Mycotoxins: Occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment

Food and Chemical Toxicology

Volumn 60, Issue , 2013, Pages 218-237

  Marin, S ^a   Ramos, A J ^a   Cano Sancho, G ^a   Sanchis, V ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LLEIDA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Exposure; Food; Mycotoxins; Occurrence; Toxicology

Indexed keywords

AFLATOXIN; BEAUVERICIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; ENNIATIN; ERGOT ALKALOID; FUMONISIN; MONILIFORMIN; MYCOTOXIN; OCHRATOXIN; PATULIN; TRICHOTHECENE; VOMITOXIN; ZEARALENONE;

ALTERNARIA; ANALYTIC METHOD; ASPERGILLUS; CEREAL; CLAVICEPS; CONCENTRATION RESPONSE; CONTAMINATION; CYTOTOXICITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FOOD INTAKE; FRUIT; FUSARIUM; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HAZARD ASSESSMENT; HERB; HUMAN; LIPID PEROXIDATION; METABOLITE; NONHUMAN; NUT; OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION; PENICILLIUM; PREVALENCE; RESPIRATORY BURST; REVIEW; SPICE; TOXIN ANALYSIS; TOXIN STRUCTURE; TOXIN SYNTHESIS; VEGETABLE;

15-AC-DON; 15-ACETYLDEOXYNIVALENOL; 3-AC-DON; 3-ACETYLDEOXYNIVALENOL; 8,9-DIHYDRO-8-(N7-GUANYL)-9-HYDROXY AFB1; A(W); A. ALTERNATA F.SP. LYCOPERSICI TOXINS; AAL-TOXINS; AFB(1); AFB(1)-N7-GUA; AFLATOXIN B(1); AFLATOXIN M(1); AFLATOXINS; AFM(1); AFS; ALERNUENE; ALIMENTARY TOXIC ALEUKIA; ALT; ALTERNARIOL; ALTERNARIOL MONOMETHYL ETHER; ALTERTOXINS; AME; AOH; ATA; ATX; BALKAN ENDEMIC NEPHROPATHY; BEA; BEAUVERICIN; BEN; BODY WEIGHT; BW; CER; CYP; CYTOCHROME P-450; DEOXYNIVALENOL; DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID; DNA; DON; EAS; EFSA; ELEM; ENNIATINS; ENNS; ENZYME CERAMIDE; EQUINE LEUKOENCEPHALOMALACIA; ERGOT ALKALOIDS; EU; EUROPEAN FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY; EUROPEAN UNION; EXPOSURE; FAO; FAPY, AFB(1)-FORMAMIDOPYRIMIDINE; FB(1); FBS; FOOD; FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS; FUMONISIN B(1); FUMONISINS B(1), B(2) AND B(3); FUS; FUSAPROLIFERIN; HCC; HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA; HT-2 TOXIN; HT2; IARC; INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER; ISO-TEA; ISO-TENUAZONIC ACID; JECFA; JOINT FAO/WHO EXPERT COMMITTEE ON FOOD ADDITIVES; LC-ESI-MS/MS; LD50; LETHAL DOSE 50%; LIMIT OF DETECTION; LIMIT OF QUANTIFICATION; LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY-ELECTROSPRAY IONIZATION TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY; LOD; LOQ; MON; MONILIFORMIN; MYCOTOXINS; NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS; NOEL; NON OBSERVED EFFECT LEVEL; NTD; OCCURRENCE; OCHRATOXIN A; OCHRATOXIN Α; OTA; OTΑ; PAT; PATULIN; PHE; PHENYLALANINE; PMTDI; PORCINE PULMONARY OEDEMA; PPE; PROVISIONAL MAXIMUM TOLERABLE DAILY INTAKE; PROVISIONAL TOLERABLE DAILY INTAKES; PTDIS; RAPID ALERT SYSTEM FOR FOOD AND FEED; RASFF; RIBONUCLEIC ACID; RNA; SA; SCF; SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE ON FOOD SO, SPHINGOSINE; SPHINGANINE; T-2 TOXIN; T2; TDI; TDS; TEA; TEN; TENTOXIN; TENUAZONIC ACID; TOLERABLE DAILY INTAKE; TOTAL DIET STUDIES; TOXICOLOGY; WATER ACTIVITY; WHO; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; ZEARALENONE; ZEN;

AFLATOXINS; ANIMALS; CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FOOD CONTAMINATION; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; FUMONISINS; HUMANS; MYCOTOXINS; OCHRATOXINS; TRICHOTHECENES; ZEARALENONE;

EID: 84882798242     PISSN: 02786915     EISSN: 18736351     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.047     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. Albassam M.A., Yong S.I., Bhatnagar R., Sharma A.K., Prior M.G. Histopathologic and electron microscopic studies on the acute toxicity of ochratoxin A in rats. Vet. Pathol. 1987, 24:427-435.
2. Baert K., De Meulenaer B., Verdonck F., Huybrechts I., De Henauw S., Vanrolleghem P.A., Debevere J., Devlieghere F. Variability and uncertainty assessment of patulin exposure for preschool children in Flanders. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2007, 45:1745-1751.
3. Bakker G., Sizoo E., Jekel A., Pereboom-De Fauw D.P., Schothorst R., Van Egmond H. Determination of mean daily intakes of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes and fumonisins in 24-hour diets of children in the Netherlands. World Mycotoxin J. 2009, 2:451-459.
4. Barkai-Golan R. Alternaria mycotoxins. Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables 2008, 185-203. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA. R. Barkai- Golan, P. Nachman (Eds.).
5. Bottalico A., Logrieco A. Toxigenic Alternaria species of economic importance. Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety 1998, 65-108. Marcel Dekker, New York. K.K. Sinha, D. Bhatnager (Eds.).
6. Boudra H., Le Bars P., Le Bars J. Thermostability of ochratoxin A in wheat under two moisture conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1995, 61:1156-1158.
7. Bouhet S., Oswald I.P. The intestine as a possible target for fumonisin toxicity. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51:925-931.
8. Brandon E.F.A., Baars A.J., Biesebeek J.D.T., Oomen A.G., Bakker M.I., De Heer C. Risk assessment of patulin intake from apple containing products by young children. World Mycotoxin J. 2012, 5:391-403.
9. Brera C., Debegnach F., De Santis B., Iafrate E., Pannunzi E., Berdini C., Prantera E., Gregori E., Miraglia M. Ochratoxin A in cocoa and chocolate products from the Italian market: occurrence and exposure assessment. Food Control 2011, 22:1663-1667.
10. Bullerman L.B., Bianchini A. Stability of mycotoxins during food processing. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 119:140-146.
11. Caldas E.D., Silva A.C.S. Mycotoxins in corn-based food products consumed in Brazil: an exposure assessment for fumonisins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55:7974-7980.
12. Cano-Sancho G., Gauchi J.P., Sanchis V., Marín S., Ramos A.J. Quantitative dietary exposure assessment of the Catalonian population (Spain) to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol. Food Addit. Contam. A 2011, 28:1098-1109.
13. Cano-Sancho G., Marin S., Ramos A.J., Sanchis V. Survey of patulin occurrence in apple juice and apple products in Catalonia, Spain, and an estimate of dietary intake. Food Addit. Contam.: B 2009, 2:59-65.
14. Cano-Sancho G., Marin S., Ramos A.J., Sanchis V. Biomonitoring of Fusarium spp. mycotoxins: perspectives for an individual exposure assessment tool. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 2010, 16:266-276.
15. Cano-Sancho G., Marin S., Ramos A.J., Sanchis V. Occurrence of zearalenone, an oestrogenic mycotoxin, in Catalonia (Spain) and exposure assessment. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50:835-839.
16. Cano-Sancho G., Marín S., Ramos A.J., Sanchis V. Exposure assessment of T2 and HT2 toxins in Catalonia (Spain). Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50:511-517.
17. Cano-Sancho G., Ramos A.J., Marín S., Sanchis V. Occurrence of fumonisins in Catalonia (Spain) and an exposure assessment of specific population groups. Food Addit. Contam. A 2012, 29:799-808.
18. Cano-Sancho G., Sanchis V., Marín S., Ramos A.J. Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins in Catalonia (Spain). Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 51:188-193.
19. Castillo M.A., Montes R., Navarro A., Segarra R., Cuesta G., Hernández E. Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in Spanish corn-based food products. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2008, 21:423-427.
20. Cazzaniga D., Basílico J.C., González R.J., Torres R.L., De Greef D.M. Mycotoxins inactivation by extrusion cooking of corn flour. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2001, 33:144-147.
21. Chen L.Y., Tian X.L., Yang B. A study on the inhibition of rat myocardium glutathione-peroxidase and glutathione-reductase by moniliformin. Mycopathologia 1990, 110:119-124.
22. Coronel M.B., Marín S., Cano-Sancho G., Ramos A.J., Sanchis V. Exposure assessment to ochratoxin A in Catalonia (Spain) based on the consumption of cereals, nuts, coffee, wine, and beer. Food Addit. Contam. A 2012, 29:979-993.
23. Coronel M.B., Sanchis V., Ramos A.J., Marin S. Review. Ochratoxin A: presence in human plasma and intake estimation. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 2010, 16:5-18.
24. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST), 2003. Mycotoxins, Risks in Plant, Animal, and Human Systems, Ames, IA.
25. Crews H., Alink G., Andersen R., Braesco V., Holst B., Maiani G., Ovesen L., Scotter M., Solfrizzo M., van den Berg R., Verhagen H., Williamson G. A critical assessment of some biomarker approaches linked with dietary intake. Brit. J. Nutr. 2001, 86:S5-S35.
26. Cundliff E., Cannon M., Davies J. Mechanism of inhibition of eukaryotic protein synthesis by trichothecene fungal toxins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1974, 71:30-34.
27. Cundliff E., Davies J. Inhibition of initiation, elongation, and termination of eukaryotic protein synthesis by trichothecene fungal toxins. Antimicrob. Agents CH. 1977, 11:491-499.
28. 3 in conventional and organic retail corn products in Spain and Italy and estimated dietary exposure. Food Addit. Contam.: B 2009, 2:146-153.
29. Dall'Asta C., Scarlato A.P., Galaverna G., Brighenti F., Pellegrini N. Dietary exposure to fumonisins and evaluation of nutrient intake in a group of adult celiac patients on a gluten-free diet. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2012, 56:632-640.
30. Dvorácková I., Kusák V., Veselý D., Veselá J., Nesnídal P. Aflatoxin and encephalopathy with fatty degeneration of viscera (Reye). Ann. Nutr. Aliment. 1977, 31:977-989.
31. 1 in lung tissue. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1986, 18:153-157.
32. Edrington T.S., Kamps-Holtzapple C.A., Harvey R.B., Kubena L.F., Elissalde M.H., Rottinghaus G.E. Acute hepatic and renal toxicity in lambs dosed with fumonisin-containing culture material. J. Anim. Sci. 1995, 73:508-515.
33. Eriksen, G.S., Alexander, J., 1998. Fusarium Toxins in Cereals - A Risk Assessment. Nordic Council of Ministers, TemaNord 502, Copenhagen, Denmark.
34. Eriksen G.S., Pettersson H. Toxicological evaluation of trichothecenes in animal feed. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2004, 114:205-239.
35. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Opinion of the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the commission related to aflatoxin B1 as undesirable substance in animal feed. EFSA J. 2004, 39:1-27.
36. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Opinion of the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the commission related to zearalenone as undesirable substance in animal feed. EFSA J. 2004, 43:1-41.
37. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in Food Chain on a request from the Commission related to fumonisins as undesirable substances in animal feed. EFSA J. 2005, 235:1-32.
38. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on a request from EFSA related to Exposure Assessments (adopted on 22 June 2005). EFSA J. 2005, 249:1-26.
39. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on a request from the Commission related to ochratoxin A in food. EFSA J. 2006, 365:1-56.
40. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Guidance of the Scientific Committee on a request from EFSA related to Uncertainties in Dietary Exposure Assessment. EFSA J. 2006, 438:1-54.
41. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Opinion of the Scientific Panel on contaminants in the food chain related to the potential increase of consumer health risk by a possible increase of the existing maximum levels for aflatoxins in almonds, hazelnuts and pistachios and derived products. EFSA J. 2007, 446:1-127.
42. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 2008. Guidance Document for the use of the Concise European Food Consumption Database in Exposure Assessment, 54pp.
43. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Management of left-censored data in dietary exposure assessment of chemical substances. EFSA J. 2010, 8:1557.
44. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Scientific opinion on the risks for public health related to the presence of zearalenone in food. EFSA J. 2011, 9:2197.
45. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Scientific opinion on the risks for animal and public health related to the presence of Alternaria toxins in food and feed. EFSA J. 2011, 9:2407.
46. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Scientific opinion on the risks for animal and public health related to the presence of T-2 and HT-2 toxin in food and feed. EFSA J. 2011, 9:2481.
47. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) GUIDANCE of EFSA Use of the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database in Exposure Assessment. EFSA J. 2011, 9:2097.
48. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Towards a harmonised Total Diet Study approach: a guidance document. EFSA J. 2011, 9:2450.
49. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Scientific opinion on ergot alkaloids in food and feed. EFSA J. 2012, 10:2798.
50. Fan P., Zhang Y., Zhou M., Chen C., Wang J. Incidence of trichothecenes in wheat-based foods from China. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2009, 89:269-276.
51. Fitzpatrick D.W., Picken C.A., Murphy L.C., Buhr M.M. Measurement of the relative binding-affinity of zearalenone, alpha-zearalenol and beta-zearalenol for uterine and oviduct estrogen-receptors in swine, rats and chickens - an indicator of estrogenic potencies. Comp. Biochem. Phys. C 1989, 94:691-694.
52. Flannigan B. Mycotoxins. Toxic Substances in Crop Plants 1991, 226-257. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. J.P.F. D'Mello, C.M. Duffus, J.H. Duffus (Eds.).
53. Fuchs R., Peraica M. Ochratoxin A in human kidney diseases. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22(Suppl. 1):53-57.
54. Gauchi J.P., Leblanc J.C. Quantitative assessment of exposure to the mycotoxin Ochratoxin A in food. Risk Analysis 2002, 22:219-234.
55. Gelderblom W.C.A., Jaskiewicz K., Marasas W.F.O., Thiel P.G., Hora R.M., Vleggar R., Kriek N.P. Fumonisins. Novel mycotoxins with cancer-promoting activity produced by Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1988, 54:1806-1811.
56. 1 in rats. Carcinogenesis 1991, 12:1247-1251.
57. Gelderblom W.C.A., Marasas W.F.O., Vleggaar R., Thiel P.G., Cawood M.E. Fumonisins: isolation, chemical characterization and biological effects. Mycopathologia 1992, 117:11-16.
58. Gilbert J., Brereton P., MacDonald S. Assessment of dietary exposure to ochratoxin A in the UK using a duplicate diet approach and analysis of urine and plasma samples. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18:1088-1093.
59. Gimeno A., Martins M.L. Micotoxinas y Micotoxicosis en Animales y Humanos 2011, Special Nutrients, Florida, pp. 50-53.
60. Gromadzka K., Waśkiewicz A., Goliński P., Świetlik J. Occurrence of estrogenic mycotoxin - zearalenone in aqueous environmental samples with various NOM content. Water Res. 2009, 43:1051-1059.
61. Grove J.F. Non-macrocycle trichothecenes. Nat. Prod. Rep. 1988, 5:187-209.
62. Grove J.F. Macrocycle trichothecenes. Nat. Prod. Rep. 1993, 10:429-448.
63. Gutleb A.C., Morrison E., Murk A.J. Cytotoxicity assays for mycotoxins produced by Fusarium strains: a review. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2002, 11:309-320.
64. Hagler W.M., Mirocha C.J., Pathre S.V., Behrens J.C. Identification of the naturally occurring isomer of zearalenol produced by Fusarium roseum Gibbosum in rice culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1979, 37:849-853.
65. Henry, S., Whitaker, T., Rabbini, I., Bowers, J., Park, D., Price, W.D., Bosch, F.X., Pennington, J., Verger, P., Yoshizawa, T., 2001. Aflatoxin M1. In: Safety evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. Prepared by the Fifty-sixth Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), FAO Food and Nutrition Paper. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
66. Hernández-Martínez R., Navarro-Blasco I. Aflatoxin levels and exposure assessment of spanish infant cereals. Food Addit. Contam.: B 2010, 3:275-288.
67. Hope J.H., Hope B.E. A review of the diagnosis and treatment of ochratoxin A inhalational exposure associated with human illness and kidney disease including focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. J. Environ. Public Health 2012, 2012. Article ID 835059. 10.1155/2012/835059.
68. Hopkins J. The toxicological hazards of patulin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1993, 31:455-456.
69. 1 carcinogenicity in a two-year feeding study using F344 rats and B6C3F1 mice. Environ. Health Persp. 2001, 109(Suppl. 2):277-282.
70. Howard P.C., Warbritton A., Voss K.A., Lorentzen R.J., Thurman J.D., Kovach R.M., Bucci T.J. Compensatory regeneration as a mechanism for renal tubule carcinogenesis of fumonisin B1 in the F344/N/Nctr BR rat. Environ. Health Persp. 2001, 109(Suppl. 2):309-314.
71. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer), 1993. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Some Naturally Occurring Substances, Food Items and Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins, vol. 56. Lyon, International Agency for Research on Cancer.
72. IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer), 2002. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, vol. 82. Lyon, International Agency for Research on Cancer.
73. JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 2001. Safety Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food. Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture Organization, pp. 281-320.
74. JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 2007. 68th Meeting. Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. WHO, Geneva. 208.
75. JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), 2011. Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. 72nd Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additive. WHO Technical Report Series, vol. 959.
76. Jestoi M., Kokkonen M., Uhlig S. What about the 'other' Fusarium mycotoxins?. World Mycotoxin J. 2009, 2:181-192.
77. Jiang, Y., Jolly, P.E., Preko, P., Wang, J.-S., Ellis, W.O., Phillips, T.D., Williams, J.H., 2008. Aflatoxin-related immune dysfunction in health and in human immunodeficiency virus disease. Clin. Dev. Immunol. vol. 2008, 12 pages (Article ID 790309). doi:10.1155/2008/790309.
78. Joffe A.Z. Alimentary toxic aleukia. Microbiol Toxins 1971, vol. 7:139-189. Academic Press, New York.
79. Juan C., Mañes J., Raiola A., Ritieni A. Evaluation of beauvericin and enniatins in Italian cereal products and multicereal food by liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Food Chem. 2013, 140:755-762.
80. Kabak B. Ochratoxin A in cereal-derived products in Turkey: occurrence and exposure assessment. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47:348-352.
81. Kamyar M.R., Rawnduzi P., Studenik C.R., Kouri K., Lemmens-gruber R. Investigation of the electrophysiological properties of enniatins. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2004, 429:215-223.
82. Kimanya M., De Meulenaer B., Tiisekwa B., Ndomondo-Sigonda M., Devlieghere F., Van Camp J., Lachat C., Baert K., Kolsteren P. Assessment of fumonisin exposure to infants consuming maize based complementary foods in Rombo District of Tanzania. Commun. Agric. Appl. Biol. Sci. 2007, 72:13-17.
83. Kuiper-Goodman T., Hilts C., Billiard S.M., Kiparissis Y., Richard I.D.K., Hayward S. Health risk assessment of ochratoxin a for all age-sex strata in a market economy. Food Addit. Contam. A 2010, 27:212-240.
84. Kuiper-Goodman T., Scott P.M. Risk assessment of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 1989, 2:179-248.
85. Kuiper-Goodman T., Scott P.M., Watanabe H. Risk assessment of the mycotoxin zearalenone. Regulatory Toxicol. Pharmacol. 1987, 7:253-306.
86. Kumagai S., Nakajima M., Tabata S., Ishikuro E., Tanaka T., Norizuki H., Itoh Y., Aoyama K., Fujita K., Kai S., Sato T., Saito S., Yoshiike N., Sugita-Konishi Y. Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A contamination of retail foods and intake of these mycotoxins in Japan. Food Addit. Contam. A 2008, 25:1101-1106.
87. Leblanc J.C., Tard A., Volatier J.L., Verger P. Estimated dietary exposure to principal food mycotoxins from The First French Total Diet Study. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22:652-672.
88. 1 in Malaysia. Mycotoxin Res. 2011, 27:207-214.
89. Lewis L., Onsongo M., Njapau H., Schurz-Rogers H., Luber G., Kieszak S., Nyamongo J., Backer L., Dahiye A., Misore A., DeCock K., Rubin C. Aflatoxin contamination of commercial maize products during an outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in Eastern and Central Kenya. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113:1763-1767.
90. Logrieco A., Moretti A., Castella G., Kostecki M., Golinski P., Ritieni A., Chelkowski J. Beauvericin production by Fusarium species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64:3084-3088.
91. Lori G.A., Rizzo I. Deoxinivalenol. Micotoxinas en Alimentos 2007, 269-292. Díaz de Santos, Madrid. J.M. Soriano (Ed.).
92. Mahfoud R., Maresca M., Garmy N., Fantini J. The mycotoxin patulin alters the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium, mechanism of action of the toxin and protective effects of glutathione. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2002, 181:209-218.
93. Minervini F., Giannoccaro A., Cavallini A., Visconti A. Investigations on cellular proliferation induced by zearalenone and its derivatives in relation to the estrogenic parameters. Toxicol. Lett. 2005, 159:272-283.
94. Mishra S., Ansari K.M., Dwivedi P.D., Pandey H.P., Das M. Occurrence of deoxynivalenol in cereals and exposure risk assessment in Indian population. Food Control 2013, 30:549-555.
95. Missmer S.A., Suarez L., Felkner M., Wang E., Merrill A.H., Rothman K.J., Hendricks K.A. Exposure to fumonisins and the occurrence of neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114:237-241.
96. Morales H., Sanchis V., Rovira A., Ramos A.J., Marin S. Patulin accumulation in apples during postharvest: effect of controlled atmosphere storage and fungicide treatments. Food Control 2007, 18:1443-1448.
97. Morgavi D.P., Riley R.T. An historical overview of field disease outbreaks known or suspected to be caused by consumption of feeds contaminated with Fusarium toxins. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137:201-212.
98. Murillo-Arbizu M., Amézqueta S., González-Peñas E., de Cerain A.L. Occurrence of patulin and its dietary intake through apple juice consumption by the Spanish population. Food Chem. 2009, 113:420-423.
99. Nielsen K.F., Grafenhan T., Zafari D., Thrane U. Trichothecene production by Trichoderma brevicompactum. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53:8190-8196.
100. Norred W.P., Plattner R.D., Vesonder R.F., Bacon C.W., Voss K.A. Effects of selected secondary metabolites of Fusarium moniliforme on unscheduled synthesis of DNA by rat primary hepatocytes. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1992, 30:233-237.
101. Ok H.E., Kim H.J., Cho T.Y., Oh K.S., Chun H.S. Determination of deoxynivalenol in cereal-based foods and estimation of dietary exposure. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2009, 72:1424-1430.
102. Ovchinnikov Y.A., Ivanov V.T., Evstratov A.I., Mikhaleva I.I., Bystrov V.F., Portnova S.L., Balashova T.A., Meshcheryakova E.N., Tulchinsky V.M. Enniatin ionophores-conformation and ion binding properties. Int. J. Peptide Prot. Res. 1974, 6:465-498.
103. Pacin, A., Martinez, E., Portela, M., Neira, S., 1998. Consumo de alimentos en la población de la Universidad Nacional de Luján. Aporte energético y proteico. La Alimentación Latinoamericana 221, pp. 28-36.
104. Palliyaguru, D.L., Wu, F., 2013. Global geographical overlap of aflatoxin and hepatitis C, controlling risk factors for liver cancer worldwide. Food Add. Contam. - A. (in press).
105. Park D.L. Effect of processing on aflatoxin. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2002, 504:173-179.
106. 1 through food consumption. Food Addit. Contam. 2004, 21:70-75.
107. 2) in corn-based foods on the Danish market. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18:221-226.
108. Peterson S.W., Ito Y., Horn B.W., Goto T. Aspergillus bombycis, a new aflatoxigenic species and genetic variation within its sibling species, Aspergillus nomius. Mycologia 2001, 93:689-703.
109. Pfohl-Leszkowicz A., Petkova-Bocharova T., Chernozemsky I.N., Castegnaro M. Balkan endemic nephropathy and associated urinary tract tumours, a review on aetiological causes and the potential role of mycotoxins. Food Add. Contam. 2002, 19:282-302.
110. Pfohl-Leszkowicz A., Tozlovanu M., Manderville R., Peraica M., Castegnaro M., Stefanovic V. New molecular and field evidences for the implication of mycotoxins but not aristolochic acid in human nephropathy and urinary tract tumor. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51:1131-1146.
111. Piemontese L., Solfrizzo M., Visconti A. Occurrence of patulin in conventional and organic fruit products in Italy and subsequent exposure assessment. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22:437-442.
112. Pieters M.N., Bakker M., Slob W. Reduced intake of deoxynivalenol in the Netherlands: a risk assessment update. Toxicol. Lett. 2004, 153:145-153.
113. Pirrung M.C., Nauhaus S.K., Singh B. Cofactor-directed, time-dependent inhibition of thiamine enzymes by the fungal toxin moniliformin. J. Org. Chem. 1996, 61:2592-2593.
114. Placinta C.M., D'Mello J.P.F., MacDonald A.M.C. A review of worldwide contamination of cereal grains and animal feed with Fusarium mycotoxins. An. Feed Technol. 1999, 78:21-37.
115. Probst C., Njapau H., Cotty P.J. Outbreak of an acute aflatoxicosis in Kenya in 2004, identification of the causal agent. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2007, 73:2762-2764.
116. Puel O., Galtier P., Oswald I.P. Biosynthesis and toxicological effects of patulin. Toxins 2010, 2:613-631.
117. Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF), 2012. Annual Reports 2012. European Commission. <>. http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/rapidalert/rasff_publications_en.htm.
118. Rice L.G., Ross F.B. Methods for detection and quantitation of fumonisins in corn, cereal products and animal excreta. J. Food Protect. 1994, 57(5):36-40.
119. Richardson K.E., Hagler W.M., Mirocha C.J. Production of zearalenone, α-zearalenol and β-zearalenol by Fusarium spp. in rice culture. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1985, 33:862-866.
120. Rotter B.A., Prelusky D.B., Pestka J.J. Toxicology of deoxinivalenol (vomitoxin). J. Toxicol. Environ. Health - A 1996, 48:1-34.
121. Ryu D., Hanna M.A., Bullerman L.B. Stability of zearalenone during extrusion of corn grits. J. Food Protect. 1999, 62:1482-1484.
122. Sáenz de Rodríguez C.A., Bongiovanni A.M., Conde de Borrego L. An epidemic of precocious development in Puerto Rican children. J. Pediatr. 1985, 107:393-396.
123. Santini A., Meca G., Uhlig S., Ritieni A. Fusaproliferin, beauvericin and enniatins: occurrence in food - a review. World Mycotoxin J. 2012, 5:71-81.
124. Scientific Committee on Food (SCF). 1999. Opinion on Fusarium Toxins-Part 1: Deoxynivalenol (DON). <> (accessed 07.02.13). http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out44_en.pdf.
125. Scientific Committee on Food (SCF), 2000a. Opinion on Fusarium Toxins, Part 2, Zearalenone. Scientific Committee on Food SCF/CS/CNTM/MYC/22 Rev. 3 Final. <> (accessed 07.02.13. http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out65_en.pdf.
126. Scientific Committee on Food (SCF), 2000b. Minute Statement on Patulin Expressed by the Scientific Committee on Food During the Plenary Meeting. Brussels, Belgium.
127. Scientific Committee on Food (SCF), 2002. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Fusarium toxins. Part 6, Group Evaluation of T-2 Toxin, HT-2 Toxin, Nivalenol and Deoxinivalenol. Scientific Committee on Food SCF/CS/CNTM/MYC/27 Final. <> (accessed 07.02.13). http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out123_en.pdf.
128. Scientific Committee on Food (SCF), 2003. Updated opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Fumonisin B1, B2 and B3. Scientific Committee on Food SCF/CS/CNTM/MYC/28 Final. <> (accessed 07.02.13). http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out185_en.pdf.
129. SCOOP, 2002a. Reports on Tasks for Scientific Cooperation - Report of Experts Participating in Task 3.2.7 - Assessment of Dietary Intake of Ochratoxin A by the Population of EU Member Status.
130. SCOOP, 2002b. Reports on tasks for scientific cooperation - Report of Experts Participating in Task 3.2.8 - Assessment of Dietary Intake of Patulin by the Population of EU Member States.
131. SCOOP, 2003. Reports on Tasks for Scientific Cooperation - Report of Experts Participating in Task 3.2.10 - Collection of Occurrence Data of Fusarium Toxins in Food and Assessment of Dietary Intake by the Population of EU Member States.
132. Serrano A.B., Font G., Ruiz M.J., Ferrer E. Co-occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins in food and diet from Mediterranean area. Food Chem. 2012, 135:423-429.
133. Serrano A.B., Meca G., Font G., Ferrer E. Risk assessment associated to the intake of the emerging Fusarium mycotoxins BEA, ENs and FUS present in infant formula of Spanish origin. Food Control 2012, 28:178-183.
134. Shephard G.S. Impact of mycotoxins on human health in developing countries. Food Addit. Contam. 2008, 25:146-151.
135. Shephard G.S., Van Der Westhuizen L., Katerere D.R., Herbst M., Pineiro M. Preliminary exposure assessment of deoxynivalenol and patulin in South Africa. Mycotoxin Res. 2010, 26:181-185.
136. Sirot V., Fremy J.M., Leblanc J.C. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment in the second French total diet study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 52:1-11.
137. Sirot V., Volatier J.L., Calamassi-Tran G., Dubuisson C., Ménard C., Dufour A., Leblanc J.C. Core food of the French food supply: second total diet study. Food Addit. Contam. A 2009, 26:623-639.
138. 1 and ochratoxin A. Food Addit. Contam. 2005, 22:163-172.
139. Solfrizzo M., Chulze S.N., Mallmann C., Visconti A., De Girolamo A., Rojo F., Torres A. Comparison of urinary sphingolipids in human populations with high and low maize consumption as a possible biomarker of fumonisin dietary exposure. Food Addit. Contam. 2004, 21:1090-1095.
140. 1 in urine as a multi-biomarker method to assess exposure to mycotoxins. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2011, 401:2831-2841.
141. Solovey M.M.S., Somoza C., Cano G., Pacin A., Resnik S. A survey of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and aflatoxins contamination in corn-based food products in Argentina. Food Addit. Contam. 1999, 16:325-329.
142. Speijers G.J.A., Franken M.A.M., van Leeuwen F.X.R. Subacute toxicity study of patulin in the rat, effects on the kidney and the gastro-intestinal tract. Food Chem. Toxic. 1988, 26:23-30.
143. Stefanovic V., Polenakovic M., Toncheva D. Urothelial carcinoma associated with Balkan endemic nephropathy: a worldwide disease. Pathol. Biol. 2011, 59:286-291.
144. Suarez L., Felkner M., Brender J.D., Canfield M., Zhu H., Hendricks K.A. Neural tube defects on the Texas-Mexico Border, what we've learned in the 20 years since the Brownsville cluster. Birth Defects Res. A 2012, 94:882-892.
145. Sudakin D.L. Trichothecenes in the environment, relevance to human health. Toxicol. Lett. 2003, 143:97-107.
146. Sugita-Konishi, Y., Kamata, Y., Sato, T., Yoshinari, T., Saito, S., 2012. Exposure and risk assessment for ochratoxin A and fumonisins in Japan. Food Addit. Contam. - A. (in press).
147. Sugita-Konishi Y., Sato T., Saito S., Nakajima M., Tabata S., Tanaka T., Norizuki H., Itoh Y., Kai S., Sugiyama K., Kamata Y., Yoshiike N., Kumagai S. Exposure to aflatoxins in Japan: Risk assessment for aflatoxin B 1. Food Addit. Contam. A 2010, 27:365-372.
148. Sun G., Wang S., Hu X., Su J., Zhang Y., Xie Y., Zhang H., Tang L., Wang J.S. Co-contamination of aflatoxin B 1 and fumonisin B 1 in food and human dietary exposure in three areas of China. Food Addit. Contam. A 2011, 28:461-470.
149. Sydenham E.W., Thiel P.G., Marasas W.F.O., Shephard G.S., Schalkwyk D.J., Koch K.R. Natural occurrence of some Fusarium mycotoxins in corn from low and high esophageal cancer prevalence areas of Transkei, Southern Africa. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1990, 38:1900-1903.
150. Thrane U. Developments in the taxonomy of Fusarium species based on secondary metabolites. Fusarium. Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium 2001, 29-49. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota. B.A. Summerbell, J.F. Leslie, D. Backhouse, W.L. Bryden, L.W. Burgess (Eds.).
151. Thuvander A., Möller T., Enghardt Barbieri H., Jansson A., Salomonsson A.C., Olsen M. Dietary intake of some important mycotoxins by the Swedish population. Food Addit. Contam. 2001, 18:696-706.
152. Tomaszewski J., Miturski R., Semczuk A., Kotarski J., Jakowicki J. Tissue zearalenone concentration in normal, hyperplastic and neoplastic human endometrium. Ginekologia Polska 1998, 69:363-366.
153. Turner P.C., Gong Y.Y., Pourshams A., Jafari E., Routledge M.N., Malekzadeh R., Wild C.P., Boffetta P., Islami F. A pilot survey for Fusarium mycotoxin biomarkers in women from Golestan, Northern Iran. World Mycotoxin J. 2012, 5:195-199.
154. Turner P.C., Hopton R.P., White K.L.M., Fisher J., Cade J.E., Wild C.P. Assessment of deoxynivalenol metabolite profiles in UK adults. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2011, 49:132-135.
155. Turner P.C., Ji B.T., Shu X.O., Zheng W., Chow W.H., Gao Y.T., Hardie L.J. A biomarker survey of urinary deoxynivalenol in China: the Shanghai Women's Health Study. Food Addit. Contam. A 2011, 28:1220-1223.
156. Turner P.C., Rothwell J.A., White K.L.M., Gong Y., Cade J.E., Wild C.P. Urinary deoxynivalenol is correlated with cereal intake in individuals from the United Kingdom. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116:21-25.
157. Uhlig S., Jestoi M., Knutsen A.K., Heier B.T. Multiple regression analysis as a tool for the identification of relations between semi-quantitative LC-MS data and cytotoxicity of extracts of the fungus Fusarium avenaceum (syn. F.arthrosporioides). Toxicon 2006, 46:513-522.
158. Van der Merwe K.J., Steyn P.S., Fourie L. Mycotoxins. Part II. The constitution of ochratoxin A, B and C, metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh. J. Chem. Soc. 1965, 5:7083-7088.
159. 1 and ochratoxin A in breakfast cereals from athens market: occurrence and risk assessment. Food Control 2009, 20:455-461.
160. Visconti A. Problems associated with Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals. Bull. Inst. Comprehens. Agric. Sci. Kinki Univ. 2001, 9:39-55.
161. Visconti A., Minervini F., Lucivero G., Gambatesa V. Cytotoxic and immunotoxic effects of Fusarium mycotoxins using a rapid colorimetric bioassay. Mycopathologia 1991, 113:181-186.
162. Voss K.A., Smith G.W., Haschek W.M. Fumonisins, toxicokinetics, mechanism of action and toxicity. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2007, 137:299-325.
163. Wang W., Shao B., Zhu J., Yu H., Li F. [Dietary exposure assessment of some important Fusarium toxins in cereal-based products in China]. Wei sheng yan jiu. J. Hygiene Res. 2010, 39:709-714.
164. Warth B., Sulyok M., Fruhmann P., Berthiller F., Schuhmacher R., Hametner C., Adam G., Froehlich J., Krska R. Assessment of human deoxynivalenol exposure using an LC-MS/MS based biomarker method. Toxicol. Lett. 2012, 211:85-90.
165. Warth B., Sulyok M., Fruhmann P., Mikula H., Berthiller F., Schuhmacher R., Hametner C., Abia W.A., Adam G., Froehlich J., Krska R. Development and validation of a rapid multi-biomarker liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method to assess human exposure to mycotoxins. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2012, 26:1533-1540.
166. WHO (World Health Organization), 1990. Selected Mycotoxins: Ochratoxins, Trichothecenes, Ergot. Environ. Health Crit. 105. Geneva.
167. WHO (World Health Organization), 1995. 44th Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Technical Report Series 859, 36.
168. WHO (World Health Organization), 2001. Safety Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food. WHO Food Additive Series 47, Geneva.
169. Wood G.E. Mycotoxins in foods and feeds in the United States. J. Anim. Sci. 1992, 70:3941-3949.
170. Wu H.C., Santella R. The role of aflatoxins in hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepat. Mon. 2012, 12:8-16.
171. Wolf-Hall C.E., Hanna M.A., Bullerman L.B. Stability of deoxynivalenol in heat-treated foods. J. Food Prot. 1999, 62:962-964.
172. Yoshizawa T., Yamashita A., Luo Y. Fumonisin occurrence in corn from high- and low-risk areas for human esophageal cancer in China. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994, 60:1626-1629.
173. Yu Z., Zhang L., Wu D., Liu F. Anti-apoptotic action of zearalenone in MCF-7 cells. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safe. 2005, 62:441-446.
174. Zinedine A., Soriano J.M., Moltó J.C., Mañes J. Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone, an oestrogenic mycotoxin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2007, 45:1-18.