Mechanisms of antiepileptic drug action

Epilepsy: Mechanisms, Models, and Translational Perspectives

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 123-141

  Simeone, Timothy A ^a  

^a CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79952576031     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9781420085594     Document Type: Chapter

References (168)

1. Ambrósio, A.F., A.P. Silva, J.O. Malva, P. Soares-da-Silva, A.P. Carvalho, C.M. Carvalho. (1999). Carbamazepine inhibits L-type Ca2+ channels in cultured rat hippocampal neurons stimulated with glutamate receptor agonists. Neuropharmacology, 38(9):1349-1359.
2. Angehagen, M., E. Ben-Menachem, R. Shank, L. Ronnback, E. Hansson. (2004). Topiramate modulation of kainate-induced calcium currents is inversely related to channel phosphorylation level. J. Neurochem., 88(2):320-325.
3. Angehagen, M., L. Ronnback, E. Hansson, E. Ben-Menachem. (2005). Topiramate reduces AMPA-induced Ca(2+) transients and inhibits GluR1 subunit phosphorylation in astrocytes from primary cultures. J. Neurochem., 94(4):1124-1130.
4. Arzimanoglou, A. (2009). Dravet syndrome: from electroclinical characteristics to molecular biology. Epilepsia, 50(Suppl. 8):3-9.
5. Berger, T., H.R. Lüscher. (2004). Associative somatodendritic interaction in layer V pyramidal neurons is not affected by the antiepileptic drug lamotrigine. Eur. J. Neurosci., 20(6):1688-1693.
6. Bialer, M., S.I. Johannessen, H.J. Kupferberg, R.H. Levy, E. Perucca, T. Tomson. (2007). Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: a summary of the Eighth Eilat Conference (EILAT VIII). Epilepsy Res., 73(1):1-52.
7. Bian, F., Z. Li, J. Offord, M.D. Davis, J. McCormick, C.P. Taylor, L.C. Walker. (2006). Calcium channel alpha2- delta type 1 subunit is the major binding protein for pregabalin in neocortex, hippocampus, amygdale, and spinal cord: an ex vivo autoradiographic study in alpha2-delta type 1 genetically modified mice. Brain Res., 1075(1):68-80.
8. Bianchi, M.T., J. Pathmanathan, S.S. Cash. (2009). From ion channels to complex networks: magic bullet versus magic shotgun approaches to anticonvulsant pharmacotherapy. Med. Hypotheses, 72(3):297-305.
9. Biervert, C., B.C. Schroeder, C. Kubisch, S.F. Berkovic, P. Propping, T.J. Jentsch, O.K. Steinlein. (1998). A potassium channel mutation in neonatal human epilepsy. Science, 279(5349):403-406.
10. Bouwman, B.M., P. Suffczynski, I.S. Midzyanovskaya, E. Maris, P.L. van den Broek, C.M. van Rijn. (2007). The effects of vigabatrin on spike and wave discharges in WAG/Rij rats. Epilepsy Res., 76(1):34-40.
11. Broicher, T., T. Seidenbecher, P. Meuth, T. Munsch, S.G. Meuth, T. Kanyshkova, H.C. Pape, T. Budde. (2007). T-current related effects of antiepileptic drugs and a Ca2+ channel antagonist on thalamic relay and local circuit interneurons in a rat model of absence epilepsy. Neuropharmacology, 53(3):431-446.
12. Brumberg, J.C., L.G. Nowak, D.A. McCormick. (2000). Ionic mechanisms underlying repetitive high-frequency burst firing in supragranular cortical neurons. J. Neurosci., 20(13):4829-4843.
13. Carunchio, I., M. Pieri, M.T. Ciotti, F. Albo, C. Zona. (2007). Modulation of AMPA receptors in cultured cortical neurons induced by the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam. Epilepsia, 48(4):654-662.
14. Chang, H.R., C.C. Kuo. (2007a). Characterization of the gating conformational changes in the felbamate binding site in NMDA channels. Biophys. J., 93(2):456-466.
15. Chang, H.R., C.C. Kuo. (2007b). Extracellular proton-modulated pore-blocking effect of the anticonvulsant felbamate on NMDA channels. Biophys. J., 93(6):1981-1992.
16. Chang, H.R., C.C. Kuo. (2008). Molecular determinants of the anticonvulsant felbamate binding site in the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. J. Med. Chem., 51(6):1534-1545.
17. Chao, T.I., C. Alzheimer (1995). Effects of phenytoin on the persistent Na+ current of mammalian CNS neurones. NeuroReport, 6(13):1778-1780.
18. Chen, Y., J. Lu, H. Pan, Y. Zhang, H. Wu, K. Xu, X. Liu, Y. Jiang, X. Bao, Z. Yao, K. Ding, W.H. Lo, B. Qiang, P. Chan, Y. Shen, X. Wu. (2003). Association between genetic variation of CACNA1H and childhood absence epilepsy. Ann. Neurol., 54(2):239-243.
19. Chioza, B., K. Everett, H. Aschauer, O. Brouwer, P. Callenbach et al. (2006). Evaluation of CACNA1H in European patients with childhood absence epilepsy. Epilepsy Res., 69(2):177-181.
20. Coenen, A.M., E.H. Blezer, E.L. van Luijtelaar. (1995). Effects of the GABA-uptake inhibitor tiagabine on electroencephalogram, spike-wave discharges and behaviour of rats. Epilepsy Res., 21(2):89-94.
21. Cooper, E.C., L.Y. Jan. (2003). M-channels: neurological diseases, neuromodulation, and drug development. Arch. Neurol., 60(4):496-500.
22. Cope, D.W., S.W. Hughes, V. Crunelli. (2005). GABAA receptor-mediated tonic inhibition in thalamic neurons. J. Neurosci., 25(50):11553-11563.
23. Coulter, D.A., J.R. Huguenard, D.A. Prince. (1989). Characterization of ethosuximide reduction of low-threshold calcium current in thalamic neurons. Ann. Neurol., 25(6):582-593.
24. Crowder, K.M., J.M. Gunther, T.A. Jones, B.D. Hale, H.Z. Zhang, M.R. Peterson, R.H. Scheller, C. Chavkin, S.M. Bajjalieh. (1999). Abnormal neurotransmission in mice lacking synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 96(26):15268-15273.
25. Crunelli, V., N. Leresche. (2002). Childhood absence epilepsy: genes, channels, neurons and networks. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 3(5):371-382.
26. Custer, K.L., N.S. Austin, J.M. Sullivan, S.M. Bajjalieh. (2006). Synaptic vesicle protein 2 enhances release probability at quiescent synapses. J. Neurosci., 26(4):1303-1313.
27. De Simone, G., A. Di Fiore, V. Menchise, C. Pedone, J. Antel, A. Casini, A. Scozzafava, M. Wurl, C.T. Supuran. (2005). Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Zonisamide is an effective inhibitor of the cytosolic isozyme II and mitochondrial isozyme. V. Solution and x-ray crystallographic studies. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 15(9):2315-2320.
28. DeLorenzo, R.J., S. Sombati, D.A. Coulter. (2000). Effects of topiramate on sustained repetitive firing and spontaneous recurrent seizure discharges in cultured hippocampal neurons. Epilepsia, 41(Suppl. 1):S40-S44.
29. Derry, J.M., S.M. Dunn, M. Davies. (2004). Identification of a residue in the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor alpha subunit that differentially affects diazepam-sensitive and -insensitive benzodiazepine site binding. J. Neurochem., 88(6):1431-1438.
30. Devaux, J.J., K.A. Kleopa, E.C. Cooper, S.S. Scherer. (2004). KCNQ2 is a nodal K+ channel. J. Neurosci., 24(5):1236-1244.
31. Díez-Sampedro, A., W.R. Silverman, J.F. Bautista, G.B. Richerson. (2006). Mechanism of increased open probability by a mutation of the BK channel. J. Neurophysiol., 96(3):1507-1516.
32. Dodgson, S.J., R.P. Shank, B.E. Maryanoff. (2000). Topiramate as an inhibitor of carbonic anhydrase isoenzymes. Epilepsia, 41(Suppl. 1):S35-S39.
33. Dooley, D.J., C.P. Taylor, S. Donevan, D. Feltner. (2007). Ca2+ channel alpha2delta ligands: novel modulators of neurotransmission. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 28(2):75-82.
34. Dreixler, J.C., J. Bian, Y. Cao, M.T. Roberts, J.D. Roizen, K.M. Houamed. (2000). Block of rat brain recombinant SK channels by tricyclic antidepressants and related compounds. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 401(1):1-7.
35. Du, W., J.F. Bautista, H. Yang, A. Diez-Sampedro, S.A. You, L. Wang, P. Kotagal, H.O. Luders, J. Shi, J. Cui, G.B. Richerson, Q.K. Wang. (2005). Calcium-sensitive potassium channelopathy in human epilepsy and paroxysmal movement disorder. Nat. Genet., 37(7):733-738.
36. Errington, A.C., T. Stohr, C. Heers, G. Lees. (2008). The investigational anticonvulsant lacosamide selectively enhances slow inactivation of voltage-gated sodium channels. Mol. Pharmacol., 73(1):157-169.
37. Faingold, C.L. (2004). Emergent properties of CNS neuronal networks as targets for pharmacology: application to anticonvulsant drug action. Prog. Neurobiol., 72(1):55-85.
38. Ffrench-Mullen, J.M., J.L. Barker, M.A. Rogawski. (1993). Calcium current block by (-)-pentobarbital, phenobarbital, and CHEB but not (+)-pentobarbital in acutely isolated hippocampal CA1 neurons: comparison with effects on GABA-activated Cl- current. J. Neurosci., 13(8):3211-3221.
39. Fohlmeister, J.F., W.J. Adelman, Jr., J.J. Brennan. (1984). Excitable channel currents and gating times in the presence of anticonvulsants ethosuximide and valproate. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 230(1):75-81.
40. Gibbs, J.W., 3rd, S. Sombati, R.J. DeLorenzo, D.A. Coulter. (2000). Cellular actions of topiramate: blockade of kainate-evoked inward currents in cultured hippocampal neurons. Epilepsia. 41(Suppl. 1):S10-S16.
41. Gillard, M., P. Chatelain, B. Fuks. (2006). Binding characteristics of levetiracetam to synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A) in human brain and in CHO cells expressing the human recombinant protein. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 536(1-2):102-108.
42. Gomora, J.C., A.N. Daud, M. Weiergraber, E. Perez-Reyes. (2001). Block of cloned human T-type calcium channels by succinimide antiepileptic drugs. Mol. Pharmacol., 60(5):1121-1132.
43. Gordey, M., T.M. DeLorey, R.W. Olsen. (2000). Differential sensitivity of recombinant GABA(A) receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes to modulation by topiramate. Epilepsia. 41(Suppl. 1):S25-S29.
44. Granger, P., B. Biton, C. Faure, X. Vige, H. Depoortere, D. Graham, S.Z. Langer, B. Scatton, P. Avenet. (1995). Modulation of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor by the antiepileptic drugs carbamazepine and phenytoin. Mol. Pharmacol., 47(6):1189-1196.
45. Gross, R.A., R.L. Macdonald. (1988). Barbiturates and nifedipine have different and selective effects on calcium currents of mouse DRG neurons in culture: a possible basis for differing clinical actions. The 1987 S. Weir Mitchell Award. Neurology, 38(3):443-451.
46. Grunze, H., R.W. Greene, H.J. Moller, T. Meyer, J. Walden. (1998a). Lamotrigine may limit pathological excitation in the hippocampus by modulating a transient potassium outward current. Brain Res., 791(1-2):330-334.
47. Grunze, H., J. von Wegerer, R.W. Greene, J. Walden. (1998b). Modulation of calcium and potassium currents by lamotrigine. Neuropsychobiology, 38(3):131-138.
48. Gryder, D.S., M.A. Rogawski. (2003). Selective antagonism of GluR5 kainate-receptor-mediated synaptic currents by topiramate in rat basolateral amygdala neurons. J. Neurosci., 23(18):7069-7074.
49. Hainsworth, A.H., N.C. McNaughton, A. Pereverzev, T. Schneider, A.D. Randall. (2003). Actions of sipatrigine, 202W92 and lamotrigine on R-type and T-type Ca2+ channel currents. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 467(1-3):77-80.
50. Hara, K., T. Sata. (2007). Inhibitory effect of gabapentin on N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand., 51(1):122-128.
51. Harty, T.P., M.A. Rogawski. (2000). Felbamate block of recombinant N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors: selectivity for the NR2B subunit. Epilepsy Res., 39(1):47-55.
52. Herrero, A.I., N. Del Olmo, J.R. Gonzalez-Escalada, J.M. Solis. (2002). Two new actions of topiramate:inhibition of depolarizing GABA(A)-mediated responses and activation of a potassium conductance. Neuropharmacology, 42(2):210-220.
53. Hough, C.J., R.P. Irwin, X.M. Gao, M.A. Rogawski, D.M. Chuang. (1996). Carbamazepine inhibition of N-methyl-d-aspartate-evoked calcium influx in rat cerebellar granule cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 276(1):143-149.
54. Huang, C.W., C.C. Huang, Y.C. Liu, S.N. Wu. (2004). Inhibitory effect of lamotrigine on A-type potassium current in hippocampal neuron-derived H19-7 cells. Epilepsia, 45(7):729-736.
55. Huang, C.W., C.C. Huang, S.N. Wu. (2007). Activation by zonisamide, a newer antiepileptic drug, of largeconductance calcium-activated potassium channel in differentiated hippocampal neuron-derived H19-7 cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 321(1):98-106.
56. Huang, C.W., C.C. Huang, M.W. Lin, J.J. Tsai, S.N. Wu. (2008). The synergistic inhibitory actions of oxcarbazepine on voltage-gated sodium and potassium currents in differentiated NG108-15 neuronal cells and model neurons. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 11(5):597-610.
57. Huguenard, J.R. (2002). Block of T-type Ca(2+) channels is an important action of succinimide antiabsence drugs. Epilepsy Curr., 2(2):49-52.
58. Kaminski, R.M., M. Banerjee, M.A. Rogawski. (2004). Topiramate selectively protects against seizures induced by ATPA, a GluR5 kainate receptor agonist. Neuropharmacology, 46(8):1097-1104.
59. Kaminski, R.M., M. Gillard, K. Leclercq, E. Hanon, G. Lorent, D. Dassesse, A. Matagne, H. Klitgaard. (2009). Proepileptic phenotype of SV2A-deficient mice is associated with reduced anticonvulsant efficacy of levetiracetam. Epilepsia, 50(7):1729-1740.
60. Kawano, H., S. Sashihara, T. Mita, K. Ohno, M. Kawamura, K. Yoshii. (1994). Phenytoin, an antiepileptic drug, competitively blocked non-NMDA receptors produced by Xenopus oocytes. Neurosci. Lett., 166(2):183-186.
61. Kemp, J.A., G.R. Marshall, E.H. Wong, G.N. Woodruff. (1987). The affinities, potencies and efficacies of some benzodiazepine-receptor agonists, antagonists and inverse-agonists at rat hippocampal GABAA- receptors. Br. J. Pharmacol., 91(3):601-608.
62. Kim, D., I. Song, S. Keum, T. Lee, M.J. Jeong, S.S. Kim, M.W. McEnery, H.S. Shin. (2001). Lack of the burst firing of thalamocortical relay neurons and resistance to absence seizures in mice lacking alpha(1G) T-type Ca(2+) channels. Neuron, 31(1):35-45.
63. Kleckner, N.W., J.C. Glazewski, C.C. Chen, T.D. Moscrip. (1999). Subtype-selective antagonism of N-methyld- aspartate receptors by felbamate: insights into the mechanism of action. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 289(2):886-894.
64. Kuo, C.C. (1998). A common anticonvulsant binding site for phenytoin, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine in neuronal Na+ channels. Mol. Pharmacol., 54(4):712-721.
65. Kuo, C.C., B.P. Bean. (1994). Slow binding of phenytoin to inactivated sodium channels in rat hippocampal neurons. Mol. Pharmacol., 46(4):716-725.
66. Kuo, C.C., L. Lu. (1997). Characterization of lamotrigine inhibition of Na+ channels in rat hippocampal neurones. Br. J. Pharmacol., 121(6):1231-1238.
67. Kuo, C.C., R.S. Chen, L. Lu, R.C. Chen. (1997). Carbamazepine inhibition of neuronal Na+ currents: quantitative distinction from phenytoin and possible therapeutic implications. Mol. Pharmacol., 51(6):1077-1083.
68. Kuo, C.C., B.J. Lin, H.R. Chang, C.P. Hsieh. (2004). Use-dependent inhibition of the N-methyl-d-aspartate currents by felbamate: a gating modifier with selective binding to the desensitized channels. Mol. Pharmacol., 65(2):370-380.
69. Kuzmiski, J.B., W. Barr, G.W. Zamponi, B.A. MacVicar. (2005). Topiramate inhibits the initiation of plateau potentials in CA1 neurons by depressing R-type calcium channels. Epilepsia, 46(4):481-489.
70. Lacinová, L. (2004). Pharmacology of recombinant low-voltage activated calcium channels. Curr. Drug Targets CNS Neurol. Disord., 3(2):105-111.
71. Lampe, H., H. Bigalke. (1990). Carbamazepine blocks NMDA-activated currents in cultured spinal cord neurons. NeuroReport, 1(1):26-28.
72. Lampl, I., P. Schwindt, W. Crill. (1998). Reduction of cortical pyramidal neuron excitability by the action of phenytoin on persistent Na+ current. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 284(1):228-237.
73. Lang, D.G., C.M. Wang, B.R. Cooper. (1993). Lamotrigine, phenytoin and carbamazepine interactions on the sodium current present in N4TG1 mouse neuroblastoma cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 266(2):829-835.
74. Lee, C.Y., W.M. Fu, C.C. Chen, M.J. Su, H.H. Liou. (2008). Lamotrigine inhibits postsynaptic AMPA receptor and glutamate release in the dentate gyrus. Epilepsia, 49(5):888-897.
75. Leresche, N., H.R. Parri, G. Erdemli, A. Guyon, J.P. Turner, S.R. Williams, E. Asprodini, V. Crunelli. (1998). On the action of the anti-absence drug ethosuximide in the rat and cat thalamus. J. Neurosci., 18(13):4842-4853.
76. Lorenz, S., A. Heils, J.M. Kasper, T. Sander. (2007). Allelic association of a truncation mutation of the KCNMB3 gene with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Am. J. Med. Genet. B. Neuropsychiatr. Genet., 144B(1):10-13.
77. Ludwig, A., T. Budde, J. Stieber, S. Moosmang, C. Wahl et al. (2003). Absence epilepsy and sinus dysrhythmia in mice lacking the pacemaker channel HCN2. EMBO J., 22(2):216-224.
78. Lukyanetz, E.A., V.M. Shkryl, P.G. Kostyuk. (2002). Selective blockade of N-type calcium channels by levetiracetam. Epilepsia, 43(1):9-18.
79. Lynch, B.A., N. Lambeng, K. Nocka, P. Kensel-Hammes, S.M. Bajjalieh, A. Matagne, B. Fuks. (2004). The synaptic vesicle protein SV2A is the binding site for the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101(26):9861-9866.
80. Macdonald, R.L., C.J. Rogers, R.E. Twyman. (1989). Barbiturate regulation of kinetic properties of the GABAA receptor channel of mouse spinal neurones in culture. J. Physiol., 417:483-500.
81. Madeja, M., D.G. Margineanu, A. Gorji, E. Siep, P. Boerrigter, H. Klitgaard, E.J. Speckmann. (2003). Reduction of voltage-operated potassium currents by levetiracetam: a novel antiepileptic mechanism of action? Neuropharmacology, 45(5):661-671.
82. Martella, G., C. Costa, A. Pisani, L.M. Cupini, G. Bernardi, P. Calabresi. (2008). Antiepileptic drugs on calcium currents recorded from cortical and PAG neurons: therapeutic implications for migraine. Cephalalgia, 28(12):1315-1326.
83. Matar, N., W. Jin, H. Wrubel, J. Hescheler, T. Schneider, M. Weiergraber. (2009). Zonisamide block of cloned human T-type voltage-gated calcium channels. Epilepsy Res., 83(2-3):224-234.
84. Mazarati, A., J. Wu, D. Shin, Y.S. Kwon, R. Sankar. (2008). Antiepileptogenic and antiictogenic effects of retigabine under conditions of rapid kindling: an ontogenic study. Epilepsia, 49(10):1777-1786.
85. McCormick, D.A., D. Contreras. (2001). On the cellular and network bases of epileptic seizures. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 63:815-846.
86. McLean, M.J., A.A. Bukhari, A.W. Wamil. (2000). Effects of topiramate on sodium-dependent action-potential firing by mouse spinal cord neurons in cell culture. Epilepsia, 41(Suppl. 1):S21-S24.
87. McNaughton, N.C., C.H. Davies, A. Randall. (2004). Inhibition of alpha(1E) Ca(2+) channels by carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. J. Pharmacol. Sci., 95(2):240-247.
88. Meldrum, B.S., M.A. Rogawski. (2007). Molecular targets for antiepileptic drug development. Neurotherapeutics, 4(1):18-61.
89. Mody, I., R.A. Pearce. (2004). Diversity of inhibitory neurotransmission through GABA(A) receptors. Trends Neurosci., 27(9):569-575.
90. Mulley, J.C., I.E. Scheffer, S. Petrou, L.M. Dibbens, S.F. Berkovic, L.A. Harkin. (2005). SCN1A mutations and epilepsy. Hum. Mutat., 25(6):535-542.
91. Munsch, T., H.C. Pape. (1999). Upregulation of the hyperpolarization-activated cation current in rat thalamic relay neurones by acetazolamide. J. Physiol., 519(Pt. 2):505-514.
92. Niespodziany, I., H. Klitgaard, D.G. Margineanu. (2001). Levetiracetam inhibits the high-voltage-activated Ca(2+) current in pyramidal neurones of rat hippocampal slices. Neurosci. Lett., 306(1-2):5-8.
93. Niespodziany, I., H. Klitgaard, D.G. Margineanu. (2004). Is the persistent sodium current a specific target of anti-absence drugs? NeuroReport, 15(6):1049-1052.
94. Nobile, M., L. Lagostena. (1998). A discriminant block among K+ channel types by phenytoin in neuroblastoma cells. Br. J. Pharmacol., 124(8):1698-1702.
95. Nobile, M., P. Vercellino. (1997). Inhibition of delayed rectifier K+ channels by phenytoin in rat neuroblastoma cells. Br. J. Pharmacol., 120(4):647-652.
96. Nusser, Z., I. Mody. (2002). Selective modulation of tonic and phasic inhibitions in dentate gyrus granule cells. J. Neurophysiol., 87(5):2624-2628.
97. Ogiwara, I., H. Miyamoto, N. Morita, N. Atapour, E. Mazaki et al. (2007). Na(v)1.1 localizes to axons of parvalbumin-positive inhibitory interneurons: a circuit basis for epileptic seizures in mice carrying an Scn1a gene mutation. J. Neurosci., 27(22):5903-5914.
98. Phillips, I., K.F. Martin, K.S. Thompson, D.J. Heal. (1997). Weak blockade of AMPA receptor-mediated depolarisations in the rat cortical wedge by phenytoin but not lamotrigine or carbamazepine. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 337(2-3):189-195.
99. Pisani, A., A. Stefani, A. Siniscalchi, N.B. Mercuri, G. Bernardi, P. Calabresi. (1995). Electrophysiological actions of felbamate on rat striatal neurones. Br. J. Pharmacol., 116(3):2053-2061.
100. Pisciotta, M., G. Prestipino. (2002). Anticonvulsant phenytoin affects voltage-gated potassium currents in cerebellar granule cells. Brain Res., 941(1-2):53-61.
101. Poolos, N.P. (2005). The h-channel: a potential channelopathy in epilepsy? Epilepsy Behav., 7(1):51-56.
102. Poolos, N.P., M. Migliore, D. Johnston. (2002). Pharmacological upregulation of h-channels reduces the excitability of pyramidal neuron dendrites. Nat. Neurosci., 5(8):767-774.
103. Poulsen, C.F., T.A. Simeone, T.E. Maar, V. Smith-Swintosky, H.S. White, A. Schousboe. (2004). Modulation by topiramate of AMPA and kainate mediated calcium influx in cultured cerebral cortical, hippocampal and cerebellar neurons. Neurochem. Res., 29(1):275-282.
104. Pritchett, D.B., H. Luddens, P.H. Seeburg. (1989). Type I and type II GABAA-benzodiazepine receptors produced in transfected cells. Science, 245(4924):1389-1392.
105. Raol, Y.H., D.A. Lapides, J.G. Keating, A.R. Brooks-Kayal, E.C. Cooper. (2009). A KCNQ channel opener for experimental neonatal seizures and status epilepticus. Ann. Neurol., 65(3):326-336.
106. Remy, S., B.W. Urban, C.E. Elger, H. Beck. (2003). Anticonvulsant pharmacology of voltage-gated Na+ channels in hippocampal neurons of control and chronically epileptic rats. Eur. J. Neurosci., 17(12):2648-2658.
107. Rho, J.M., R. Sankar. (1999). The pharmacologic basis of antiepileptic drug action. Epilepsia, 40(11):1471-1483.
108. Rho, J.M., S.D. Donevan, M.A. Rogawski. (1994). Mechanism of action of the anticonvulsant felbamate:opposing effects on N-methyl-d-aspartate and gamma-aminobutyric acidA receptors. Ann. Neurol., 35(2):229-234.
109. Rho, J.M., S.D. Donevan, M.A. Rogawski. (1996). Direct activation of GABAA receptors by barbiturates in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. J. Physiol., 497(Pt. 2):509-522.
110. Rho, J.M., S.D. Donevan, M.A. Rogawski. (1997). Barbiturate-like actions of the propanediol dicarbamates felbamate and meprobamate. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 280(3):1383-1391.
111. Rogawski, M.A. (2006). Diverse mechanisms of antiepileptic drugs in the development pipeline. Epilepsy Res., 69(3):273-294.
112. Rogawski, M.A., W. Löscher. (2004). The neurobiology of antiepileptic drugs. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 5(7):553-564.
113. Sankar, R., G.L. Holmes. (2004). Mechanisms of action for the commonly used antiepileptic drugs: relevance to antiepileptic drug-associated neurobehavioral adverse effects. J. Child Neurol., 19(Suppl. 1):S6-S14.
114. Schauf, C.L. (1987a). Anticonvulsants modify inactivation but not activation processes of sodium channels in Myxicola axons. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 65(6):1220-1225.
115. Schauf, C.L. (1987b). Zonisamide enhances slow sodium inactivation in Myxicola. Brain Res., 413(1):185-188.
116. Schmutz, M., F. Brugger, C. Gentsch, M.J. McLean, H.R. Olpe. (1994). Oxcarbazepine: preclinical anticonvulsant profile and putative mechanisms of action. Epilepsia, 35(Suppl. 5):S47-S50.
117. Schousboe, A., A. Sarup, O.M. Larsson, H.S. White. (2004). GABA transporters as drug targets for modulation of GABAergic activity. Biochem. Pharmacol., 68(8):1557-1563.
118. Segal, M.M., A.F. Douglas. (1997). Late sodium channel openings underlying epileptiform activity are preferentially diminished by the anticonvulsant phenytoin. J. Neurophysiol., 77(6):3021-3034.
119. Shah, M.M., M. Migliore, I. Valencia, E.C. Cooper, D.A. Brown. (2008). Functional significance of axonal Kv7 channels in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 105(22):7869-7874.
120. Shank, R.P., V.L. Smith-Swintosky, B.E. Maryanoff. (2008). Carbonic anhydrase inhibition: insight into the characteristics of zonisamide, topiramate, and the sulfamide cognate of topiramate. J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem., 23(2):271-276.
121. Sigel, E., R. Baur. (1988). Allosteric modulation by benzodiazepine receptor ligands of the GABAA receptor channel expressed in Xenopus oocytes. J. Neurosci., 8(1):289-295.
122. Sigel, E., R. Baur, G. Trube, H. Mohler, P. Malherbe. (1990). The effect of subunit composition of rat brain GABAA receptors on channel function. Neuron, 5(5):703-711.
123. Simeone, T.A., S.D. Donevan, J.M. Rho. (2003). Molecular biology and ontogeny of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors in the mammalian central nervous system. J. Child Neurol., 18(1):39-49.
124. Simeone, T.A., R.M. Sanchez, J.M. Rho. (2004). Molecular biology and ontogeny of glutamate receptors in the mammalian central nervous system. J. Child Neurol., 19(5):343-361.
125. Simeone, T.A., J.F. Otto, K.S. Wilcox, H.S. White. (2006a). Felbamate is a subunit selective modulator of recombinant gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 552(1-3):31-35.
126. Simeone, T.A., K.S. Wilcox, H.S. White. (2006b). Subunit selectivity of topiramate modulation of heteromeric GABA(A) receptors. Neuropharmacology, 50(7):845-857.
127. Singh, N.A., C. Charlier, D. Stauffer, B.R. DuPont, R.J. Leach et al. (1998). A novel potassium channel gene, KCNQ2, is mutated in an inherited epilepsy of newborns. Nat. Genet., 18(1):25-29.
128. Skradski, S., H.S. White. (2000). Topiramate blocks kainate-evoked cobalt influx into cultured neurons. Epilepsia, 41(Suppl. 1):S45-S47.
129. Sohal, V.S., R. Keist, U. Rudolph, J.R. Huguenard. (2003). Dynamic GABA(A) receptor subtype-specific modulation of the synchrony and duration of thalamic oscillations. J. Neurosci., 23(9):3649-3657.
130. Song, J.H., K. Nagata, C.S. Huang, J.Z. Yeh, T. Narahashi. (1996). Differential block of two types of sodium channels by anticonvulsants. NeuroReport, 7(18):3031-3036.
131. Spadoni, F., A.H. Hainsworth, N.B. Mercuri, L. Caputi, G. Martella, F. Lavaroni, G. Bernardi, A. Stefani. (2002). Lamotrigine derivatives and riluzole inhibit INa, P in cortical neurons. NeuroReport, 13(9):1167-1170.
132. Stafstrom, C.E. (2007). Persistent sodium current and its role in epilepsy. Epilepsy Curr., 7(1):15-22.
133. Stefani, A., P. Calabresi, A. Pisani, N.B. Mercuri, A. Siniscalchi, G. Bernardi. (1996a). Felbamate inhibits dihydropyridine- sensitive calcium channels in central neurons., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 277(1):121-127.
134. Stefani, A., F. Spadoni, A. Siniscalchi, G. Bernardi. (1996b). Lamotrigine inhibits Ca2+ currents in cortical neurons: functional implications. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 307(1):113-116.
135. Stell, B.M., I. Mody. (2002). Receptors with different affinities mediate phasic and tonic GABA(A) conductances in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurosci., 22(10):RC223.
136. Stephenson, V.C., R.A. Heyding, D.F. Weaver. (2005). The “promiscuous drug concept” with applications to Alzheimer’s disease. FEBS Lett., 579(6):1338-1342.
137. Subramaniam, S., J.M. Rho, L. Penix, S.D. Donevan, R.P. Fielding, M.A. Rogawski. (1995). Felbamate block of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 273(2):878-886.
138. Sun, G.C., T.R. Werkman, A. Battefeld, J.J. Clare, W.J. Wadman. (2007). Carbamazepine and topiramate modulation of transient and persistent sodium currents studied in HEK293 cells expressing the Na(v)1.3 alpha-subunit. Epilepsia, 48(4):774-782.
139. Surges, R., T.M. Freiman, T.J. Feuerstein. (2003). Gabapentin increases the hyperpolarization-activated cation current Ih in rat CA1 pyramidal cells. Epilepsia, 44(2):150-156.
140. Surges, R., T.M. Freiman, T.J. Feuerstein. (2004). Input resistance is voltage dependent due to activation of Ih channels in rat CA1 pyramidal cells. J. Neurosci. Res., 76(4):475-480.
141. Taglialatela, M., E. Ongini, A.M. Brown, G. Di Renzo, L. Annunziato. (1996). Felbamate inhibits cloned voltage- dependent Na+ channels from human and rat brain. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 316(2-3):373-377.
142. Taverna, S., M. Mantegazza, S. Franceschetti, G. Avanzini. (1998). Valproate selectively reduces the persistent fraction of Na+ current in neocortical neurons. Epilepsy Res., 32(1-2):304-308.
143. Taverna, S., G. Sancini, M. Mantegazza, S. Franceschetti, G. Avanzini. (1999). Inhibition of transient and persistent Na+ current fractions by the new anticonvulsant topiramate. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 288(3):960-968.
144. 2-δ (alpha2-delta) subunit as a target for antiepileptic drug discovery. Epilepsy Res., 73(2):137-150.
145. Thompson, S.A., P.J. Whiting, K.A. Wafford. (1996). Barbiturate interactions at the human GABAA receptor:dependence on receptor subunit combination. Br. J. Pharmacol., 117(3):521-527.
146. Thompson, S.M., B.H. Gähwiler. (1992). Effects of the GABA uptake inhibitor tiagabine on inhibitory synaptic potentials in rat hippocampal slice cultures. J. Neurophysiol., 67(6):1698-1701.
147. Todorovic, S.M., C.J. Lingle. (1998). Pharmacological properties of T-type Ca2+ current in adult rat sensory neurons: effects of anticonvulsant and anesthetic agents. J. Neurophysiol., 79(1):240-252.
148. Tricarico, D., M. Barbieri, A. Mele, G. Carbonara, D.C. Camerino. (2004). Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors are specific openers of skeletal muscle BK channel of K+-deficient rats. FASEB J., 18(6):760-761.
149. Twyman, R.E., C.J. Rogers, R.L. Macdonald. (1989). Differential regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor channels by diazepam and phenobarbital. Ann. Neurol., 25(3):213-220.
150. Van den Berg, R.J., P. Kok, R.A. Voskuyl. (1993). Valproate and sodium currents in cultured hippocampal neurons. Exp. Brain Res., 93(2):279-287.
151. Velísek, L., S.L. Moshe, W. Cammer. (1993a). Developmental changes in seizure susceptibility in carbonic anhydrase II-deficient mice and normal littermates. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res., 72(2):321-324.
152. Velísek, L., S.L. Moshe, S.G. Xu, W. Cammer. (1993b). Reduced susceptibility to seizures in carbonic anhydrase II deficient mutant mice. Epilepsy Res., 14(2):115-121.
153. Vergnes, M., C. Marescaux, G. Micheletti, A. Depaulis, L. Rumbach, J.M. Warter. (1984). Enhancement of spike and wave discharges by GABAmimetic drugs in rats with spontaneous petit-mal-like epilepsy. Neurosci. Lett., 44(1):91-94.
154. Wamil, A.W., M.J. McLean. (1993). Phenytoin blocks N-methyl-d-aspartate responses of mouse central neurons. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 267(1):218-227.
155. Wang, S.J., C.C. Huang, K.S. Hsu, J.J. Tsai, P.W. Gean. (1996). Inhibition of N-type calcium currents by lamotrigine in rat amygdalar neurones. NeuroReport, 7(18):3037-3040.
156. Wang, S.J., J.J. Tsai, P.W. Gean. (1998). Lamotrigine inhibits depolarization-evoked Ca++ influx in dissociated amygdala neurons. Synapse, 29(4):355-362.
157. White, H.S., S.D. Brown, J.H. Woodhead, G.A. Skeen, H.H. Wolf. (1997). Topiramate enhances GABAmediated chloride flux and GABA-evoked chloride currents in murine brain neurons and increases seizure threshold. Epilepsy Res., 28(3):167-179.
158. White, H.S., S.D. Brown, J.H. Woodhead, G.A. Skeen, H.H. Wolf. (2000). Topiramate modulates GABAevoked currents in murine cortical neurons by a nonbenzodiazepine mechanism. Epilepsia, 41(Suppl. 1):S17-S20.
159. White, H.S., M.D. Smith, K.S. Wilcox. (2007). Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs. Int. Rev. Neurobiol., 81:85-110.
160. Xie, X., T.J. Dale, V.H. John, H.L. Cater, T.C. Peakman, J.J. Clare. (2001). Electrophysiological and pharmacological properties of the human brain type IIA Na+ channel expressed in a stable mammalian cell line. Pflügers Arch., 441(4):425-433.
161. Xu, T., S.M. Bajjalieh. (2001). SV2 modulates the size of the readily releasable pool of secretory vesicles. Nat. Cell Biol., 3(8):691-698.
162. Ying, S.W., F. Jia, S.Y. Abbas, F. Hofmann, A. Ludwig, P.A. Goldstein. (2007). Dendritic HCN2 channels constrain glutamate-driven excitability in reticular thalamic neurons. J. Neurosci., 27(32):8719-8732.
163. Youdim, M.B., J.J. Buccafusco. (2005). Multi-functional drugs for various CNS targets in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 26(1):27-35.
164. Yu, F.H., M. Mantegazza, R.E. Westenbroek, C.A. Robbins, F. Kalume, K.A. Burton, W.J. Spain, G.S. McKnight, T. Scheuer, W.A. Catterall. (2006). Reduced sodium current in GABAergic interneurons in a mouse model of severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy. Nat. Neurosci., 9(9):1142-1149.
165. Yue, C., Y. Yaari. (2004). KCNQ/M channels control spike after depolarization and burst generation in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurosci., 24(19):4614-4624.
166. Zhang, X., A.A. Velumian, O.T. Jones, P.L. Carlen. (2000). Modulation of high-voltage-activated calcium channels in dentate granule cells by topiramate. Epilepsia, 41(Suppl. 1):S52-S60.
167. Zona, C., M.T. Ciotti, M. Avoli. (1997). Topiramate attenuates voltage-gated sodium currents in rat cerebellar granule cells. Neurosci. Lett., 231(3):123-126.
168. Zona, C., V. Tancredi, P. Longone, G. D’Arcangelo, M. D’Antuono, M. Manfredi, M. Avoli. (2002). Neocortical potassium currents are enhanced by the antiepileptic drug lamotrigine. Epilepsia, 43(7):685-690.