Nanomedicine against malaria

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 21, Issue 5, 2014, Pages 605-629

  Urbán, Patricia ^a,b,c   Fernàndez Busquets, Xavier ^a,b,c  

^a INSTITUTE FOR BIOENGINEERING OF CATALONIA IBEC   (Spain)

^b CENTRE FOR RESEARCH IN ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY CREAL   (Spain)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Dendrimers; Liposomes; Malaria diagnosis; Nanobiosensors; Nanoparticles; Plasmodium; Polymers; Targeted drug delivery

Indexed keywords

AMINOALCOHOL; AMODIAQUINE; ARTEMISININ; ATOVAQUONE; BENFLUMETOL; CHLOROQUINE; CHLORPROGUANIL; CLINDAMYCIN; CURCUMIN; DAPSONE; DENDRIMER; FOSMIDOMYCIN; GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN; HALOFANTRINE; LIPID; LIPOSOME; MEFLOQUINE; METHYLENE BLUE; PIPERAQUINE; POLYMER; PRIMAQUINE; PYRIMETHAMINE; SULFONAMIDE; SULFONE; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE;

ANOPHELES; ARTICLE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; LIFE CYCLE; MALARIA; MALARIA CONTROL; MALARIA FALCIPARUM; MICROFLUIDICS; NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY; NANOMEDICINE; NANOTECHNOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PHASE 3 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PLASMODIUM; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PLASMODIUM KNOWLESI; PLASMODIUM MALARIAE; PLASMODIUM OVALE; PLASMODIUM VIVAX; PLASMODIUM VIVAX MALARIA; SCHIZONT; SPOROZOITE; TREATMENT RESPONSE; TROPHOZOITE;

AMINO ALCOHOLS; ANTIMALARIALS; DENDRIMERS; DRUG CARRIERS; DRUG DESIGN; HUMANS; MALARIA; NANOMEDICINE; PLASMODIUM; QUINOLINES;

EID: 84893261170     PISSN: 09298673     EISSN: 1875533X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/09298673113206660292     Document Type: Article

References (329)

1. World Health Organization: World Malaria Report 2011 http://www.who.int/ malaria/world-malaria-report-2011/97892415 64403-eng.pdf, Internet Communication.
2. Price, R.N.; Douglas, N.M.; Anstey, N.M. New developments in Plasmodium vivax malaria: severe disease and the rise of chloroquine resistance. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2009, 22 (5), 430-435.
3. Baird, J.K. Chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium vivax. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48 (11), 4075-4083.
4. White, N.J. Plasmodium knowlesi: the fifth human malaria parasite. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 46 (2), 172-173.
5. Rodrigues, T.; Prudêncio, M.; Moreira, R.; Mota, M.M.; Lopes, F. Targeting the liver stage of malaria parasites: a yet unmet goal. J. Drug Target. 2012, 55 (3), 995-1012.
6. Callaway, E. Malaria research should go to 'basics'. Nature 2007, 449, 266.
7. Prudêncio, M.; Rodriguez, A.; Mota, M.M. The silent path to thousands of merozoites: the Plasmodium liver stage. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2006, 4 (11), 849-856.
8. Cowman, A.F.; Crabb, B.S. Invasion of red blood cells by malaria parasites. Cell 2006, 124 (4), 755-766.
9. Zuccala, E.S.; Baum, J. Cytoskeletal and membrane remodelling during malaria parasite invasion of the human erythrocyte. Br. J. Haematol. 2011, 154 (6), 680-689.
10. Winograd, E.; Prudhomme, J.G.; Sherman, I.W. Band 3 clustering promotes the exposure of neoantigens in Plasmodium falciparuminfected erythrocytes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2005, 142 (1), 98-105.
11. Craig, A.; Scherf, A. Molecules on the surface of the Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocyte and their role in malaria pathogenesis and immune evasion. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2001, 115 (2), 129-143.
12. Kyes, S.; Horrocks, P.; Newbold, C. Antigenic variation at the infected red cell surface in malaria. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2001, 55, 673-707.
13. Hanssen, E.; McMillan, P.J.; Tilley, L. Cellular architecture of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Int. J. Parasitol. 2010, 40 (10), 1127-1135.
14. Goldberg, D.E.; Cowman, A.F. Moving in and renovating: exporting proteins from Plasmodium into host erythrocytes. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2010, 8 (9), 617-621.
15. Parker, P.D.; Tilley, L.; Klonis, N. Plasmodium falciparum induces reorganization of host membrane proteins during intraerythrocytic growth. Blood 2004, 103 (6), 2404-2406.
16. Kirk, K. Channels and transporters as drug targets in the Plasmodium- infected erythrocyte. Acta Trop. 2004, 89 (3), 285-298.
17. Griffith, K.S.; Lewis, L.S.; Mali, S.; Parise, M.E. Treatment of malaria in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA 2007, 297 (20), 2264-2277.
18. Sinden, R.; Carter, R.; Drakeley, C.; Leroy, D. The biology of sexual development of Plasmodium: the design and implementation of transmission- blocking strategies. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 70.
19. Delves, M.J.; Ramakrishnan, C.; Blagborough, A.M.; Leroy, D.; Wells, T.N.C.; Sinden, R.E. A high-throughput assay for the identification of malarial transmission-blocking drugs and vaccines. Int. J. Parasitol. 2012, 42 (11), 999-1006.
20. Delves, M.J. Plasmodium cell biology should inform strategies used in the development of antimalarial transmission-blocking drugs. Future Med. Chem. 2012, 4 (18), 2251-2263.
21. Mackinnon, M.J.; Marsh, K. The selection landscape of malaria parasites. Science 2010, 328 (5980), 866-871.
22. Miller, L.H.; Baruch, D.I.; Marsh, K.; Doumbo, O.K. The pathogenic basis of malaria. Nature 2002, 415 (6872), 673-679.
23. Udomsangpetch, R.; Wåhlin, B.; Carlson, J.; Berzins, K.; Torii, M.; Aikawa, M.; Perlmann, P.; Wahlgren, M. Plasmodium falciparuminfected erythrocytes form spontaneous erythrocyte rosettes. J. Exp. Med. 1989, 169, 1835-1840.
24. Handunnetti, S.M.; David, P.H.; Perera, K.L.R.L.; Mendis, K.N. Uninfected erythrocytes form "rosettes" around Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1989, 40 (2), 115-118.
25. Pain, A.; Ferguson, D.J.P.; Kai, O.; Urban, B.C.; Lowe, B.; Marsh, K.; Roberts, D.J. Platelet-mediated clumping of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes is a common adhesive phenotype and is associated with severe malaria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001, 98 (4), 1805-1810.
26. Juillerat, A.; Lewit-Bentley, A.; Guillotte, M.; Gangnard, S.; Hessel, A.; Baron, B.; Vigan-Womas, I.; England, P.; Mercereau-Puijalon, O.; Bentley, G. Structure of a Plasmodium falciparum PfEMP1 rosetting domain reveals a role for the N-terminal segment in heparin-mediated rosette inhibition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108 (13), 5243-5248.
27. Rowe, A.; Obeiro, J.; Newbold, C.I.; Marsh, K. Plasmodium falciparum rosetting is associated with malaria severity in Kenya. Infect. Immun. 1995, 63 (6), 2323-2326.
28. Idro, R.; Jenkins, N.E.; Newton, C.R. Pathogenesis, clinical features, and neurological outcome of cerebral malaria. Lancet Neurol. 2005, 4 (12), 827-840.
29. Roll Back Malaria: Refined/updated GMAP objectives, targets, milestones and priorities beyond 2011. http://www.rbm.who.int/, Internet Communication.
30. Breman, J.G.; Brandling-Bennett, A.D. The challenge of malaria eradication in the twenty-first century: research linked to operations is the key. Vaccine 2012, 29, D97-D103.
31. Feachem, R.G.; Phillips, A.A.; Targett, G.A.; Snow, R.W. Call to action: priorities for malaria elimination. Lancet 2010, 376 (9752), 1517-1521.
32. Hay, S.I.; Guerra, C.A.; Tatem, A.J.; Noor, A.M.; Snow, R.W. The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past, present, and future. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2004, 4 (6), 327-336.
33. Nájera, J.A.; González-Silva, M.; Alonso, P.L. Some lessons for the future from the Global Malaria Eradication Programme (1955-1969). PLoS Med. 2011, 8 (1), e1000412.
34. Mills, A.; Lubell, Y.; Hanson, K. Malaria eradication: the economic, financial and institutional challenge. Malar. J. 2008, 7 Suppl 1, S11.
35. Tham, W.H.; Healer, J.; Cowman, A.F. Erythrocyte and reticulocyte binding-like proteins of Plasmodium falciparum. Trends Parasitol. 2012, 28 (1), 23-30.
36. Matuschewski, K.; Mueller, A.K. Vaccines against malaria - an update. FEBS J. 2007, 274 (18), 4680-4687.
37. Valero, M.V.; Amador, R.; Aponte, J.J.; Narvaez, A.; Galindo, C.; Silva, Y.; Rosas, J.; Guzman, F.; Patarroyo, M.E. Evaluation of SPf66 malaria vaccine during a 22-month follow-up field trial in the Pacific coast of Colombia. Vaccine 1996, 14 (15), 1466-1470.
38. Nosten, F.; Luxemburger, C.; Kyle, D.E.; Ballou, W.R.; Wittes, J.; Wah, E.; Chongsuphajaisiddhi, T.; Gordon, D.M.; White, N.J.; Sadoff, J.C.; Heppner, D.G. Randomised double-blind placebocontrolled trial of SPf66 malaria vaccine in children in northwestern Thailand. Shoklo SPf66 Malaria Vaccine Trial Group. Lancet 1996, 348 (9029), 701-707.
39. Graves, P.; Gelband, H.; Garner, P. The SPf66 malaria vaccine: what is the evidence for efficacy? Parasitol. Today 1998, 14 (6), 218-220.
40. Acosta, C.J.; Galindo, C.M.; Schellenberg, D.; Aponte, J.J.; Kahigwa, E.; Urassa, H.; Schellenberg, J.R.; Masanja, H.; Hayes, R.; Kitua, A.Y.; Lwilla, F.; Mshinda, H.; Menendez, C.; Tanner, M.; Alonso, P.L. Evaluation of the SPf66 vaccine for malaria control when delivered through the EPI scheme in Tanzania. Trop. Med. Int. Health 1999, 4 (5), 368-376.
41. Graves, P.; Gelband, H. Vaccines for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2003, (1), CD000129.
42. Bermúdez, A.; Reyes, C.; Guzmán, F.; Vanegas, M.; Rosas, J.; Amador, R.; Rodríguez, R.; Patarroyo, M.A.; Patarroyo, M.E. Synthetic vaccine update: applying lessons learned from recent SPf66 malarial vaccine physicochemical, structural and immunological characterization. Vaccine 2007, 25 (22), 4487-4501.
43. Alonso, P.L.; Sacarlal, J.; Aponte, J.J.; Leach, A.; Macete, E.; Milman, J.; Mandomando, I.; Spiessens, B.; Guinovart, C.; Espasa, M.; Bassat, Q.; Aide, P.; Ofori-Anyinam, O.; Navia, M.M.; Corachan, S.; Ceuppens, M.; Dubois, M.C.; Demoitie, M.A.; Dubovsky, F.; Menendez, C.; Tornieporth, N.; Ballou, W.R.; Thompson, R.; Cohen, J. Efficacy of the RTS,S/AS02A vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum infection and disease in young African children: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004, 364 (9443), 1411-1420.
44. Alonso, P.L. Malaria: deploying a candidate vaccine (RTS,S/AS02A) for an old scourge of humankind. Int. Microbiol. 2006, 9 (2), 83-93.
45. Daily, J.P. Antimalarial drug therapy: the role of parasite biology and drug resistance. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2006, 46 (12), 1487-1497.
46. Wilson, M.; Kannangara, K.; Smith, G.; Simmons, M.; Raguse, B. Nanotechnology: Basic Science and Emerging Technologies; Chapman & Hall, CRC Press LLC: Boca Raton, FL, 2002.
47. Vollath, D. Nanomaterials: An Introduction to Synthesis, Properties and Applications; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, 2008.
48. Maynard, A.D.; Warheit, D.B.; Philbert, M.A. The new toxicology of sophisticated materials: nanotoxicology and beyond. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 120 (suppl 1), S109-S129.
49. European Science Fundation: ESF Forward Look on Nanomedicine 2005 http://www.nanopharmaceuticals.org/files/nanomedicine.pdf, Internet Communication.
50. Langer, R.; Vacanti, J.P. Tissue engineering. Science 1993, 260 (5110), 920-926.
51. Madadi, P.; Enato, E.F.; Walfisch, A. Actionable theranostics for global maternal health: a focus on HIV and malaria. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2012, 12 (8), 831-840.
52. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria; 2nd ed.; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2010.
53. Wongsrichanalai, C.; Barcus, M.J.; Muth, S.; Sutamihardja, A.; Wernsdorfer, W.H. A review of malaria diagnostic tools: microscopy and rapid diagnostic test (RDT). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77 (6 Suppl), 119-127.
54. Moody, A. Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria parasites. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2002, 15 (1), 66-78.
55. Warhurst, D.C.; Williams, J.L. ACP Broadsheet no 148. July 1996. Laboratory diagnosis of malaria. J. Clin. Pathol. 1996, 49, 533-538.
56. Kilian, A.H.D.; Metzger, W.G.; Mutschelknauss, E.J.; Kabagambe, G.; Langi, P.; Korte, R.; von Sonnenburg, F. Reliability of malaria microscopy in epidemiological studies: results of quality control. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2000, 5 (1), 3-8.
57. Murray, C.K.; Bell, D.; Gasser, R.A.; Wongsrichanalai, C. Rapid diagnostic testing for malaria. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2003, 8 (10), 876-883.
58. Murray, C.K.; Gasser, R.A.; Magill, A.J.; Miller, R.S. Update on rapid diagnostic testing for malaria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2008, 21 (1), 97-110.
59. Bell, D.; Wongsrichanalai, C.; Barnwell, J.W. Ensuring quality and access for malaria diagnosis: how can it be achieved? Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2006, 4 (9 Suppl), S7-20.
60. Hauck, T.S.; Giri, S.; Gao, Y.; Chan, W.C.W. Nanotechnology diagnostics for infectious diseases prevalent in developing countries. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2010, 62, 438-448.
61. Hirsch, L.R.; Halas, N.J.; West, J.L. Whole-blood immunoassay facilitated by gold nanoshell-conjugate antibodies. Methods Mol. Biol. 2005, 303, 101-111.
62. Polpanich, D.; Tangboriboonrat, P.; Elaissari, A.; Udomsangpetch, R. Detection of malaria infection via latex agglutination assay. Anal. Chem. 2007, 79 (12), 4690-4695.
63. Newman, D.M.; Heptinstall, J.; Matelon, R.J.; Savage, L.; Wears, M.L.; Beddow, J.; Cox, M.; Schallig, H.D.F.H.; Mens, P.F. A magneto- optic route toward the in vivo diagnosis of malaria: preliminary results and preclinical trial data. Biophys. J. 2008, 95 (2), 994-1000.
64. Mahajan, B.; Zheng, H.; Pham, P.T.; Sedegah, M.Y.; Majam, V.F.; Akolkar, N.; Rios, M.; Ankrah, I.; Madjitey, P.; Amoah, G.; Addison, E.; Quakyi, I.A.; Kumar, S. Polymerase chain reactionbased tests for pan-species and species-specific detection of human Plasmodium parasites. Transfusion 2012, 52 (9), 1949-1956.
65. Putaporntip, C.; Buppan, P.; Jongwutiwes, S. Improved performance with saliva and urine as alternative DNA sources for malaria diagnosis by mitochondrial DNA-based PCR assays. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2011, 17 (10), 1484-1491.
66. Huikko, K.; Kostiainen, R.; Kotiaho, T. Introduction to microanalytical systems: bioanalytical and pharmaceutical applications. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2003, 20 (2), 149-171.
67. Rodrigues Ribeiro Teles, F.S.; Pires de Távora Tavira, L.A.; Pina da Fonseca, L.J. Biosensors as rapid diagnostic tests for tropical diseases. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 2010, 47 (3), 139-169.
68. Shelby, J.P.; White, J.; Ganesan, K.; Rathod, P.K.; Chiu, D.T. A microfluidic model for single-cell capillary obstruction by Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003, 100 (25), 14618-14622.
69. Heidrich, H.-G.; Rüssmann, L.; Bayer, B.; Jung, A. Free-flow electrophoresis for the separation of malaria infected and uninfected mouse erythrocytes and for the isolation of free parasites (Plasmodium vinckei): a new rapid technique for the liberation of malaria parasites from their host cells. Z. Parasitenkd. 1979, 58, 151-159.
70. Gascoyne, P.; Mahidol, C.; Ruchirawat, M.; Satayavivad, J.; Watcharasit, P.; Becker, F.F. Microsample preparation by dielectrophoresis: isolation of malaria. Lab Chip 2002, 2 (2), 70-75.
71. Heidrich, H.-G.; Hannig, K. Separation of cell populations by freeflow electrophoresis. Methods Enzymol. 1989, 171, 513-531.
72. Gascoyne, P.; Satayavivad, J.; Ruchirawat, M. Microfluidic approaches to malaria detection. Acta Trop. 2004, 89 (3), 357-369.
73. Nanomal Project http://www.nanomal.org/, Internet Communication Apr 17, 2013.
74. DiscoGnosis Project http://www.discognosis.eu, Internet Communication Jul 17, 2013.
75. Juul, S.; Nielsen, C.J.F.; Labouriau, R.; Roy, A.; Tesauro, C.; Jensen, P.W.; Harmsen, C.; Kristoffersen, E.L.; Chiu, Y.L.; Frøhlich, R.; Fiorani, P.; Cox-Singh, J.; Tordrup, D.; Koch, J.; Bienvenu, A.L.; Desideri, A.; Picot, S.; Petersen, E.; Leong, K.W.; Ho, Y.P.; Stougaard, M.; Knudsen, B.R. Droplet microfluidics platform for highly sensitive and quantitative detection of malaria-causing Plasmodium parasites based on enzyme activity measurement. ACS Nano 2012, 6 (12), 10676-10683.
76. Bronzan, R.N.; McMorrow, M.L.; Kachur, S.P. Diagnosis of malaria: challenges for clinicians in endemic and non-endemic regions. Mol. Diagn. Ther. 2008, 12, 299-306.
77. Liu, C.; Mauk, M.G.; Hart, R.; Bonizzoni, M.; Yan, G.; Bau, H.H. A low-cost microfluidic chip for rapid genotyping of malariatransmitting mosquitoes. PLoS ONE 2012, 7 (8), e42222.
78. Bizzarri, A.R.; Cannistraro, S. The application of atomic force spectroscopy to the study of biological complexes undergoing a biorecognition process. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39 (2), 734-749.
79. Bustamante, C.; Macosko, J.C.; Wuite, G.J. Grabbing the cat by the tail: manipulating molecules one by one. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2000, 1 (2), 130-136.
80. Evans, E.; Ritchie, K. Dynamic strength of molecular adhesion bonds. Biophys. J. 1997, 72 (4), 1541-1555.
81. Merkel, R.; Nassoy, P.; Leung, A.; Ritchie, K.; Evans, E. Energy landscapes of receptor-ligand bonds explored with dynamic force spectroscopy. Nature 1999, 397 (6714), 50-53.
82. Green, J.B.D.; Novoradovsky, A.; Park, D.; Lee, G.U. Microfabricated tip arrays for improving force measurements. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1999, 74 (10), 1489-1491.
83. Perez-Jimenez, R.; Li, J.; Kosuri, P.; Sanchez-Romero, I.; Wiita, A.P.; Rodriguez-Larrea, D.; Chueca, A.; Holmgren, A.; Miranda-Vizuete, A.; Becker, K.; Cho, S.H.; Beckwith, J.; Gelhaye, E.; Jacquot, J.P.; Gaucher, E.A.; Sanchez-Ruiz, J.M.; Berne, B.J.; Fernandez, J.M. Diversity of chemical mechanisms in thioredoxin catalysis revealed by single-molecule force spectroscopy. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2009, 16 (8), 890-896.
84. Sletmoen, M.; Skjak-Braek, G.; Stokke, B.T. Mapping enzymatic functionalities of mannuronan C-5 epimerases and their modular units by dynamic force spectroscopy. Carbohydr. Res. 2005, 340 (18), 2782-2795.
85. Wiita, A.P.; Perez-Jimenez, R.; Walther, K.A.; Gräter, F.; Berne, B.J.; Holmgren, A.; Sanchez-Ruiz, J.M.; Fernandez, J.M. Probing the chemistry of thioredoxin catalysis with force. Nature 2007, 450 (7166), 124-127.
86. Yingge, Z.; Chunli, B.; Chen, W.; Delu, Z. Force spectroscopy between acetylcholine and single acetylcholinesterase molecules and the effects of inhibitors and reactivators studied by atomic force microscopy. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2001, 297 (2), 798-803.
87. Fiorini, M.; McKendry, R.; Cooper, M.A.; Rayment, T.; Abell, C. Chemical force microscopy with active enzymes. Biophys. J. 2001, 80 (5), 2471-2476.
88. Kamper, S.G.; Porter-Peden, L.; Blankespoor, R.; Sinniah, K.; Zhou, D.; Abell, C.; Rayment, T. Investigating the specific interactions between carbonic anhydrase and a sulfonamide inhibitor by single-molecule force spectroscopy. Langmuir 2007, 23 (25), 12561-12565.
89. Porter-Peden, L.; Kamper, S.G.; Wal, M.V.; Blankespoor, R.; Sinniah, K. Estimating kinetic and thermodynamic parameters from single molecule enzyme-inhibitor interactions. Langmuir 2008, 24 (20), 11556-11561.
90. Jain, K.K. The role of nanobiotechnology in drug discovery. Drug Discov. Today 2005, 10 (21), 1435-1442.
91. Palumbi, S.R. Humans as the world's greatest evolutionary force. Science 2001, 293 (5536), 1786-1790.
92. Walsh, C. Where will new antibiotics come from? Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2003, 1 (1), 65-70.
93. Beytia, E.D.; Porter, J.W. Biochemistry of polyisoprenoid biosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1976, 45, 113-142.
94. Eisenreich, W.; Rohdich, F.; Bacher, A. Deoxyxylulose phosphate pathway to terpenoids. Trends Plant Sci. 2001, 6 (2), 78-84.
95. Takahashi, S.; Kuzuyama, T.; Watanabe, H.; Seto, H. A 1-deoxy- D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase catalyzing the formation of 2-C-methyl-D- erythritol 4-phosphate in an alternative nonmevalonate pathway for terpenoid biosynthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998, 95 (17), 9879-9884.
96. Rohdich, F.; Kis, K.; Bacher, A.; Eisenreich, W. The nonmevalonate pathway of isoprenoids: genes, enzymes and intermediates. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2001, 5 (5), 535-540.
97. Rodríguez-Concepción, M. The MEP pathway: a new target for the development of herbicides, antibiotics and antimalarial drugs. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2004, 10 (19), 2391-2400.
98. Jomaa, H.; Wiesner, J.; Sanderbrand, S.; Altincicek, B.; Weidemeyer, C.; Hintz, M.; Turbachova, I.; Eberl, M.; Zeidler, J.; Lichtenthaler, H.K.; Soldati, D.; Beck, E. Inhibitors of the nonmevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis as antimalarial drugs. Science 1999, 285 (5433), 1573-1576.
99. Ralph, S.A.; D'Ombrain, M.C.; McFadden, G.I. The apicoplast as an antimalarial drug target. Drug Resist. Updat. 2001, 4 (3), 145-151.
100. Sauret-Güeto, S.; Urós, E.M.; Ibáñez, E.; Boronat, A.; Rodríguez- Concepción, M. A mutant pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 subunit allows survival of Escherichia coli strains defective in 1-deoxy-Dxylulose 5-phosphate synthase. FEBS Lett. 2006, 580 (3), 736-740.
101. Wiesner, J.; Borrmann, S.; Jomaa, H. Fosmidomycin for the treatment of malaria. Parasitol. Res. 2003, 90 Suppl 2, S71-S76.
102. Borrmann, S.; Lundgren, I.; Oyakhirome, S.; Impouma, B.; Matsiegui, P.B.; Adegnika, A.A.; Issifou, S.; Kun, J.F.J.; Hutchinson, D.; Wiesner, J.; Jomaa, H.; Kremsner, P.G. Fosmidomycin plus clindamycin for treatment of pediatric patients aged 1 to 14 years with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2006, 50 (8), 2713-2718.
103. Eubanks, L.M.; Poulter, C.D. Rhodobacter capsulatus 1-deoxy-Dxylulose 5-phosphate synthase: steady-state kinetics and substrate binding. Biochemistry 2003, 42 (4), 1140-1149.
104. Sisquella, X.; de Pourcq, K.; Alguacil, J.; Robles, J.; Sanz, F.; Anselmetti, D.; Imperial, S.; Fernàndez-Busquets, X. A singlemolecule force spectroscopy nanosensor for the identification of new antibiotics and antimalarials. FASEB J. 2010, 24 (11), 4203-4217.
105. Mao, J.; Eoh, H.; He, R.; Wang, Y.; Wan, B.; Franzblau, S.G.; Crick, D.C.; Kozikowski, A.P. Structure-activity relationships of compounds targeting Mycobacterium tuberculosis 1-deoxy-Dxylulose 5-phosphate synthase. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2008, 18 (19), 5320-5323.
106. Davis, T.M.E.; Syed, D.A.; Ilett, K.F.; Barrett, P.H.R. Toxicity related to chloroquine treatment of resistant vivax malaria. Ann. Pharmacother. 2003, 37, 526-529.
107. Salako, L.A. Toxicity and side-effects of antimalarials in Africa: a critical review. Bull. World Health Organ. 1984, 62 Suppl, 63-68.
108. Vangapandu, S.; Jain, M.; Kaur, K.; Patil, P.; Patel, S.R.; Jain, R. Recent advances in antimalarial drug development. Med. Res. Rev. 2007, 27 (1), 65-107.
109. Alonso, P.L.; Brown, G.; Arevalo-Herrera, M.; Binka, F.; Chitnis, C.; Collins, F.; Doumbo, O.K.; Greenwood, B.; Hall, B.F.; Levine, M.M.; Mendis, K.; Newman, R.D.; Plowe, C.V.; Rodriguez, M.H.; Sinden, R.; Slutsker, L.; Tanner, M. A research agenda to underpin malaria eradication. PLoS Med. 2011, 8 (1), e1000406.
110. Delves, M.; Plouffe, D.; Scheurer, C.; Meister, S.; Wittlin, S.; Winzeler, E.; Sinden, R.E.; Leroy, D. The activities of current antimalarial drugs on the life cycle stages of Plasmodium: a comparative study with human and rodent parasites. PLoS Med. 2012, 9 (2), e1001169.
111. Murambiwa, P.; Masola, B.; Govender, T.; Mukaratirwa, S.; Musabayane, C.T. Anti-malarial drug formulations and novel delivery systems: a review. Acta Trop. 2011, 118 (2), 71-79.
112. Fitch, C.D. Ferriprotoporphyrin IX, phospholipids, and the antimalarial actions of quinoline drugs. Life Sci. 2004, 74 (16), 1957-1972.
113. ter Kuile, F.O.; Nosten, F.; Chongsuphajaisiddhi, T.; White, N.J.; Dolan, G.; Luxemburger, C.; Phaipun, L.; Edstein, M.D.; Webster, H.K. Halofantrine versus mefloquine in treatment of multidrugresistant falciparum malaria. Lancet 1993, 341 (8852), 1044-1049.
114. White, N.J. Cardiotoxicity of antimalarial drugs. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2007, 7 (8), 549-558.
115. Bouchaud, O.; Imbert, P.; Touze, J.; Dodoo, A.; Danis, M.; Legros, F. Fatal cardiotoxicity related to halofantrine: a review based on a worldwide safety data base. Malar. J. 2009, 8 (1), 289.
116. Abdallah, T.; Ali, A.A.; Bakri, M.; Gasim, G.; Musa, I.; Adam, I. Efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine as a treatment for uncomplicated Plasmodium vivax malaria in eastern Sudan. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 404.
117. Sagara, I.; Diallo, A.; Kone, M.; Coulibaly, M.; Diawara, S.I.; Guindo, O.; Maiga, H.; Niambele, M.B.; Sissoko, M.; Dicko, A.; Djimde, A.; Doumbo, O.K. A randomized trial of artesunatemefloquine versus artemether-lumefantrine for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Mali. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 79 (5), 655-661.
118. Rulisa, S.; Kaligirwa, N.; Agaba, S.; Karema, C.; Mens, P.; de Vries, P. Pharmacovigilance of artemether-lumefantrine in pregnant women followed until delivery in Rwanda. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 225.
119. Stover, K.R.; King, S.T.; Robinson, J. Artemether-lumefantrine: an option for malaria. Ann. Pharmacother. 2012, 46 (4), 567-577.
120. Färnert, A.; Ursing, J.; Tolfvenstam, T.; Rono, J.; Karlsson, L.; Sparrelid, E.; Lindegårdh, N. Artemether-lumefantrine treatment failure despite adequate lumefantrine day 7 concentration in a traveller with Plasmodium falciparum malaria after returning from Tanzania. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 176.
121. Tran, T.M.; Browning, J.; Dell, M.L. Psychosis with paranoid delusions after a therapeutic dose of mefloquine: a case report. Malar. J. 2006, 5, 74.
122. Evans, S.J.; Waller, P.C. Neurological, cardiovascular and metabolic effects of mefloquine in healthy volunteers: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1997, 43 (6), 665.
123. Winstanley, P. Mefloquine: the benefits outweigh the risks. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1996, 42 (4), 411-413.
124. Price, R.; van Vugt, M.; Phaipun, L.; Luxemburger, C.; Simpson, J.; McGready, R.; ter Kuile, F.; Kham, A.; Chongsuphajaisiddhi, T.; White, N.J.; Nosten, F. Adverse effects in patients with acute falciparum malaria treated with artemisinin derivatives. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1999, 60 (4), 547-555.
125. Alin, M.H.; Ashton, M.; Kihamia, C.M.; Mtey, G.J.; Björkman, A. Clinical efficacy and pharmacokinetics of artemisinin monotherapy and in combination with mefloquine in patients with falciparum malaria. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1996, 41 (6), 587-592.
126. Kappe, S.H.; Vaughan, A.M.; Boddey, J.A.; Cowman, A.F. That was then but this is now: malaria research in the time of an eradication agenda. Science 2010, 328 (5980), 862-866.
127. Eckstein-Ludwig, U.; Webb, R.J.; Van Goethem, I.D.; East, J.M.; Lee, A.G.; Kimura, M.; O'Neill, P.M.; Bray, P.G.; Ward, S.; Krishna, S. Artemisinins target the SERCA of Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 2003, 424 (6951), 957-961.
128. Olliaro, P.L.; Haynes, R.K.; Meunier, B.; Yuthavong, Y. Possible modes of action of the artemisinin-type compounds. Trends Parasitol. 2001, 17 (3), 122-126.
129. Haynes, R.K.; Cheu, K.W.; Li, K.Y.; Tang, M.M.-K.; Wong, H.N.; Chen, M.J.; Guo, Z.F.; Guo, Z.H.; Coghi, P.; Monti, D. A partial convergence in action of methylene blue and artemisinins: antagonism with chloroquine, a reversal with verapamil, and an insight into the antimalarial activity of chloroquine. ChemMedChem 2011, 6 (9), 1603-1615.
130. Nosten, F.; White, N.J. Artemisinin-based combination treatment of falciparum malaria. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77 (6 Suppl), 181-192.
131. Egan, T.J.; Kaschula, C.H. Strategies to reverse drug resistance in malaria. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2007, 20 (6), 598-604.
132. Noedl, H.; Se, Y.; Schaecher, K.; Smith, B.L.; Socheat, D.; Fukuda, M.M. Evidence of artemisinin-resistant malaria in western Cambodia. N. Engl. J Med. 2008, 359 (24), 2619-2620.
133. Musabayane, C.T.; Windle, R.J.; Forsling, M.L.; Balment, R.J. Arginine vasopressin mediates the chloroquine induced increase in renal sodium excretion. Trop. Med. Int. Health 1996, 1 (4), 542-550.
134. Roos, J.M.; Aubry, M.C.; Edwards, W.D. Chloroquine cardiotoxicity: clinicopathologic features in three patients and comparison with three patients with Fabry disease. Cardiovasc. Pathol. 2002, 11 (5), 277-283.
135. Fragasso, G.; Sanvito, F.; Baratto, F.; Martinenghi, S.; Doglioni, C.; Margonato, A. Cardiotoxicity after low-dose chloroquine antimalarial therapy. Heart Vessels 2009, 24 (5), 385-387.
136. Silman, A.; Shipley, M. Ophthalmological monitoring for hydroxychloroquine toxicity: a scientific review of available data. Br. J. Rheumatol. 1996, 36 (5), 599-601.
137. Yayon, A.; Ginsburg, H. The transport of chloroquine across human erythrocyte membranes is mediated by a simple symmetric carrier. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1982, 686 (2), 197-203.
138. Bray, P.G.; Janneh, O.; Raynes, K.J.; Mungthin, M.; Ginsburg, H.; Ward, S. Cellular uptake of chloroquine is dependent on binding to ferriprotoporphyrin IX and is independent of NHE activity in Plasmodium falciparum. J. Cell Biol. 1999, 145 (2), 363-376.
139. Bray, P.G.; Mungthin, M.; Ridley, R.G.; Ward, S. Access to hematin: the basis of chloroquine resistance. Mol. Pharmacol. 1998, 54 (1), 170-179.
140. Hempelmann, E. Hemozoin biocrystallization in Plasmodium falciparum and the antimalarial activity of crystallization inhibitors. Parasitol. Res. 2007, 100 (4), 671-676.
141. Biagini, G.A.; O'Neill, P.M.; Nzila, A.; Ward, S.A.; Bray, P.G. Antimalarial chemotherapy: young guns or back to the future? Trends Parasitol. 2003, 19 (11), 479-487.
142. Wernsdorfer, W.H.; Kouznetsov, R.L. Drug-resistant malaria-occurrence, control, and surveillance. Bull. World Health Organ. 1980, 58 (3), 341-352.
143. Wells, T.N.C.; Burrows, J.N.; Baird, J.K. Targeting the hypnozoite reservoir of Plasmodium vivax: the hidden obstacle to malaria elimination. Trends Parasitol. 2010, 26 (3), 145-151.
144. Davidson, D.E.; Ager, A.L.; Brown, J.L.; Chapple, F.E.; Whitmire, R.E.; Rossan, R.N. New tissue schizontocidal antimalarial drugs. Bull. World Health Organ. 1981, 59 (3), 463-479.
145. Beutler, E.; Duparc, S. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and antimalarial drug development. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77 (4), 779-789.
146. Burgoine, K.L.; Bancone, G.; Nosten, F. The reality of using primaquine. Malar. J. 2010, 9 (1), 376.
147. Chan, T.K.; Todd, D.; Tso, S.C. Drug-induced haemolysis in glucose- 6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Br. Med. J. 1976, 2, 1227-1229.
148. Charle, P.; Berzosa, P.; de Lucio, A.; Raso, J.; Nseng Nchama, G.; Benito, A. Artesunate/amodiaquine malaria treatment for Equatorial Guinea (Central Africa). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2013, 88 (6), 1087-1092.
149. Adjei, G.; Oduro-Boatey, C.; Rodrigues, O.; Hoegberg, L.; Alifrangis, M.; Kurtzhals, J.; Goka, B. Electrocardiographic study in Ghanaian children with uncomplicated malaria, treated with artesunate- amodiaquine or artemether-lumefantrine. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 420.
150. Zwang, J.; Ashley, E.A.; Karema, C.; D'Alessandro, U.; Smithuis, F.; Dorsey, G.; Janssens, B.; Mayxay, M.; Newton, P.; Singhasivanon, P.; Stepniewska, K.; White, N.J.; Nosten, F. Safety and efficacy of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine in falciparum malaria: a prospective multi-centre individual patient data analysis. PLoS ONE 2009, 4 (7), e6358.
151. Gargano, N.; Ubben, D.; Tommasini, S.; Bacchieri, A.; Corsi, M.; Bhattacharyya, P.; Rao, B.; Dubashi, N.; Dev, V.; Ghosh, S.; Kumar, A.; Srivastava, B.; Valecha, N. Therapeutic efficacy and safety of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine versus artesunatemefloquine in uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in India. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 233.
152. Bzik, D.J.; Li, W.B.; Horii, T.; Inselburg, J. Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of the Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase- thymidylate synthase gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1987, 84 (23), 8360-8364.
153. Lu, F.; Lim, C.S.; Nam, D.H.; Kim, K.; Lin, K.; Kim, T.S.; Lee, H.W.; Chen, J.H.; Wang, Y.; Sattabongkot, J.; Han, E.T. Mutations in the antifolate-resistance-associated genes dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase in Plasmodium vivax isolates from malaria-endemic countries. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 83 (3), 474-479.
154. Milhous, W.K.; Weatherly, N.F.; Bowdre, J.H.; Desjardins, R.E. In vitro activities of and mechanisms of resistance to antifol antimalarial drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1985, 27 (4), 525-530.
155. Cunha-Rodrigues, M.; Prudêncio, M.; Mota, M.M.; Haas, W. Antimalarial drugs - host targets (re)visited. Biotechnol. J. 2006, 1 (3), 321-332.
156. Zhang, Y.U.N.; Meshnick, S.R. Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum dihydropteroate synthetase and growth in vitro by sulfa drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1991, 35 (2), 267-271.
157. Tekete, M.; Djimde, A.; Beavogui, A.; Maiga, H.; Sagara, I.; Fofana, B.; Ouologuem, D.; Dama, S.; Kone, A.; Dembele, D.; Wele, M.; Dicko, A.; Doumbo, O. Efficacy of chloroquine, amodiaquine and sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria: revisiting molecular markers in an area of emerging AQ and SP resistance in Mali. Malar. J. 2009, 8 (1), 34.
158. Mugittu, K.; Abdulla, S.; Falk, N.; Masanja, H.; Felger, I.; Mshinda, H.; Beck, H.P.; Genton, B. Efficacy of sulfadoxinepyrimethamine in Tanzania after two years as first-line drug for uncomplicated malaria: assessment protocol and implication for treatment policy strategies. Malar. J. 2005, 4 (1), 55.
159. Björkman, A.; Phillips-Howard, P. Adverse reactions to sulfa drugs: implications for malaria chemotherapy. Bull. World Health Organ. 1991, 69 (3), 297-304.
160. Amukoye, E.; Winstanley, P.A.; Watkins, W.M.; Snow, R.W.; Hatcher, J.; Mosobo, M.; Ngumbao, E.; Lowe, B.; Ton, M.; Minyiri, G.; Marsh, K. Chlorproguanil-dapsone: effective treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1997, 41 (10), 2261-2264.
161. Van Malderen, C.; Van Geertruyden, J.P.; Machevo, S.; Gonzalez, R.; Bassat, Q.; Talisuna, A.; Yeka, A.; Nabasumba, C.; Piola, P.; Daniel, A.; Turyakira, E.; Forret, P.; van Overmeir, C.; Van Loen, H.; Robert, A.; D' Alessandro, U. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, chlorproguanil-dapsone with artesunate and post-treatment haemolysis in African children treated for uncomplicated malaria. Malar. J. 2012, 11 (1), 139.
162. Tiono, A.B.; Dicko, A.; Ndububa, D.A.; Agbenyega, T.; Pitmang, S.; Awobusuyi, J.; Pamba, A.; Duparc, S.; Goh, L.E.; Harrell, E.; Carter, N.; Ward, S.A.; Greenwood, B.; Winstanley, P.A. Chlorproguanil- dapsone-artesunate versus chlorproguanil-dapsone: a randomized, double-blind, phase III trial in African children, adolescents, and adults with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81 (6), 969-978.
163. Akoachere, M.; Buchholz, K.; Fischer, E.; Burhenne, J.; Haefeli, W.E.; Schirmer, R.H.; Becker, K. In vitro assessment of methylene blue on chloroquine-sensitive and -resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains reveals synergistic action with artemisinins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49 (11), 4592-4597.
164. Meissner, P.; Mandi, G.; Coulibaly, B.; Witte, S.; Tapsoba, T.; Mansmann, U.; Rengelshausen, J.; Schiek, W.; Jahn, A.; Walter-Sack, I.; Mikus, G.; Burhenne, J.; Riedel, K.D.; Schirmer, R.H.; Kouyaté, B.; Müller, O. Methylene blue for malaria in Africa: results from a dose-finding study in combination with chloroquine. Malar. J. 2006, 5 (1), 84.
165. Zoungrana, A.; Coulibaly, B.; Sié, A.; Walter-Sack, I.; Mockenhaupt, F.P.; Kouyaté, B.; Schirmer, R.H.; Klose, C.; Mansmann, U.; Meissner, P.; Müller, O. Safety and efficacy of methylene blue combined with artesunate or amodiaquine for uncomplicated falciparum malaria: a randomized controlled trial from Burkina Faso. PLoS ONE 2008, 3 (2), e1630.
166. Looareesuwan, S.; Wilairatana, P.; Chalermarut, K.; Rattanapong, Y.; Canfield, C.J.; Hutchinson, D.B. Efficacy and safety of atovaquone/ proguanil compared with mefloquine for treatment of acute Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Thailand. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1999, 60 (4), 526-532.
167. Baggish, A.L.; Hill, D.R. Antiparasitic agent atovaquone. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2002, 46 (5), 1163-1173.
168. Agrawal, D.K.; Mishra, P.K. Curcumin and its analogues: potential anticancer agents. Med. Res. Rev. 2010, 30 (5), 818-860.
169. Koide, T.; Nose, M.; Ogihara, Y.; Yabu, Y.; Ohta, N. Leishmanicidal effect of curcumin in vitro. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2002, 25 (1), 131-133.
170. Nagajyothi, F.; Zhao, D.; Weiss, L.M.; Tanowitz, H.B. Curcumin treatment provides protection against Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Parasitol. Res. 2012, 110 (6), 2491-2499.
171. Pérez-Arriaga, L.; Mendoza-Magaña, M.L.; Cortés-Zárate, R.; Corona-Rivera, A.; Bobadilla-Morales, L.; Troyo-Sanromán, R.; Ramírez-Herrera, M.A. Cytotoxic effect of curcumin on Giardia lamblia trophozoites. Acta Trop. 2006, 98 (2), 152-161.
172. Cui, L.; Miao, J.; Cui, L. Cytotoxic effect of curcumin on malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum: inhibition of histone acetylation and generation of reactive oxygen species. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51 (2), 488-494.
173. Nandakumar, D.N.; Nagaraj, V.A.; Vathsala, P.G.; Rangarajan, P.; Padmanaban, G. Curcumin-artemisinin combination therapy for malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2006, 50 (5), 1859-1860.
174. Watt, G.; Loesuttivibool, L.; Shanks, G.D.; Boudreau, E.F.; Brown, A.E.; Pavanand, K.; Webster, H.K.; Wechgritaya, S. Quinine with tetracycline for the treatment of drug-resistant falciparum malaria in Thailand. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1992, 47 (1), 108-111.
175. Pradines, B.; Spiegel, A.; Rogier, C.; Tall, A.; Mosnier, J.; Fusai, T.; Trape, J.F.; Parzy, D. Antibiotics for prophylaxis of Plasmodium falciparum infections: in vitro activity of doxycycline against Senegalese isolates. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2000, 62 (1), 82-85.
176. Tan, K.R.; Magill, A.J.; Parise, M.E.; Arguin, P.M. Doxycycline for malaria chemoprophylaxis and treatment: report from the CDC expert meeting on malaria chemoprophylaxis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 84 (4), 517-531.
177. Taylor, W.R.; Widjaja, H.; Richie, T.L.; Basri, H.; Ohrt, C.; Tjitra; Taufik, E.; Jones, T.R.; Kain, K.C.; Hoffman, S.L. Chloroquine/ doxycycline combination versus chloroquine alone, and doxycycline alone for the treatment of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria in northeastern Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2001, 64 (5-6), 223-228.
178. Lell, B.; Kremsner, P.G. Clindamycin as an antimalarial drug: review of clinical trials. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2002, 46 (8), 2315-2320.
179. Petersen, I.; Eastman, R.; Lanzer, M. Drug-resistant malaria: molecular mechanisms and implications for public health. FEBS Lett. 2011, 585 (11), 1551-1562.
180. Price, R.N.; Nosten, F. Drug resistant falciparum malaria: clinical consequences and strategies for prevention. Drug Resist. Updat. 2001, 4 (3), 187-196.
181. Andriantsoanirina, V.; Ratsimbasoa, A.; Bouchier, C.; Jahevitra, M.; Rabearimanana, S.; Radrianjafy, R.; Andrianaranjaka, V.; Randriantsoa, T.; Rason, M.A.; Tichit, M.; Rabarijaona, L.P.; Mercereau-Puijalon, O.; Durand, R.; Menard, D. Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance in Madagascar: facing the spread of unusual pfdhfr and pfmdr-1 haplotypes and the decrease of dihydroartemisinin susceptibility. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53 (11), 4588-4597.
182. Bonnet, M.; Broek, I.; van Herp, M.; Urrutia, P.P.; van Overmeir, C.; Kyomuhendo, J.; Ndosimao, C.N.; Ashley, E.; Guthmann, J.P. Varying efficacy of artesunate+amodiaquine and artesunate+ sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria in the Democratic Republic of Congo: a report of two in-vivo studies. Malar. J. 2009, 8, 192.
183. Enserink, M. Malaria's drug miracle in danger. Science 2010, 328 (5980), 844-846.
184. Dondorp, A.M.; Nosten, F.; Yi, P.; Das, D.; Phyo, A.P.; Tarning, J.; Lwin, K.M.; Ariey, F.; Hanpithakpong, W.; Lee, S.J.; Ringwald, P.; Silamut, K.; Imwong, M.; Chotivanich, K.; Lim, P.; Herdman, T.; An, S.S.; Yeung, S.; Singhasivanon, P.; Day, N.P.; Lindegardh, N.; Socheat, D.; White, N.J. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 361 (5), 455-467.
185. White, N.J. Antimalarial drug resistance. J. Clin. Invest. 2004, 113, 1084-1092.
186. Sachs, J.; Malaney, P. The economic and social burden of malaria. Nature 2002, 415 (6872), 680-685.
187. Fidock, D.A.; Rosenthal, P.J.; Croft, S.L.; Brun, R.; Nwaka, S. Antimalarial drug discovery: efficacy models for compound screening. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2004, 3 (6), 509-520.
188. Saltzman, M.; Desai, T. Drug delivery in the BME curricula. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 2006, 34 (2), 270-275.
189. Orive, G.; Hernández, R.M.; Rodríguez Gascón A.; Domínguez- Gil, A.; Pedraz, J.L. Drug delivery in biotechnology: present and future. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2003, 14 (6), 659-664.
190. Urbán, P.; Valle-Delgado, J.J.; Moles, E.; Marques, J.; Díez, C.; Fernàndez-Busquets, X. Nanotools for the delivery of antimicrobial peptides. Curr. Drug Targets 2012, 13, 1158-1172.
191. Kuntworbe, N.; Martini, N.; Shaw, J.; Al-Kassas, R. Malaria intervention policies and pharmaceutical nanotechnology as a potential tool for malaria management. Drug Dev. Res. 2012, 73, 167-184.
192. Gamo, F.J.; Sanz, L.M.; Vidal, J.; de Cozar, C.; Alvarez, E.; Lavandera, J.L.; Vanderwall, D.E.; Green, D.V.S.; Kumar, V.; Hasan, S.; Brown, J.R.; Peishoff, C.E.; Cardon, L.R.; Garcia-Bustos, J.F. Thousands of chemical starting points for antimalarial lead identification. Nature 2010, 465 (7296), 305-310.
193. Baird, J.K. Effectiveness of antimalarial drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352 (15), 1565-1577.
194. White, N.J. Assessment of the pharmacodynamic properties of antimalarial drugs in vivo. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1997, 41 (7), 1413-1422.
195. Tan, S.Y.; Grimes, S. Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915): man with the magic bullet. Singapore Med. J. 2010, 51 (11), 842-843.
196. Gensini, G.F.; Conti, A.A.; Lippi, D. The contributions of Paul Ehrlich to infectious disease. J. Infect. 2007, 54 (3), 221-224.
197. Santos-Magalhães, N.S.; Mosqueira, V.C.F. Nanotechnology applied to the treatment of malaria. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2010, 62 (4-5), 560-575.
198. O'Driscoll, C.M.; Griffin, B.T. Biopharmaceutical challenges associated with drugs with low aqueous solubility-The potential impact of lipid-based formulations. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2008, 60 (6), 617-624.
199. Memvanga, P.B.; Préat, V. Formulation design and in vivo antimalarial evaluation of lipid-based drug delivery systems for oral delivery of β-arteether. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2012, 82 (1), 112-119.
200. Shanmugam, S.; Baskaran, R.; Balakrishnan, P.; Thapa, P.; Yong, C.S.; Yoo, B.K. Solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) containing phosphatidylcholine for enhanced bioavailability of highly lipophilic bioactive carotenoid lutein. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2011, 79 (2), 250-257.
201. Joshi, M.; Pathak, S.; Sharma, S.; Patravale, V. Solid microemulsion preconcentrate (NanOsorb) of artemether for effective treatment of malaria. Int. J. Pharm. 2008, 362 (1-2), 172-178.
202. Sultana, S.; Khan, M.R.; Kumar, M.; Kumar, S.; Ali, M. Nanoparticles- mediated drug delivery approaches for cancer targeting: a review. J. Drug Target. 2013, 21 (2), 107-125.
203. Gupta, Y.; Jain, A.; Jain, S.K. Transferrin-conjugated solid lipid nanoparticles for enhanced delivery of quinine dihydrochloride to the brain. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2007, 59 (7), 935-940.
204. Singh, K.K.; Vingkar, S.K. Formulation, antimalarial activity and biodistribution of oral lipid nanoemulsion of primaquine. Int. J. Pharm. 2008, 347 (1-2), 136-143.
205. Urbán, P.; Estelrich, J.; Cortés, A.; Fernàndez- Busquets, X. A nanovector with complete discrimination for targeted delivery to Plasmodium falciparum-infected versus non-infected red blood cells in vitro. J. Control. Release 2011, 151 (2), 202-211.
206. Singhal, A.; Gupta, C.M. Antibody-mediated targeting of liposomes to red cells in vivo. FEBS Lett. 1986, 201 (2), 321-326.
207. Shillcock, J.C.; Lipowsky, R. Tension-induced fusion of bilayer membranes and vesicles. Nat. Mater. 2005, 4 (3), 225-228.
208. Wheeler, J.J.; Palmer, L.; Ossanlou, M.; MacLachlan, I.; Graham, R.W.; Zhang, Y.P.; Hope, M.J.; Scherrer, P.; Cullis, P.R. Stabilized plasmid-lipid particles: construction and characterization. Gene Ther. 1999, 6 (2), 271-281.
209. Peeters, P.A.; Huiskamp, C.W.; Eling, W.M.; Crommelin, D.J. Chloroquine containing liposomes in the chemotherapy of murine malaria. Parasitology 1989, 98 Pt 3, 381-386.
210. Dierling, A.M.; Cui, Z. Targeting primaquine into liver using chylomicron emulsions for potential vivax malaria therapy. Int. J. Pharm. 2005, 303 (1-2), 143-152.
211. Agrawal, A.K.; Singhal, A.; Gupta, C.M. Functional drug targeting to erythrocytes in vivo using antibody bearing liposomes as drug vehicles. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1987, 148 (1), 357-361.
212. Owais, M.; Varshney, G.C.; Choudhury, A.; Chandra, S.; Gupta, C.M. Chloroquine encapsulated in malaria-infected erythrocytespecific antibody-bearing liposomes effectively controls chloroquine- resistant Plasmodium berghei infections in mice. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1995, 39 (1), 180-184.
213. Postma, N.S.; Hermsen, C.C.; Zuidema, J.; Eling, W.M. Plasmodium vinckei: optimization of desferrioxamine B delivery in the treatment of murine malaria. Exp. Parasitol. 1998, 89 (3), 323-330.
214. Postma, N.S.; Crommelin, D.J.; Eling, W.M.; Zuidema, J. Treatment with liposome-bound recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-α suppresses parasitemia and protects against Plasmodium berghei k173-induced experimental cerebral malaria in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1999, 288 (1), 114-120.
215. Robertson, R.T.; Baratta, J.L.; Haynes, S.M.; Longmuir, K.J. Liposomes incorporating a Plasmodium amino acid sequence target heparan sulfate binding sites in liver. J. Pharm. Sci. 2008, 97 (8), 3257-3273.
216. Longmuir, K.J.; Robertson, R.T.; Haynes, S.M.; Baratta, J.L.; Waring, A.J. Effective targeting of liposomes to liver and hepatocytes in vivo by incorporation of a Plasmodium amino acid sequence. Pharm. Res. 2006, 23 (4), 759-769.
217. Gabriëls, M.; Plaizier-Vercammen, J. Physical and chemical evaluation of liposomes, containing artesunate. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2003, 31 (4), 655-667.
218. Chimanuka, B.; Gabriëls, M.; Detaevernier, M.R.; Plaizier-Vercammen, J. Preparation of beta-artemether liposomes, their HPLC-UV evaluation and relevance for clearing recrudescent parasitaemia in Plasmodium chabaudi malaria-infected mice. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2002, 28 (1), 13-22.
219. Bayomi, M.A.; Al-Angary, A.A.; Al-Meshal, M.A.; Al-Dardiri, M.M. In vivo evaluation of arteether liposomes. Int. J. Pharm. 1998, 175 (1), 1-7.
220. Gregoriadis, G. Liposomes as a drug delivery system: optimization studies. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1988, 238, 151-159.
221. Cooke, B.M.; Lingelbach, K.; Bannister, L.H.; Tilley, L. Protein trafficking in Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cells. Trends Parasitol. 2004, 20 (12), 581-589.
222. Lasic, D. D.; Martin, F. Stealth Liposomes. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1995.
223. Kajiwara, E.; Kawano, K.; Hattori, Y.; Fukushima, M.; Hayashi, K.; Maitani, Y. Long-circulating liposome-encapsulated ganciclovir enhances the efficacy of HSV-TK suicide gene therapy. J. Control. Release 2007, 120 (1-2), 104-110.
224. Urbán, P.; Estelrich, J.; Adeva, A.; Cortés, A.; Fernàndez- Busquets, X. Study of the efficacy of antimalarial drugs delivered inside targeted immunoliposomal nanovectors. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2011, 6, 620.
225. Sherman, I.W. Membrane structure and function of malaria parasites and the infected erythrocyte. Parasitology 1985, 91 (Pt 3), 609-645.
226. Chen, Q.; Schlichtherle, M.; Wahlgren, M. Molecular aspects of severe malaria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2000, 13 (3), 439-450.
227. Sidhu, A.B.; Verdier-Pinard, D.; Fidock, D.A. Chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites conferred by pfcrt mutations. Science 2002, 298 (5591), 210-213.
228. Shanmugam, S.; Song, C.K.; Nagayya-Sriraman, S.; Baskaran, R.; Yong, C.S.; Choi, H.G.; Kim, D.D.; Woo, J.S.; Yoo, B.K. Physicochemical characterization and skin permeation of liposome formulations containing clindamycin phosphate. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2009, 32 (7), 1067-1075.
229. Lalloo, D.G.; Shingadia, D.; Pasvol, G.; Chiodini, P.L.; Whitty, C.J.; Beeching, N.J.; Hill, D.R.; Warrell, D.A.; Bannister, B.A. UK malaria treatment guidelines. J. Infect. 2007, 54 (2), 111-121.
230. Vogel, G. The 'do unto others' malaria vaccine. Science 2010, 328 (5980), 847-848.
231. Paleos, C.M.; Tsiourvas, D.; Sideratou, Z.; Tziveleka, L.A. Drug delivery using multifunctional dendrimers and hyperbranched polymers. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 2010, 7 (12), 1387-1398.
232. Soppimath, K.S.; Aminabhavi, T.M.; Kulkarni, A.R.; Rudzinski, W.E. Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery devices. J. Control. Release 2001, 70 (1-2), 1-20.
233. Sukhorukov, G.B.; Rogach, A.L.; Garstka, M.; Springer, S.; Parak, W.J.; Muñoz-Javier, A.; Kreft, O.; Skirtach, A.G.; Susha, A.S.; Ramaye, Y.; Palankar, R.; Winterhalter, M. Multifunctionalized polymer microcapsules: novel tools for biological and pharmacological applications. Small 2007, 3 (6), 944-955.
234. Agnihotri, S.A.; Mallikarjuna, N.N.; Aminabhavi, T.M. Recent advances on chitosan-based micro- and nanoparticles in drug delivery. J. Control. Release 2004, 100 (1), 5-28.
235. Mosqueira, V.C.F.; Loiseau, P.M.; Bories, C.; Legrand, P.; Devissaguet, J.P.; Barratt, G. Efficacy and pharmacokinetics of intravenous nanocapsule formulations of halofantrine in Plasmodium berghei- infected mice. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48 (4), 1222-1228.
236. Bhadra, D.; Bhadra, S.; Jain, N.K. PEGylated lysine based copolymeric dendritic micelles for solubilization and delivery of artemether. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2005, 8 (3), 467-482.
237. Agrawal, P.; Gupta, U.; Jain, N.K. Glycoconjugated peptide dendrimers- based nanoparticulate system for the delivery of chloroquine phosphate. Biomaterials 2007, 28 (22), 3349-3359.
238. Green, M.D.; D'Souza, M.J.; Holbrook, J.M.; Wirtz, R.A. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of albumin-encapsulated primaquine diphosphate prepared by nebulization into heated oil. J. Microencapsul. 2004, 21 (4), 433-444.
239. Föger, F.; Noonpakdee, W.; Loretz, B.; Joojuntr, S.; Salvenmoser, W.; Thaler, M.; Bernkop-Schnurch, A. Inhibition of malarial topoisomerase II in Plasmodium falciparum by antisense nanoparticles. Int. J. Pharm. 2006, 319 (1-2), 139-146.
240. Goodyer, I.D.; Pouvelle, B.; Schneider, T.G.; Trelka, D.P.; Taraschi, T.F. Characterization of macromolecular transport pathways in malaria-infected erythrocytes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 1997, 87 (1), 13-28.
241. Lyon, J.A.; Carter, J.M.; Thomas, A.W.; Chulay, J.D. Merozoite surface protein-1 epitopes recognized by antibodies that inhibit Plasmodium falciparum merozoite dispersal. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 1997, 90 (1), 223-234.
242. Bergmann-Leitner, E.S.; Duncan, E.H.; Angov, E. MSP-1p42- specific antibodies affect growth and development of intraerythrocytic parasites of Plasmodium falciparum. Malar. J. 2009, 8, 183-194.
243. Akhtar, F.; Rizvi, M.M.A.; Kar, S.K. Oral delivery of curcumin bound to chitosan nanoparticles cured Plasmodium yoelii infected mice. Biotechnol. Adv. 2012, 30 (1), 310-320.
244. Saparia, B.; Solanki, A.; Murthy, R.S.R. Sustained release implants of chloroquine phosphate for possible use in chemoprophylaxis of malaria. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2001, 39 (9), 902-905.
245. Al-Jamal, K.T.; Ramaswamy, C.; Florence, A.T. Supramolecular structures from dendrons and dendrimers. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2005, 57 (15), 2238-2270.
246. Marcos, M.; Martín-Rapún, R.; Omenat, A.; Serrano, J.L. Highly congested liquid crystal structures: dendrimers, dendrons, dendronized and hyperbranched polymers. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2007, 36 (12), 1889-1901.
247. Liang, C.; Fréchet, J.M.J. Applying key concepts from nature: transition state stabilization, pre-concentration and cooperativity effects in dendritic biomimetics. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2005, 30 (3-4), 385-402.
248. Ihre, H.R.; Padilla De Jesús, O.L.; Szoka, F.C., Jr.; Fréchet, J.M. Polyester dendritic systems for drug delivery applications: design, synthesis, and characterization. Bioconjug. Chem. 2002, 13 (3), 443-452.
249. Padilla De Jesús, O.L.; Ihre, H.R.; Gagne, L.; Fréchet, J.M.; Szoka, F.C., Jr. Polyester dendritic systems for drug delivery applications: in vitro and in vivo evaluation. Bioconjug. Chem. 2002, 13 (3), 453-461.
250. Boas, U.; Heegaard, P.M. Dendrimers in drug research. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2004, 33 (1), 43-63.
251. Paleos, C.M.; Tsiourvas, D.; Sideratou, Z. Molecular engineering of dendritic polymers and their application as drug and gene delivery systems. Mol. Pharm. 2007, 4 (2), 169-188.
252. Kolhe, P.; Khandare, J.; Pillai, O.; Kannan, S.; Lieh-Lai, M.; Kannan, R.M. Preparation, cellular transport, and activity of polyamidoamine- based dendritic nanodevices with a high drug payload. Biomaterials 2006, 27 (4), 660-669.
253. Mintzer, M.A.; Grinstaff, M.W. Biomedical applications of dendrimers: a tutorial. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40 (1), 173-190.
254. Crespo, L.; Sanclimens, G.; Montaner, B.; Pérez-Tomás, R.; Royo, M.; Pons, M.; Albericio, F.; Giralt, E. Peptide dendrimers based on polyproline helices. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124 (30), 8876-8883.
255. Farrera-Sinfreu, J.; Giralt, E.; Castel, S.; Albericio, F.; Royo, M. Cell-penetrating cis-gamma-amino-l-proline-derived peptides. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127 (26), 9459-9468.
256. Lee, J.W.; Ko, Y.H.; Park, S.H.; Yamaguchi, K.; Kim, K. Novel pseudorotaxane-terminated dendrimers: supramolecular modification of dendrimer periphery. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2001, 40 (4), 746-749.
257. Mitchell, J.P.; Roberts, K.D.; Langley, J.; Koentgen, F.; Lambert, J.N. A direct method for the formation of peptide and carbohydrate dendrimers. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 1999, 9 (19), 2785-2788.
258. Chamorro, C.; Boerman, M.A.; Arnusch, C.J.; Breukink, E.; Pieters, R.J. Enhancing membrane disruption by targeting and multivalent presentation of antimicrobial peptides. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2012, 1818 (9), 2171-2174.
259. Bhadra, D.; Yadav, A.K.; Bhadra, S.; Jain, N.K. Glycodendrimeric nanoparticulate carriers of primaquine phosphate for liver targeting. Int. J. Pharm. 2005, 295 (1-2), 221-233.
260. Ciolkowski, M.; Petersen, J.F.; Ficker, M.; Janaszewska, A.; Christensen, J.B.; Klajnert, B.; Bryszewska, M. Surface modification of PAMAM dendrimer improves its biocompatibility. Nanomedicine 2012, 8 (6), 815-817.
261. Bhadra, D.; Bhadra, S.; Jain, N.K. PEGylated peptide dendrimeric carriers for the delivery of antimalarial drug chloroquine phosphate. Pharm. Res. 2006, 23 (3), 623-633.
262. Mahajan, H.S.; Shah, S.K.; Surana, S.J. Nasal in situ gel containing hydroxy propyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex of artemether: development and in vitro evaluation. J. Incl. Phenom. Macrocycl. Chem. 2011, 70 (1-2), 49-58.
263. Swami, A.; Shi, J.; Gadde, S.; Votruba, A.R.; Kolishetti, N.; Farokhzad, O.C. Nanoparticles for targeted and temporally controlled drug delivery. In: Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Applications: Imaging, Targeting, and Delivery, Svenson, S., Prud'homme, R. K., Eds.; Springer: New York, 2012; pp 9-29.
264. Katz, E.; Willner, I. Integrated nanoparticle-biomolecule hybrid systems: synthesis, properties, and applications. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2004, 43 (45), 6042-6108.
265. Bucior, I.; Burger, M.M.; Fernàndez-Busquets, X. Carbohydratecarbohydrate interactions. In: The Sugar Code, Gabius, H.-J., Ed.; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, 2009; pp 347-362.
266. Winterburn, P.J.; Phelps, C.F. The significance of glycosylated proteins. Nature 1972, 236 (5343), 147-151.
267. Rüdiger, H.; Gabius, H.-J. The biochemical basis and coding capacity of the sugar code. In: The Sugar Code, Gabius, H.-J., Ed.; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, 2009; pp 3-13.
268. Solís, D.; Romero, A.; Menéndez, M.; Jiménez- Barbero, J. Proteincarbohydrate interactions: basic concepts and methods for analysis. In: The Sugar Code, Gabius, H.-J., Ed.; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, 2009; pp 233-245.
269. Nash, G.B.; Cooke, B.M.; Marsh, K.; Berendt, A.; Newbold, C.; Stuart, J. Rheological analysis of the adhesive interactions of red blood cells parasitized by Plasmodium falciparum. Blood 1992, 79 (3), 798-807.
270. Baruch, D.I.; Gormley, J.A.; Ma, C.; Howard, R.J.; Pasloske, B.L. Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 is a parasitized erythrocyte receptor for adherence to CD36, thrombospondin, and intercellular adhesion molecule 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996, 93 (8), 3497-3502.
271. Robert, C.; Pouvelle, B.; Meyer, P.; Muanza, K.; Fujioka, H.; Aikawa, M.; Scherf, A.; Gysin, J. Chondroitin-4-sulphate (proteoglycan), a receptor for Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocyte adherence on brain microvascular endothelial cells. Res. Immunol. 1995, 146 (6), 383-393.
272. Cooke, B.M.; Rogerson, S.J.; Brown, G.V.; Coppel, R.L. Adhesion of malaria-infected red blood cells to chondroitin sulfate A under flow conditions. Blood 1996, 88 (10), 4040-4044.
273. Gysin, J.; Pouvelle, B.; Le Tonquèze, M.; Edelman, L.; Boffa, M.C. Chondroitin sulfate of thrombomodulin is an adhesion receptor for Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 1997, 88 (1-2), 267-271.
274. Pouvelle, B.; Fusaï, T.; Lépolard, C.; Gysin, J. Biological and biochemical characteristics of cytoadhesion of Plasmodium falciparum- infected erythrocytes to chondroitin-4-sulfate. Infect. Immun. 1998, 66 (10), 4950-4956.
275. Reeder, J.C.; Cowman, A.F.; Davern, K.M.; Beeson, J.G.; Thompson, J.K.; Rogerson, S.J.; Brown, G.V. The adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to chondroitin sulfate A is mediated by P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999, 96 (9), 5198-5202.
276. McCormick, C.J.; Newbold, C.I.; Berendt, A.R. Sulfated glycoconjugates enhance CD36-dependent adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum- infected erythrocytes to human microvascular endothelial cells. Blood 2000, 96 (1), 327-333.
277. Barragan, A.; Fernandez, V.; Chen, Q.; von Euler, A.; Wahlgren, M.; Spillmann, D. The duffy-binding-like domain 1 of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) is a heparan sulfate ligand that requires 12 mers for binding. Blood 2000, 95 (11), 3594-3599.
278. Vogt, A.M.; Barragan, A.; Chen, Q.; Kironde, F.; Spillmann, D.; Wahlgren, M. Heparan sulfate on endothelial cells mediates the binding of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes via the DBL1α domain of PfEMP1. Blood 2003, 101 (6), 2405-2411.
279. Ockenhouse, C.F.; Tandon, N.N.; Magowan, C.; Jamieson, G.A.; Chulay, J.D. Identification of a platelet membrane glycoprotein as a falciparum malaria sequestration receptor. Science 1989, 243 (4897), 1469-1471.
280. Beeson, J.G.; Andrews, K.T.; Boyle, M.; Duffy, M.F.; Choong, E.K.; Byrne, T.J.; Chesson, J.M.; Lawson, A.M.; Chai, W. Structural basis for binding of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 to chondroitin sulfate and placental tissue and the influence of protein polymorphisms on binding specificity. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282 (31), 22426-22436.
281. Fried, M.; Duffy, P.E. Adherence of Plasmodium falciparum to chondroitin sulfate A in the human placenta. Science 1996, 272 (5267), 1502-1504.
282. Madhunapantula, S.V.; Achur, R.N.; Gowda, D.C. Developmental stage- and cell cycle number-dependent changes in characteristics of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocyte adherence to placental chondroitin-4-sulfate proteoglycan. Infect. Immun. 2007, 75 (9), 4409-4415.
283. Muthusamy, A.; Achur, R.N.; Valiyaveettil, M.; Botti, J.J.; Taylor, D.W.; Leke, R.F.; Gowda, D.C. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan but not hyaluronic acid is the receptor for the adherence of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes in human placenta, and infected red blood cell adherence up-regulates the receptor expression. Am. J. Pathol. 2007, 170 (6), 1989-2000.
284. Singh, K.; Gittis, A.G.; Nguyen, P.; Gowda, D.C.; Miller, L.H.; Garboczi, D.N. Structure of the DBL3x domain of pregnancyassociated malaria protein VAR2CSA complexed with chondroitin sulfate A. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2008, 15 (9), 932-938.
285. Juillerat, A.; Igonet, S.; Vigan-Womas, I.; Guillotte, M.; Gangnard, S.; Faure, G.; Baron, B.; Raynal, B.; Mercereau-Puijalon, O.; Bentley, G.A. Biochemical and biophysical characterisation of DBL1α1-varO, the rosetting domain of PfEMP1 from the VarO line of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2010, 170 (2), 84-92.
286. Chen, Q.; Barragan, A.; Fernandez, V.; Sundström, A.; Schlichtherle, M.; Sahlén, A.; Carlson, J.; Datta, S.; Wahlgren, M. Identification of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) as the rosetting ligand of the malaria parasite P. falciparum. J. Exp. Med. 1998, 187 (1), 15-23.
287. Barragan, A.; Spillmann, D.; Kremsner, P.G.; Wahlgren, M.; Carlson, J. Plasmodium falciparum: molecular background to strainspecific rosette disruption by glycosaminoglycans and sulfated glycoconjugates. Exp. Parasitol. 1999, 91 (2), 133-143.
288. Ancsin, J.B.; Kisilevsky, R. A binding site for highly sulfated heparan sulfate is identified in the N terminus of the circumsporozoite protein: significance for malarial sporozoite attachment to hepatocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279 (21), 21824-21832.
289. Pancake, S.J.; Holt, G.D.; Mellouk, S.; Hoffman, S.L. Malaria sporozoites and circumsporozoite proteins bind specifically to sulfated glycoconjugates. J. Cell Biol. 1992, 117 (6), 1351-1357.
290. Frevert, U.; Sinnis, P.; Cerami, C.; Shreffler, W.; Takacs, B.; Nussenzweig, V. Malaria circumsporozoite protein binds to heparan sulfate proteoglycans associated with the surface membrane of hepatocytes. J. Exp. Med. 1993, 177 (5), 1287-1298.
291. Pinzon-Ortiz, C.; Friedman, J.; Esko, J.; Sinnis, P. The binding of the circumsporozoite protein to cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans is required for Plasmodium sporozoite attachment to target cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276 (29), 26784-26791.
292. Rathore, D.; McCutchan, T.F.; Garboczi, D.N.; Toida, T.; Hernáiz, M.J.; LeBrun, L.A.; Lang, S.C.; Linhardt, R.J. Direct measurement of the interactions of glycosaminoglycans and a heparin decasaccharide with the malaria circumsporozoite protein. Biochemistry 2001, 40 (38), 11518-11524.
293. Boyle, M.J.; Richards, J.S.; Gilson, P.R.; Chai, W.; Beeson, J.G. Interactions with heparin-like molecules during erythrocyte invasion by Plasmodium falciparum merozoites. Blood 2010, 115 (22), 4559-4568.
294. Andrews, K.T.; Klatt, N.; Adams, Y.; Mischnick, P.; Schwartz-Albiez, R. Inhibition of chondroitin-4-sulfate-specific adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes by sulfated polysaccharides. Infect. Immun. 2005, 73 (7), 4288-4294.
295. Vogt, A.M.; Pettersson, F.; Moll, K.; Jonsson, C.; Normark, J.; Ribacke, U.; Egwang, T.G.; Ekre, H.P.; Spillmann, D.; Chen, Q.; Wahlgren, M. Release of sequestered malaria parasites upon injection of a glycosaminoglycan. PLoS Pathog. 2006, 2 (9), e100.
296. Leitgeb, A.M.; Blomqvist, K.; Cho-Ngwa, F.; Samje, M.; Nde, P.; Titanji, V.; Wahlgren, M. Low anticoagulant heparin disrupts Plasmodium falciparum rosettes in fresh clinical isolates. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 84 (3), 390-396.
297. Carlson, J.; Ekre, H.-P.; Helmby, H.; Gysin, J.; Greenwood, B.M.; Wahlgren, M. Disruption of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte rosettes by standard heparin and heparin devoid of anticoagulant activity. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1992, 46 (5), 595-602.
298. Rogerson, S.J.; Reeder, J.C.; Al-Yaman, F.; Brown, G.V. Sulfated glycoconjugates as disrupters of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte rosettes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1994, 51 (2), 198-203.
299. Skidmore, M.A.; Dumax-Vorzet, A.F.; Guimond, S.E.; Rudd, T.R.; Edwards, E.A.; Turnbull, J.E.; Craig, A.G.; Yates, E.A. Disruption of rosetting in Plasmodium falciparum malaria with chemically modified heparin and low molecular weight derivatives possessing reduced anticoagulant and other serine protease inhibition activities. J. Med. Chem. 2008, 51 (5), 1453-1458.
300. Valle-Delgado, J.J.; Urbán, P.; Fernàndez-Busquets, X. Demonstration of specific binding of heparin to Plasmodium falciparuminfected vs. non-infected red blood cells by single-molecule force spectroscopy. Nanoscale 2013, 5 (9), 3673-3680.
301. Sheehy, T.W.; Reba, R.C. Complications of falciparum malaria and their treatment. Ann. Intern. Med. 1967, 66 (4), 807-809.
302. Smitskamp, H.; Wolthuis, F.H. New concepts in treatment of malignant tertian malaria with cerebral involvement. Br. Med. J. 1971, 1, 714-716.
303. Jaroonvesama, N. Intravascular coagulation in falciparum malaria. Lancet 1972, 1, 221-223.
304. Munir, M.; Tjandra, H.; Rampengan, T.H.; Mustadjab, I.; Wulur, F.H. Heparin in the treatment of cerebral malaria. Paediatr. Indones. 1980, 20, 47-50.
305. Rampengan, T.H. Cerebral malaria in children. Comparative study between heparin, dexamethasone and placebo. Paediatr. Indones. 1991, 31, 59-66.
306. World Health Organization Malaria Action Programme. Severe and complicated malaria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1986, 80 (Suppl), 3-50.
307. Miura, Y.; Aoyagi, S.; Kusada, Y.; Miyamoto, K. The characteristics of anticoagulation by covalently immobilized heparin. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1980, 14 (5), 619-630.
308. Marchisio, M.A.; Tongo, T.; Ferruti, P. A selective de-heparinizer filter made of new cross-linked polymers of a poly-amido-amine structure. Experientia 1973, 1 (29), 93-95.
309. Hinterdorfer, P.; Baumgartner, W.; Gruber, H.J.; Schilcher, K.; Schindler, H. Detection and localization of individual antibodyantigen recognition events by atomic force microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996, 93 (8), 3477-3481.
310. Kienberger, F.; Kada, G.; Mueller, H.; Hinterdorfer, P. Single molecule studies of antibody-antigen interaction strength versus intra-molecular antigen stability. J. Mol. Biol. 2005, 347 (3), 597-606.
311. Morfill, J.; Blank, K.; Zahnd, C.; Luginbühl, B.; Kühner, F.; Gottschalk, K.-E.; Plückthun, A.; Gaub, H.E. Affinity-matured recombinant antibody fragments analyzed by single-molecule force spectroscopy. Biophys. J. 2007, 93 (10), 3583-3590.
312. Fernàndez-Busquets, X. Heparin-functionalized nanocapsules: enabling targeted delivery of antimalarial drugs. Future Med. Chem. 2013, 5 (7), 737-739.
313. Dixon, M.W.A.; Peatey, C.L.; Gardiner, D.L.; Trenholme, K.R. A green fluorescent protein-based assay for determining gametocyte production in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2009, 163 (2), 123-126.
314. Buchholz, K.; Burke, T.A.; Williamson, K.C.; Wiegand, R.C.; Wirth, D.F.; Marti, M. A high-throughput screen targeting malaria transmission stages opens new avenues for drug development. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 203 (10), 1445-1453.
315. Adjalley, S.H.; Johnston, G.L.; Li, T.; Eastman, R.T.; Ekland, E.H.; Eappen, A.G.; Richman, A.; Sim, B.K.L.; Lee, M.C.S.; Hoffman, S.L.; Fidock, D.A. Quantitative assessment of Plasmodium falciparum sexual development reveals potent transmission-blocking activity by methylene blue. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108 (47), E1214-E1223.
316. Peatey, C.L.; Spicer, T.P.; Hodder, P.S.; Trenholme, K.R.; Gardiner, D.L. A high-throughput assay for the identification of drugs against late-stage Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2011, 180 (2), 127-131.
317. Tanaka, T.Q.; Williamson, K.C. A malaria gametocytocidal assay using oxidoreduction indicator, alamarBlue. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2011, 177 (2), 160-163.
318. Silvestrini, F.; Bozdech, Z.; Lanfrancotti, A.; Di Giulio, E.; Bultrini, E.; Picci, L.; deRisi, J.L.; Pizzi, E.; Alano, P. Genome-wide identification of genes upregulated at the onset of gametocytogenesis in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2005, 143 (1), 100-110.
319. Bounkeua, V.; Li, F.; Vinetz, J.M. In vitro generation of Plasmodium falciparum ookinetes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 83 (6), 1187-1194.
320. Ghosh, A.; Dinglasan, R.; Ikadai, H.; Jacobs-Lorena, M. An improved method for the in vitro differentiation of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes into ookinetes. Malar. J. 2010, 9 (1), 194.
321. McClean, C.M.; Alvarado, H.G.; Neyra, V.; Llanos-Cuentas, A.; Vinetz, J.M. Optimized in vitro production of Plasmodium vivax ookinetes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 83 (6), 1183-1186.
322. Pfahler, J.M.; Galinski, M.R.; Barnwell, J.W.; Lanzer, M. Transient transfection of Plasmodium vivax blood stage parasites. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2006, 149 (1), 99-101.
323. Yoeli, M.; Upmanis, R.S. Plasmodium berghei ookinete formation in vitro. Exp. Parasitol. 1968, 22 (1), 122-128.
324. Lal, K.; Prieto, J.H.; Bromley, E.; Sanderson, S.J.; Yates, J.R.; Wastling, J.M.; Tomley, F.M.; Sinden, R.E. Characterisation of Plasmodium
325. Torchilin, V.P. Multifunctional nanocarriers. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2006, 58 (14), 1532-1555.
326. Al-Jamal, W.T.; Kostarelos, K. Construction of nanoscale multicompartment liposomes for combinatory drug delivery. Int. J. Pharm. 2007, 331 (2), 182-185.
327. Al-Jamal, W.T.; Kostarelos, K. Liposome-nanoparticle hybrids for multimodal diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2007, 2 (1), 85-98.
328. Ashley, C.E.; Carnes, E.C.; Phillips, G.K.; Padilla, D.; Durfee, P.N.; Brown, P.A.; Hanna, T.N.; Liu, J.; Phillips, B.; Carter, M.B.; Carroll, N.J.; Jiang, X.; Dunphy, D.R.; Willman, C.L.; Petsev, D.N.; Evans, D.G.; Parikh, A.N.; Chackerian, B.; Wharton, W.; Peabody, D.S.; Brinker, C.J. The targeted delivery of multicomponent cargos to cancer cells by nanoporous particle-supported lipid bilayers. Nat. Mater. 2011, 10 (5), 389-397.
329. Zucca, M.; Scutera, S.; Savoia, D. New chemotherapeutic strategies against malaria, leishmaniasis and trypanosomiases. Curr. Med. Chem., 2013, 20(4), 502-526.