti-apoptotic activity of IL-6 in human liver cancer cells, " The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 285, no. 35, pp. 27429-27439, 2010.
139. C. Liu, Y. Zhu, W. Lou, Y. Cui, C. P. Evans, and A. C. Gao, "Inhibition of constitutively active Stat3 reverses enzalutamide resistance in LNCaP derivative prostate cancer cells, " The Prostate, vol. 74, no. 2, pp. 201-209, 2014.
140. B. Paule, S. Terry, L. Kheuang, P. Soyeux, F. Vacherot, and A. de Taille, "The NF-κB/IL-6 pathway in metastatic androgenindependent prostate cancer: new therapeutic approaches?" World Journal of Urology, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 477-489, 2007.
141. D. J. Wang, A. Legesse-Miller, E. L. Johnson, and H. A. Coller, "Regulation of the let-7a-3 promoter byNF-κB, " PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 2, Article ID e31240, 2012.
142. S. Rose-John, G. H. Waetzig, J. Cheller, J. Grotzinger, and D. Seegert, "The IL-6/sIL-6R complex as a novel target for therapeutic approaches, "ExpertOpinion onTherapeutic Targets, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 613-624, 2007.
143. K. Rajalingam, R. Schreck, U. R. Rapp, and S. Albert, "Ras oncogenes and their downstream targets, " Biochimica et Biophysica Acta: Molecular Cell Research, vol. 1773, no. 8, pp. 1177-1195, 2007.
144. A. Fernandez-Medarde and E. Santos, "Ras in cancer and developmental diseases, " Genes and Cancer, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 344-358, 2011.
145. P. Gideon, J. John, M. Frech et al., "Mutational and kinetic analyses of the GTPase-activating protein (GAP)-p21 interaction: the C-terminal domain of GAP is not sufficient for full activity, " Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 2050-2056, 1992.
146. K. Scheffzek, M. R. Ahmadian, W. Kabsch et al., "The Ras-RasGAP complex: structural basis for GTPase activation and its loss in oncogenic ras mutants, " Science, vol. 277, no. 5324, pp. 333-338, 1997.
147. S. Schubbert, K. Shannon, and G. Bollag, "Hyperactive Ras in developmental disorders and cancer, " Nature Reviews Cancer, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 295-308, 2007.
148. N. Gerits, S. Kostenko, A. Shiryaev, M. Johannessen, and U. Moens, "Relations between the mitogen-activated protein kinase and the cAMP-dependent protein kinase pathways: comradeship and hostility, " Cellular Signalling, vol. 20, no. 9, pp. 1592-1607, 2008.
149. A. S. Dhillon, S. Hagan, O. Rath, and W. Kolch, "MAP kinase signalling pathways in cancer, " Oncogene, vol. 26, no. 22, pp. 3279-3290, 2007.
150. G. A. Repasky, E. J. Chenette, and C. J. Der, "Renewing the conspiracy theory debate: does Raf function alone to mediate Ras oncogenesis?" Trends in Cell Biology, vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 639-647, 2004.
151. E. Castellano and J. Downward, "Ras interaction with PI3K: more than just another effector pathway, " Genes & Cancer, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 261-274, 2011.
152. J. A. Engelman, J. Luo, and L. C. Cantley, "The evolution of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases as regulators of growth and metabolism, " Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 7, no. 8, pp. 606-619, 2006.
153. B. S. Taylor, N. Schultz, H. Hieronymus et al., "Integrative genomic profiling of human prostate cancer, " Cancer Cell, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 11-22, 2010.
154. J. A. Engelman, "Therole of phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathway inhibitors in the treatment of lung cancer, " Clinical Cancer Research, vol. 13, no. 15, part 2, pp. S4637-S4640, 2007.
155. M. A. Davies, "Regulation, role, and targeting of Akt in cancer, " Journal of Clinical Oncology, vol. 29, no. 35, pp. 4715-4717, 2011.
156. V. Poulaki, C. S. Mitsiades, C. McMullan et al., "Regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression by insulin-like growth factor I in thyroid carcinomas, " The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol. 88, no. 11, pp. 5392-5398, 2003.
157. G. Niu, K. L. Wright, M. Huang et al., "Constitutive Stat3 activity up-regulates VEGF expression and tumor angiogenesis, " Oncogene, vol. 21, no. 13, pp. 2000-2008, 2002.
158. L. Guo, C. Chen, M. Shi et al., "Stat3-coordinated Lin-28-let-7-HMGA2 and miR-200-ZEB1 circuits initiate and maintain oncostatinM-driven epithelial-mesenchymal transition, " Oncogene, vol. 32, no. 45, pp. 5272-5282, 2013.
159. M. Colombatti, S. Grasso, A. Porzia et al., "The prostate specific membrane antigen regulates the expression of IL-6 and CCL5 in prostate tumour cells by activating the MAPK pathways, " PLoS ONE, vol. 4, no. 2, Article ID e4608, 2009.
160. K. Bouchelouche, P. L. Choyke, and J. Capala, "Prostate specific membrane antigen-a target for imaging and therapy with radionuclides, " Discovery Medicine, vol. 9, no. 44, pp. 55-61, 2010.
161. T. Naka, N. Nishimoto, and T. Kishimoto, "The paradigm of IL-6: frombasic science to medicine, " Arthritis Research & Therapy, vol. 4, supplement 3, pp. S233-S242, 2002.
162. F. Yu, H. Yao, P. Zhu et al., "let-7 regulates self renewal and tumorigenicity of breast cancer cells, " Cell, vol. 131, no. 6, pp. 1109-1123, 2007.
163. W. Wahli and E. Martinez, "Superfamily of steroid nuclear receptors: positive and negative regulators of gene expression, " The FASEB Journal, vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 2243-2249, 1991.
164. C. J. Brown, S. J. Goss, D. B. Lubahn et al., "Androgen receptor locus on the human X chromosome: regional localization to Xq11-12 and description of a DNA polymorphism, " The American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 264-269, 1989.
165. E. P. Gelmann, "Molecular biology of the androgen receptor, " Journal of Clinical Oncology, vol. 20, no. 13, pp. 3001-3015, 2002.
166. P. J. Roche, S. A. Hoare, andM. G. Parker, "A consensus DNAbinding site for the androgen receptor, " Molecular Endocrinology, vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 2229-2235, 1992.
167. F. Claessens, G. Verrijdt, E. Schoenmakers et al., "SelectiveDNA binding by the androgen receptor as a mechanism for hormonespecific gene regulation, "TheJournal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, vol. 76, no. 1-5, pp. 23-30, 2001.
168. P. E. Lonergan and D. J. Tindall, "Androgen receptor signaling in prostate cancer development and progression, " Journal of Carcinogenesis, vol. 10, article 20, 2011.
169. A. I. So, A. Hurtado-Coll, and M. E. Gleave, "Androgens and prostate cancer, "World Journal ofUrology, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 325-337, 2003.
170. M. A. Titus, B. Zeithaml, B. Kantor et al., "Dominantnegative androgen receptor inhibition of intracrine androgendependent growth of castration-recurrent prostate cancer, " PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 1, Article ID e30192, 2012.
171. J. A. Locke, E. S. Guns, A. A. Lubik et al., "Androgen Levels increase by intratumoral de novo steroidogenesis during progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer, " Cancer Research, vol. 68, no. 15, pp. 6407-6415, 2008.
172. M.-L. Zhu and N. Kyprianou, "Androgen receptor and growth factor signaling cross-talk in prostate cancer cells, " Endocrine-Related Cancer, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 841-849, 2008.
173. Z. Guo and Y. Qiu, "A new trick of an old molecule: androgen receptor splice variants taking the stage?, " International Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 815-822, 2011.
174. K. Eisermann, C. J. Broderick, A. Bazarov, M. M. Moazam, and G. C. Fraizer, "Androgen up-regulates vascular endothelial growth factor expression in prostate cancer cells via an Sp1 binding site, " Molecular Cancer, vol. 12, no. 1, article 7, 2013.
175. P. Saxena, M. Trerotola, T. Wang et al., "PSA regulates androgen receptor expression in prostate cancer cells, " Prostate, vol. 72, no. 7, pp. 769-776, 2012.
176. G. Attard, C. S. Cooper, and J. S. de Bono, "Steroid hormone receptors in prostate cancer: a hard habit to break?" Cancer Cell, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 458-462, 2009.
177. R. Tummala, N. Nadiminty, W. Lou et al., "Lin28 promotes growth of prostate cancer cells and activates the androgen receptor, " The American Journal of Pathology, vol. 183, no. 1, pp. 288-295, 2013.