The unity and diversity of executive functions: A systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 144, Issue 11, 2018, Pages 1147-1185

  Karr, Justin E ^a   Areshenkoff, Corson N ^a   Rast, Philippe ^b   Hofer, Scott M ^a,c   Iverson, Grant L ^d,e   Garcia Barrera, Mauricio A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d and Red Sox Foundation and Massachusetts General Hospital Home Base Program   (United States)

^e MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognitive control; Confirmatory factor analysis; Executive function; Latent variable analysis; Systematic review

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE; AGED; CHILD; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FACTOR ANALYSIS; FEMALE; HUMAN; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; SHORT TERM MEMORY;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; AGED; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FACTOR ANALYSIS, STATISTICAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); MALE; MEMORY, SHORT-TERM; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS;

EID: 85051181461     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000160     Document Type: Article

References (242)

1. Adrover-Roig, D., Sesé, A., Barceló, F., & Palmer, A. (2012). A latent variable approach to executive control in healthy ageing. Brain and Cognition, 78, 284-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.01.005
2. Agostino, A., Johnson, J., & Pascual-Leone, J. (2010). Executive functions underlying multiplicative reasoning: Problem type matters. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105, 286-305. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1016/j.jecp.2009.09.006
3. Aichert, D. S., Wöstmann, N. M., Costa, A., Macare, C., Wenig, J. R., Möller, H. J., Ettinger, U. (2012). Associations between trait impulsivity and prepotent response inhibition. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34, 1016-1032. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1080/13803395.2012.706261
4. Allan, N. P., & Lonigan, C. J. (2011). Examining the dimensionality of effortful control in preschool children and its relation to academic and socioemotional indicators. Developmental Psychology, 47, 905-915. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0023748
5. Allan, N. P., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Exploring dimensionality of effortful control using hot and cool tasks in a sample of preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 122, 33-47. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.11.013
6. Alvarez, J. A., & Emory, E. (2006). Executive function and the frontal lobes: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 16, 17-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11065-006-9002-x
7. Arán-Filippetti, V. (2013). Structure and invariance of executive functioning tasks across socioeconomic status: Evidence from Spanishspeaking children. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 16, 1-15. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2013.102
8. Ardila, A., & Pineda, D. A. (2000). Factor structure of nonverbal cognition. International Journal of Neuroscience, 104, 125-144. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3109/00207450009035013
9. Aron, A. R. (2008). Progress in executive-function research: From tasks to functions to regions to networks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 124-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008. .00561.x
10. Baddeley, A., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Recent advances in learning and motivation (pp. 47-89). New York, NY: Academic Press
11. Baena, E., Allen, P. A., Kaut, K. P., & Hall, R. J. (2010). On age differences in prefrontal function: The importance of emotional/ cognitive integration. Neuropsychologia, 48, 319-333. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.09.021
12. Baggetta, P., & Alexander, P. A. (2016). Conceptualization and operationalization of executive function. Mind, Brain, and Education, 10, 10-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12100
13. Barbey, A. K., Colom, R., & Grafman, J. (2013). Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human intelligence. Neuropsychologia, 51, 1361-1369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.05.017
14. Bardikoff, N., & Sabbagh, M. (2017). The differentiation of executive functioning across development: Insights from developmental cognitive neuroscience. In N. Budwig, E. Turiel, & P. Zelazo (Eds.), New perspectives on human development (pp. 27-46). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316282755. .005
15. Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11, 1-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009085417776
16. Barkley, R. A. (2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. New York, NY: Guilford Press
17. Barroso, F. (1983). An approach to the study of attentional components in auditory tasks. Journal of Auditory Research, 23, 157-180
18. Bell-McGinty, S., Podell, K., Franzen, M., Baird, A. D., & Williams, M. J. (2002). Standard measures of executive function in predicting instrumental activities of daily living in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17, 828-834. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.646
19. Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46, 73-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014. .05.007
20. Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588
21. Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 1641-1660. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
22. Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Jones, L. L. (2009). Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Developmental Review, 29, 180-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002
23. Bettcher, B. M., Mungas, D., Patel, N., Elofson, J., Dutt, S., Wynn, M., Kramer, J. H. (2016). Neuroanatomical substrates of executive functions: Beyond prefrontal structures. Neuropsychologia, 85, 100-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.03.001
24. Booth, J. N., Boyle, J. M., & Kelly, S. W. (2010). Do tasks make a difference? Accounting for heterogeneity of performance of children with reading difficulties on tasks of executive function: Findings from a meta-analysis. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 28, 133-176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/026151009X485432
25. Box, G. P., & Draper, N. R. (1987). Empirical model-building and response surfaces. Oxford, UK: Wiley
26. Brock, L. L., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Nathanson, L., & Grimm, K. J. (2009). The contributions of 'hot' and 'cool' executive function to children's academic achievement, learning-related behaviors, and engagement in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24, 337-349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.06.001
27. Brocki, K. C., & Bohlin, G. (2004). Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 571-593. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326942. dn2602_3
28. Brocki, K. C., & Tillman, C. (2014). Mental set shifting in childhood: The role of working memory and inhibitory control. Infant and Child Development, 23, 588-604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/icd.1871
29. Brookshire, B., Levin, H. S., Song, J., & Zhang, L. (2004). Components of executive function in typically developing and head-injured children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 61-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 87565641.2004.9651922
30. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136-162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
31. Brydges, C. R., Fox, A. M., Reid, C. L., & Anderson, M. (2014). The differentiation of executive functions in middle and late childhood: A longitudinal latent-variable analysis. Intelligence, 47, 34-43. http://dx .doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.08.010
32. Brydges, C. R., Fox, A. M., Reid, C. L., & Anderson, M. (2014). Predictive validity of the N2 and P3 ERP components to executive functioning in children: A latent-variable analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 80
33. Brydges, C. R., Reid, C. L., Fox, A. M., & Anderson, M. (2012). A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children. Intelligence, 40, 458-469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2012.05.006
34. Bull, R., Espy, K. A., Wiebe, S. A., Sheffield, T. D., & Nelson, J. M. (2011). Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: Sources of variation in emergent mathematic achievement. Developmental Science, 14, 679-692. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01012.x
35. Burgess, P. W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp. 79-113). Hove, UK: Psychology Press
36. Cahn-Weiner, D. A., Boyle, P. A., & Malloy, P. F. (2002). Tests of executive function predict instrumental activities of daily living in community-dwelling older individuals. Applied Neuropsychology, 9, 187-191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0903_8
37. Canivez, G. L. (2014). Construct validity of the WISC-IV with a referred sample: Direct versus indirect hierarchical structures. School Psychology Quarterly, 29, 38-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000032
38. Canivez, G. L., & Kush, J. C. (2013). WAIS-IV and WISC-IV structural validity. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 31, 157-169. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734282913478036
39. Carlson, S. M., White, R. E., & Davis-Unger, A. (2014). Evidence for a relation between executive function and pretense representation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 29, 1-16. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1016/j.cogdev.2013.09.001
40. Cassidy, A. R. (2016). Executive function and psychosocial adjustment in healthy children and adolescents: A latent variable modelling investigation. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 292-317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 09297049.2014.994484
41. Chan, R. C., Shum, D., Toulopoulou, T., & Chen, E. Y. (2008). Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 201-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010
42. Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
43. Chen, F. F., West, S. G., & Sousa, K. H. (2006). A comparison of bifactor and second-order models of quality of life. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41, 189-225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr 4102_5
44. Cheung, M. W.-L., & Chan, W. (2005). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling: A two-stage approach. Psychological Methods, 10, 40-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.10.1.40
45. Chow, M., & Conway, A. R. (2015). The scope and control of attention: Sources of variance in working memory capacity. Memory & Cognition, 43, 325-339. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13421-014-0496-9
46. Christopher, M. E., Miyake, A., Keenan, J. M., Pennington, B., DeFries, J. C., Wadsworth, S. J., Olson, R. K. (2012). Predicting word reading and comprehension with executive function and speed measures across development: A latent variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 470-488. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027375
47. Chuderski, A., Taraday, M., Nêcka, E., & Smoleñ, T. (2012). Storage capacity explains fluid intelligence but executive control does not. Intelligence, 40, 278-295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2012.02.010
48. Cinan, S., özen, G., & Hampshire, A. (2013). Confirmatory factor analysis on separability of planning and insight constructs. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 7-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2012.729035
49. Cirino, P. T., Chapieski, L. M., & Massman, P. J. (2000). Card sorting performance and ADHD symptomatology in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22, 245-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/1380-3395(200004) 22:2;1-1;FT245
50. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
51. Collette, F., Hogge, M., Salmon, E., & Van der Linden, M. (2006). Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging. Neuroscience, 139, 209-221. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035
52. Collette, F., Van der Linden, M., Laureys, S., Delfiore, G., Degueldre, C., Luxen, A., & Salmon, E. (2005). Exploring the unity and diversity of the neural substrates of executive functioning. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 409-423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20118
53. Dang, C. P., Braeken, J., Colom, R., Ferrer, E., & Liu, C. (2014). Why is working memory related to intelligence? Different contributions from storage and processing. Memory, 22, 426-441. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1080/09658211.2013.797471
54. Deckel, A. W., & Hesselbrock, V. (1996). Behavioral and cognitive measurements predict scores on the MAST: A 3-year prospective study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20, 1173-1178. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01107.x
55. Decker, S. L., Hill, S. K., & Dean, R. S. (2007). Evidence of construct similarity in executive functions and fluid reasoning abilities. International Journal of Neuroscience, 117, 735-748. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1080/00207450600910085
56. de Frias, C. M., Dixon, R. A., & Strauss, E. (2006). Structure of four executive functioning tests in healthy older adults. Neuropsychology, 20, 206-214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.2.206
57. de Frias, C. M., Dixon, R. A., & Strauss, E. (2009). Characterizing executive functioning in older special populations: From cognitively elite to cognitively impaired. Neuropsychology, 23, 778-791. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/a0016743
58. Della Salla, S., Gray, C., Spinnler, H., & Trivelli, C. (1998). Frontal lobe functioning in man: The riddle revisited. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 13, 663-682
59. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333, 959-964. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
60. Duan, X., Wei, S., Wang, G., & Shi, J. (2010). The relationship between executive functions and intelligence on 11-to 12-year-old children. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 52, 419-431
61. Duggan, E. C., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2015). Executive functioning and intelligence. In S. Goldstein, J. A. Naglieri, & D. Princiotta (Eds.), Handbook of intelligence: Evolutionary theory, historical perspective, and current concepts (pp. 435-458). New York, NY: Springer
62. Edwards, P., Clarke, M., DiGuiseppi, C., Pratap, S., Roberts, I., & Wentz, R. (2002). Identification of randomized controlled trials in systematic reviews: Accuracy and reliability of screening records. Statistics in Medicine, 21, 1635-1640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sim.1190
63. Egeland, J., Landrø, N. I., Tjemsland, E., & Walbaekken, K. (2006). Norwegian norms and factor-structure of phonemic and semantic word list generation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20, 716-728. http://dx .doi.org/10.1080/13854040500351008
64. Engel de Abreu, P. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 974-986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028390
65. Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 309-331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309
66. Eslinger, P. J. (1996). Conceptualizing, describing, and measuring components of executive function. In G. R. Lyons & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory and executive function (pp. 367-395). Baltimore, MD: Brooks Publishing
67. Espy, K. A., Kaufmann, P. M., Glisky, M. L., & McDiarmid, M. D. (2001). New procedures to assess executive functions in preschool children. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15, 46-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/clin .15.1.46.1908
68. Espy, K. A., McDiarmid, M. M., Cwik, M. F., Stalets, M. M., Hamby, A., & Senn, T. E. (2004). The contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematic skills in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 465-486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2601_6
69. Espy, K. A., Sheffield, T. D., Wiebe, S. A., Clark, C. A., & Moehr, M. J. (2011). Executive control and dimensions of problem behaviors in preschool children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 33-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02265.x
70. Ettenhofer, M. L., Hambrick, D. Z., & Abeles, N. (2006). Reliability and stability of executive functioning in older adults. Neuropsychology, 20, 607-613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.5.607
71. Fan, X., Thompson, B., & Wang, L. (1999). Effects of sample size, estimation methods, and model specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 56-83. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540119
72. Fisk, J. E., & Sharp, C. A. (2004). Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 874-890. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/13803390490510680
73. Fleming, K. A., Heintzelman, S. J., & Bartholow, B. D. (2016). Specifying associations between conscientiousness and executive functioning: Mental set shifting, not prepotent response inhibition or working memory updating. Journal of Personality, 84, 348-360. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1111/jopy.12163
74. Floyd, R. G., Bergeron, R., Hamilton, G., & Parra, G. R. (2010). How do executive functions fit with the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model? Some evidence from a joint factor analysis of the Delis-Kaplan executive function system and the Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 721-738. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ pits.20500
75. Fournier-Vicente, S., Larigauderie, P., & Gaonac'h, D. (2008). More dissociations and interactions within central executive functioning: A comprehensive latent-variable analysis. Acta Psychologica, 129, 32-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.04.004
76. Frazier, D. T., Bettcher, B. M., Dutt, S., Patel, N., Mungas, D., Miller, J., Kramer, J. H. (2015). Relationship between insulin-resistance processing speed and specific executive function profiles in neurologically intact older adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21, 622-628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617715. 000624
77. Friedman, N. P., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Wright, K. P., Jr. (2009). Individual differences in childhood sleep problems predict later cognitive executive control. Sleep: Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, 32, 323-333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/32.3.323
78. Friedman, N. P., Haberstick, B. C., Willcutt, E. G., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2007). Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychological Science, 18, 893-900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j .1467-9280.2007.01997.x
79. Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 101-135. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1037/0096-3445.133.1.101
80. Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Altamirano, L. J., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., Rhea, S. A., & Hewitt, J. K. (2016). Stability and change in executive function abilities from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study. Developmental Psychology, 52, 326-340. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/dev0000075
81. Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., Defries, J. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006). Not all executive functions are related to intelligence. Psychological Science, 17, 172-179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j .1467-9280.2006.01681.x
82. Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Robinson, J. L., & Hewitt, J. K. (2011). Developmental trajectories in toddlers' self-restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: A behavioral genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1410-1430. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a0023750
83. Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., Defries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 201-225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201
84. Fuhs, M. W., & Day, J. D. (2011). Verbal ability and executive functioning development in preschoolers at head start. Developmental Psychology, 47, 404-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0021065
85. Gagné, P., & Hancock, G. R. (2006). Measurement model quality, sample size, and solution propriety in confirmatory factor models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41, 65-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/ s15327906mbr4101_5
86. Gansler, D. A., Suvak, M., Arean, P., & Alexopoulos, G. S. (2015). Role of executive dysfunction and dysexecutive behavior in late-life depression and disability. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 1038-1045. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2015.05.003
87. Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 31-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31
88. Garrett, H. E. (1946). A developmental theory of intelligence. American Psychologist, 1, 372-378. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0056380
89. Garza, J. P., Nelson, J. M., Sheffield, T. D., Choi, H., Clark, C. A., Wiebe, S. A., & Espy, K. A. (2014, February). Parsing executive control from foundational cognitive abilities in preschool: Application of the bifactor model to examine developmental change. In K. A. Espy (Chair), The changing nature of executive control in preschool: Using statistical modeling to situate neuroscience in development. Symposium conducted at the Forty-Second Annual Meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Seattle, WA
90. Gay, P., Rochat, L., Billieux, J., d'Acremont, M., & Van der Linden, M. (2008). Heterogeneous inhibition processes involved in different facets of self-reported impulsivity: Evidence from a community sample. Acta Psychologica, 129, 332-339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.08. .010
91. Goschke, T. (2014). Dysfunctions of decision-making and cognitive control as transdiagnostic mechanisms of mental disorders: Advances, gaps, and needs in current research. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 23, 41-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1410
92. Greiff, S., Wüstenberg, S., & Funke, J. (2012). Dynamic problem solving: A new assessment perspective. Applied Psychological Measurement, 36, 189-213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146621612439620
93. Greve, K. W., Stickle, T. R., Love, J. M., Bianchini, K. J., & Stanford, M. S. (2005). Latent structure of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A confirmatory factor analytic study. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 355-364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2004.09.004
94. Grodzinsky, G. M., & Diamond, R. (1992). Frontal lobe functioning in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 427-445. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87565649. 209540536
95. Gustafsson, J. E., & Wolff, U. (2015). Measuring fluid intelligence at age four. Intelligence, 50, 175-185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015. .04.008
96. Hancock, G. R. (2006). Power analysis in covariance structure modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (pp. 69-115). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing
97. Haring, L., Mõttus, R., Koch, K., Trei, M., & Maron, E. (2015). Factorial validity, measurement equivalence and cognitive performance of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) between patients with first-episode psychosis and healthy volunteers. Psychological Medicine, 45, 1919-1929. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S0033291714003018
98. Harvey, D. J., Beckett, L. A., & Mungas, D. M. (2003). Multivariate modeling of two associated cognitive outcomes in a longitudinal study. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 5, 357-365. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/ JAD-2003-5502
99. Hedden, T., & Yoon, C. (2006). Individual differences in executive processing predict susceptibility to interference in verbal working memory. Neuropsychology, 20, 511-528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.5.511
100. Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53-60
101. Howard, S. J., Johnson, J., & Pascual-Leone, J. (2014). Clarifying inhibitory control: Diversity and development of attentional inhibition. Cognitive Development, 31, 1-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2014. .03.001
102. Howard, S. J., & Okely, A. D. (2015). Catching fish and avoiding sharks: Investigating factors that influence developmentally appropriate measurement of preschoolers' inhibitory control. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33, 585-596. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07342829. 14562933
103. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 10705519909540118
104. Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2011). Individual differences in growth in executive function across the transition to school predict externalizing and internalizing behaviors and self-perceived academic success at 6. years of age. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 663-676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.06.005
105. Hughes, C., Ensor, R., Wilson, A., & Graham, A. (2010). Tracking executive function across the transition to school: A latent variable approach. Developmental Neuropsychology, 35, 20-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 87565640903325691
106. Hughes, C., & Graham, A. (2002). Measuring executive functions in childhood: Problems and solutions. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 7, 131-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1475-3588.00024
107. Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Molen, M. W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2017-2036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .neuropsychologia.2006.01.010
108. Hull, R., Martin, R. C., Beier, M. E., Lane, D., & Hamilton, A. C. (2008). Executive function in older adults: A structural equation modeling approach. Neuropsychology, 22, 508-522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0894-4105.22.4.508
109. Ito, T. A., Friedman, N. P., Bartholow, B. D., Correll, J., Loersch, C., Altamirano, L. J., & Miyake, A. (2015). Toward a comprehensive understanding of executive cognitive function in implicit racial bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 187-218. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/a0038557
110. Johnson, M. H. (2000). Functional brain development in infants: Elements of an interactive specialization framework. Child Development, 71, 75-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00120
111. Johnson, M. H. (2011). Interactive specialization: A domain-general framework for human functional brain development? Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 7-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010. .07.003
112. Jurado, M. B., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 213-233. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z
113. Karasinski, C. (2015). Language ability, executive functioning and behaviour in school-age children. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 50, 144-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12104
114. Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2014). The neuropsychological outcomes of concussion: A systematic review of meta-analyses on the cognitive sequelae of mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 28, 321-336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000037
115. Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., Rast, P., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2014). An empirical comparison of the therapeutic benefits of physical exercise and cognitive training on the executive functions of older adults: A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Neuropsychology, 28, 829-845. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000101
116. Kenny, D. A., & Kashy, D. A. (1992). Analysis of the multitraitmultimethod matrix by confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 165-172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.165
117. Keren-Happuch, E., Chen, S. H., Ho, M. H., & Desmond, J. E. (2014). A meta-analysis of cerebellar contributions to higher cognition from PET and fMRI studies. Human Brain Mapping, 35, 593-615. http://dx.doi .org/10.1002/hbm.22194
118. Klauer, K. C., Schmitz, F., Teige-Mocigemba, S., & Voss, A. (2010). Understanding the role of executive control in the implicit association test: Why flexible people have small IAT effects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 63, 595-619. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470210903076826
119. Klenberg, L., Korkman, M., & Lahti-Nuuttila, P. (2001). Differential development of attention and executive functions in 3-to 12-year-old Finnish children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 20, 407-428. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15326942DN2001_6
120. Kline, R. B. (2006). Reverse arrow dynamics: Formative measurement and feedback loops. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (pp. 43-68). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing
121. Kramer, J. H., Mungas, D., Possin, K. L., Rankin, K. P., Boxer, A. L., Rosen, H. J., Widmeyer, M. (2014). NIH EXAMINER: Conceptualization and development of an executive function battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20, 11-19. http://dx.doi .org/10.1017/S1355617713001094
122. Krasny-Pacini, A., Chevignard, M., & Evans, J. (2014). Goal management training for rehabilitation of executive functions: A systematic review of effectiveness in patients with acquired brain injury. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36, 105-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2013. .777807
123. Lambek, R., & Shevlin, M. (2011). Working memory and response inhibition in children and adolescents: Age and organization issues. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 52, 427-432. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1111/j.1467-9450.2011.00899.x
124. Latzman, R. D., & Markon, K. E. (2010). The factor structure and agerelated factorial invariance of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS). Assessment, 17, 172-184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1073191109356254
125. Lee, C. S., & Therriault, D. J. (2013). The cognitive underpinnings of creative thought: A latent variable analysis exploring the roles of intelligence and working memory in three creative thinking processes. Intelligence, 41, 306-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.008
126. Lee, K., Bull, R., & Ho, R. M. (2013). Developmental changes in executive functioning. Child Development, 84, 1933-1953. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/cdev.12096
127. Lee, K., Ng, S. F., Pe, M. L., Ang, S. Y., Hasshim, M. N. A. M., & Bull, R. (2012). The cognitive underpinnings of emerging mathematical skills: Executive functioning, patterns, numeracy, and arithmetic. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 82-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j .2044-8279.2010.02016.x
128. Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 59-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/ 026151003321164627
129. Lerner, M. D., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Executive function among preschool children: Unitary versus distinct abilities. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36, 626-639. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s10862-014-9424-3
130. Levin, H. S., Fletcher, J. M., Kufera, J. A., Harward, H., Lilly, M. A., Mendelsohn, D., Eisenberg, H. M. (1996). Dimensions of cognition measured by the tower of London and other cognitive tasks in headinjured children and adolescents. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12, 17-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87565649609540638
131. Lezak, M. D. (1976). Neuropsychological assessment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
132. Lezak, M. D. (1982). The problem of assessing executive functions. International Journal of Psychology, 17, 281-297. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1080/00207598208247445
133. Lezak, M. D. (1983). Neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press
134. Lin, F., Roiland, R., Chen, D. G. D., & Qiu, C. (2015). Linking cognition and frailty in middle and old age: Metabolic syndrome matters. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 30, 64-71. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1002/gps.4115
135. Luna, B., Marek, S., Larsen, B., Tervo-Clemmens, B., & Chahal, R. (2015). An integrative model of the maturation of cognitive control. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38, 151-170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/ annurev-neuro-071714-034054
136. Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man. New York, NY: Basic Books
137. Makel, M. C., Plucker, J. A., & Hegarty, B. (2012). Replications in psychology research: How often do they really occur? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 537-542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691. 612460688
138. Mann, S. L., Selby, E. A., Bates, M. E., & Contrada, R. J. (2015). Integrating affective and cognitive correlates of heart rate variability: A structural equation modeling approach. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98, 76-86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.07.003
139. Marcovitch, S., O'Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., Weaver, J. M., & Levine, D. W. (2015). A longitudinal assessment of the relation between executive function and theory of mind at 3, 4, and 5 years. Cognitive Development, 33, 40-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev .2014.07.001
140. Marcus, G. F., & Davis, E. (2013). How robust are probabilistic models of higher-level cognition? Psychological Science, 24, 2351-2360. http://dx .doi.org/10.1177/0956797613495418
141. Masten, A. S., Herbers, J. E., Desjardins, C. D., Cutuli, J. J., McCormick, C. M., Sapienza, J. K., Zelazo, P. D. (2012). Executive function skills and school success in young children experiencing homelessness. Educational Researcher, 41, 375-384. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/ 0013189X12459883
142. McAuley, T., & White, D. A. (2011). A latent variables examination of processing speed, response inhibition, and working memory during typical development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 453-468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.009
143. McFall, G. P., Wiebe, S. A., Vergote, D., Jhamandas, J., Westaway, D., & Dixon, R. A. (2014). IDE (rs6583817) polymorphism and pulse pressure are independently and interactively associated with level and change in executive function in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 29, 418-430. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0034656
144. McFall, G. P., Wiebe, S. A., Vergote, D., Westaway, D., Jhamandas, J., & Dixon, R. A. (2013). IDE (rs6583817) polymorphism and type 2 diabetes differentially modify executive function in older adults. Neurobiology of Aging, 34, 2208-2216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging .2013.03.010
145. McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2012). Why does working memory capacity predict variation in reading comprehension? On the influence of mind wandering and executive attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 302-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025250
146. Miller, M. R., Giesbrecht, G. F., Müller, U., McInerney, R. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2012). A latent variable approach to determining the structure of executive function in preschool children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13, 395-423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011. .585478
147. Miller, M. R., Müller, U., Giesbrecht, G. F., Carpendale, J. I., & Kerns, K. A. (2013). The contribution of executive function and social understanding to preschoolers' letter and math skills. Cognitive Development, 28, 331-349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2012.10.005
148. Mitchell, M. B., Shaughnessy, L. W., Shirk, S. D., Yang, F. M., & Atri, A. (2012). Neuropsychological test performance and cognitive reserve in healthy aging and the Alzheimer's disease spectrum: A theoretically driven factor analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18, 1071-1080. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712000859
149. Miyake, A., Emerson, M. J., & Friedman, N. P. (2000). Assessment of executive functions in clinical settings: Problems and recommendations. Seminars in Speech and Language, 21, 169-183. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1055/s-2000-7563
150. Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8-14. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/0963721411429458
151. Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49-100. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1006/cogp.1999.0734
152. Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Rettinger, D. A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001). How are visuospatial working memory, executive functioning, and spatial abilities related? A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 621-640. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1037/0096-3445.130.4.621
153. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151, 264-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135
154. Monette, S., Bigras, M., & Lafrenière, M. A. (2015). Structure of executive functions in typically developing kindergarteners. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 140, 120-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jecp.2015.07.005
155. Müller, U., & Kerns, K. (2015). The development of executive function. In L. S. Liben, U. Müller, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, Vol. 2: Cognitive processes (7th ed., pp. 571-623). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ 9781118963418.childpsy214
156. Muthén, L., & Muthén, B. (2014). MPlus (Version 7.3) [Computer Software]. Los Angeles, CA: Author
157. Nelson, J. M., James, T. D., Choi, H. J., Clark, C. A. C., Wiebe, S. A., & Espy, K. A. (2016). Distinguishing executive control from overlapping foundational cognitive abilities during the preschool period. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 81, 47-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mono.12270
158. Niendam, T. A., Laird, A. R., Ray, K. L., Dean, Y. M., Glahn, D. C., & Carter, C. S. (2012). Meta-analytic evidence for a superordinate cognitive control network subserving diverse executive functions. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 12, 241-268. http://dx.doi.org/10. .3758/s13415-011-0083-5
159. Nieuwenhuis, S., & Monsell, S. (2002). Residual costs in task switching: Testing the failure-to-engage hypothesis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 86-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03196259
160. Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory (pp. 1-18). New York, NY: Plenum Press. http://dx .doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-0629-1_1
161. OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group. (2011). The Oxford levels of evidence 2. Retrieved from http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o5653
162. Oosterlaan, J., Scheres, A., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Which executive functioning deficits are associated with AD/HD, ODD/CD and comorbid AD/HD+ODD/CD? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 69-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-0935-y
163. Packwood, S., Hodgetts, H. M., & Tremblay, S. (2011). A multiperspective approach to the conceptualization of executive functions. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 456-470. http://dx.doi .org/10.1080/13803395.2010.533157
164. Pashler, H., & Harris, C. R. (2012). Is the replicability crisis overblown? Three arguments examined. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 531-536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612463401
165. Pashler, H., & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2012). Editors' introduction to the special section on replicability in psychological science: A crisis of confidence? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 528-530. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612465253
166. Pettigrew, C., & Martin, R. C. (2014). Cognitive declines in healthy aging: Evidence from multiple aspects of interference resolution. Psychology and Aging, 29, 187-204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036085
167. Phillips, L. H. (1997). Do "frontal tests" measure executive function? Issues of assessment and evidence from fluency tests. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp. 191-213). Hove, UK: Psychology Press
168. Pickens, S., Ostwald, S. K., Murphy-Pace, K., & Bergstrom, N. (2010). Systematic review of current executive function measures in adults with and without cognitive impairments. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, 8, 110-125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-1609. .2010.00170.x
169. Pineda, D. A., & Merchan, V. (2003). Executive function in young Colombian adults. International Journal of Neuroscience, 113, 397-410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207450390162164
170. Pribram, K. H. (1973). The primate frontal cortex-Executive of the brain. In K. H. Pribram & A. R. Luria (Eds.), Psychophysiology of the frontal lobes (pp. 293-314). New York, NY: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/B978-0-12-564340-5.50019-6
171. Rabin, L. A., Barr, W. B., & Burton, L. A. (2005). Assessment practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada: A survey of INS, NAN, and APA Division 40 members. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 33-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2004.02.005
172. Rabin, L. A., Paolillo, E., & Barr, W. B. (2016). Stability in test-usage practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada over a 10-year period: A follow-up survey of INS and NAN members. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 31, 206-230. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1093/arclin/acw007
173. R Core Team. (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer Software]. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing
174. Reynolds, C. R., & MacNeill Horton, A. M. (2008). Assessing executive functions: A life-span perspective. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 875-892. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pits.20332
175. Roberts, N., & Grover, V. (2009). Theory development in information systems research using structural equation modeling: Evaluation and recommendations. In Y. K. Dwivedi (Ed.), Handbook of research on contemporary theoretical models in information systems (pp. 77-94). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ 978-1-60566-659-4.ch005
176. Rodríguez-Aranda, C., & Sundet, K. (2006). The frontal hypothesis of cognitive aging: Factor structure and age effects on four frontal tests among healthy individuals. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 167, 269-287. http://dx.doi .org/10.3200/GNTP.167.3.269-287
177. Roebers, C. M., Röthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., Cimeli, P., Michel, E., & Jäger, K. (2014). The relation between cognitive and motor performance and their relevance for children's transition to school: A latent variable approach. Human Movement Science, 33, 284-297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2013.08.011
178. Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., & Jankowski, J. J. (2011). Modeling a cascade of effects: The role of speed and executive functioning in preterm/fullterm differences in academic achievement. Developmental Science, 14, 1161-1175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01068.x
179. Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., & Jankowski, J. J. (2012). Implications of infant cognition for executive functions at age 11. Psychological Science, 23, 1345-1355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612444902
180. Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.18637/jss .v048.i02
181. Royall, D. R., Lauterbach, E. C., Cummings, J. L., Reeve, A., Rummans, T. A., Kaufer, D. I., Coffey, C. E. (2002). Executive control function: A review of its promise and challenges for clinical research. A report from the Committee on Research of the American Neuropsychiatric Association. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14, 377-405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/jnp.14.4.377
182. Royall, D. R., & Palmer, R. F. (2014). "Executive functions" cannot be distinguished from general intelligence: Two variations on a single theme within a symphony of latent variance. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 369
183. Salthouse, T. A., Atkinson, T. M., & Berish, D. E. (2003). Executive functioning as a potential mediator of age-related cognitive decline in normal adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 566-594. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.132.4.566
184. Samyn, V., Roeyers, H., Bijttebier, P., Rosseel, Y., & Wiersema, J. R. (2014). Assessing effortful control in typical and atypical development: Are questionnaires and neuropsychological measures interchangeable? A latent-variable analysis. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 36, 587-599. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.018
185. Sánchez-Cubillo, I., Periáñez, J. A., Adrover-Roig, D., Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Ríos-Lago, M., Tirapu, J., & Barceló, F. (2009). Construct validity of the Trail Making Test: Role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 438-450. http://dx.doi .org/10.1017/S1355617709090626
186. Sanderson, S., Tatt, I. D., & Higgins, J. P. (2007). Tools for assessing quality and susceptibility to bias in observational studies in epidemiology: A systematic review and annotated bibliography. International Journal of Epidemiology, 36, 666-676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/ dym018
187. Sapkota, S., Vergote, D., Westaway, D., Jhamandas, J., & Dixon, R. A. (2015). Synergistic associations of catechol-O-methyltransferase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor with executive function in aging are selective and modified by apolipoprotein E. Neurobiology of Aging, 36, 249-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.06.020
188. Scherer, R., & Tiemann, R. (2014). Evidence on the effects of task interactivity and grade level on thinking skills involved in complex problem solving. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 11, 48-64. http://dx .doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.10.003
189. Schmidt, M. (2003). Hit or miss? Insight into executive functions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 962-964. http://dx .doi.org/10.1017/S1355617703230162
190. Schoemaker, K., Bunte, T., Wiebe, S. A., Espy, K. A., Deković, M., & Matthys, W. (2012). Executive function deficits in preschool children with ADHD and DBD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 111-119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02468.x
191. Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323-338. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338
192. Scott, J. C., Matt, G. E., Wrocklage, K. M., Crnich, C., Jordan, J., Southwick, S. M., Schweinsburg, B. C. (2015). A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 105-140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0038039
193. Senn, T. E., Espy, K. A., & Kaufmann, P. M. (2004). Using path analysis to understand executive function organization in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 445-464. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1207/s15326942dn2601_5
194. Shahabi, S. R., Abad, F. J., & Colom, R. (2014). Short-term storage is a stable predictor of fluid intelligence whereas working memory capacity and executive function are not: A comprehensive study with Iranian schoolchildren. Intelligence, 44, 134-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .intell.2014.04.004
195. Shao, Z., Janse, E., Visser, K., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). What do verbal fluency tasks measure? Predictors of verbal fluency performance in older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 772. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2014.00772
196. Shing, Y. L., Lindenberger, U., Diamond, A., Li, S. C., & Davidson, M. C. (2010). Memory maintenance and inhibitory control differentiate from early childhood to adolescence. Developmental Neuropsychology, 35, 679-697. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2010.508546
197. Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22, 1359-1366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632
198. Snyder, H. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 81-132. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028727
199. Spiess, M. A., Meier, B., & Roebers, C. M. (2015). Prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition are already differentiated in young elementary school children: Evidence from latent factor modeling. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 74, 229-241. http://dx.doi.org/10. .1024/1421-0185/a000165
200. St. Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 59, 745-759. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 17470210500162854
201. Stuss, D. T., & Levine, B. (2002). Adult clinical neuropsychology: Lessons from studies of the frontal lobes. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 401-433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135220
202. Testa, R., Bennett, P., & Ponsford, J. (2012). Factor analysis of nineteen executive function tests in a healthy adult population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27, 213-224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ arclin/acr112
203. Teuber, H. L. (1972). Unity and diversity of frontal lobe functions. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 32, 615-656
204. Thibeau, S., McFall, G. P., Wiebe, S. A., Anstey, K. J., & Dixon, R. A. (2016). Genetic factors moderate everyday physical activity effects on executive functions in aging: Evidence from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. Neuropsychology, 30, 6-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ neu0000217
205. Thomas, M. L., Brown, G. G., Gur, R. C., Moore, T. M., Patt, V. M., Nock, M. K., the Army STARRS Collaborators. (2015). Measurement of latent cognitive abilities involved in concept identification learning. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37, 653-669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2015.1042358
206. Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Salthouse, T. A. (2009). Methods and measures: Confirmatory factor analysis and multidimensional scaling for construct validation of cognitive abilities. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33, 277-285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025409. 104489
207. Tuleya, L. G. (Ed.). (2009). Thesaurus of psychological index terms (Rev. 11th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
208. Unsworth, N. (2010). On the division of working memory and long-term memory and their relation to intelligence: A latent variable approach. Acta Psychologica, 134, 16-28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2009. .11.010
209. Unsworth, N., Spillers, G. J., & Brewer, G. A. (2011). Variation in verbal fluency: A latent variable analysis of clustering, switching, and overall performance. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 64, 447-466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 17470218.2010.505292
210. Usai, M. C., Viterbori, P., Traverso, L., & De Franchis, V. (2014). Latent structure of executive function in five-and six-year-old children: A longitudinal study. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11, 447-462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2013.840578
211. Vandenbroucke, J. P., von Elm, E., Altman, D. G., Gøtzsche, P. C., Mulrow, C. D., Pocock, S. J., the STROBE initiative. (2007). Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 147, W163-W194. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-147-8-20071. 0160-00010-w1
212. van der Sluis, S., de Jong, P. F., & van der Leij, A. (2007). Executive functioning in children, and its relations with reasoning, reading, and arithmetic. Intelligence, 35, 427-449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell .2006.09.001
213. van der Ven, S. H. G., Kroesbergen, E. H., Boom, J., & Leseman, P. P. M. (2012). The development of executive functions and early mathematics: A dynamic relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 100-119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02035.x
214. van der Ven, S. H. G., Kroesbergen, E. H., Boom, J., & Leseman, P. P. (2013). The structure of executive functions in children: A closer examination of inhibition, shifting, and updating. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31, 70-87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.2012.02079.x
215. Vaughan, L., & Giovanello, K. (2010). Executive function in daily life: Age-related influences of executive processes on instrumental activities of daily living. Psychology and Aging, 25, 343-355. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a0017729
216. Visu-Petra, L., Benga, O., & Miclea, M. (2007). Dimensions of attention and executive functioning in 5-to 12-years-old children: Neuropsychological assessment with the NEPSY battery. Cognition, Brain, Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 11, 585-608
217. Visu-Petra, L., Cheie, L., Benga, O., & Miclea, M. (2012). The structure of executive functions in preschoolers: An investigation using the NEPSY battery. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 33, 627-631. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.01.197
218. Viterbori, P., Usai, M. C., Traverso, L., & De Franchis, V. (2015). How preschool executive functioning predicts several aspects of math achievement in Grades 1 and 3: A longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 140, 38-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp .2015.06.014
219. Was, C. A. (2008). Further evidence that not all executive functions are equal. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 3, 399-407. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2478/v10053-008-0004-5
220. Watkins, M. W. (2010). Structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition among a national sample of referred students. Psychological Assessment, 22, 782-787. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0020043
221. Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson
222. Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (5th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Pearson
223. Weiss, L. G., Keith, T. Z., Zhu, J., & Chen, H. (2013). WAIS-IV and clinical validation of the four-and five-factor interpretative approaches. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 31, 94-113. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/0734282913478030
224. Weiss, L. G., Keith, T. Z., Zhu, J., & Chen, H. (2013). WISC-IV and clinical validation of the four-and five-factor interpretative approaches. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 31, 114-131. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/0734282913478032
225. Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, K. L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010). The development of cognitive skills and gains in academic school readiness for children from low-income families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 43-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016738
226. Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988). Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 4, 199-230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 87565648809540405
227. Werner, H. (1957). The concept of development from a comparative and organismic point of view. In D. B. Harris (Ed.), The concept of development: An issue in the study of human behavior (pp. 125-148). Minneapolis, MN: Jones Press
228. Wiebe, S. A., Espy, K. A., & Charak, D. (2008). Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure. Developmental Psychology, 44, 575-587. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.575
229. Wiebe, S. A., Sheffield, T., Nelson, J. M., Clark, C. A., Chevalier, N., & Espy, K. A. (2011). The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 436-452. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.008
230. Willoughby, M., & Blair, C. (2011). Test-retest reliability of a new executive function battery for use in early childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 17, 564-579. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.554390
231. Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., & the Family Life Project Investigators. (2016). Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement. Psychological Assessment, 28, 319-330. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000152
232. Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., Greenberg, M., & the Family Life Project Investigators. (2010). The measurement of executive function at age 3 years: Psychometric properties and criterion validity of a new battery of tasks. Psychological Assessment, 22, 306-317. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/a0018708
233. Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., Greenberg, M., & the Family Life Project Investigators. (2012). The measurement of executive function at age 5: Psychometric properties and relationship to academic achievement. Psychological Assessment, 24, 226-239. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a0025361
234. Willoughby, M., Holochwost, S. J., Blanton, Z. E., & Blair, C. B. (2014). Executive functions: Formative versus reflective measurement. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives, 12, 69-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15366367.2014.929453
235. Willoughby, M. T., Wirth, R. J., Blair, C. B., & the Family Life Project Investigators. (2012). Executive function in early childhood: Longitudinal measurement invariance and developmental change. Psychological Assessment, 24, 418-431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025779
236. Wolf, E. J., Harrington, K. M., Clark, S. L., & Miller, M. W. (2013). Sample size requirements for structural equation models: An evaluation of power, bias, and solution propriety. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73, 913-934. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001316441. 3495237
237. Wolff, M., Krönke, K. M., Venz, J., Kräplin, A., Bühringer, G., Smolka, M. N., & Goschke, T. (2016). Action versus state orientation moderates the impact of executive functioning on real-life self-control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 1635-1653. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/xge0000229
238. Wu, K. K., Chan, S. K., Leung, P. W. L., Liu, W. S., Leung, F. L. T., & Ng, R. (2011). Components and developmental differences of executive functioning for school-aged children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 319-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2010.549979
239. Xu, F., Han, Y., Sabbagh, M. A., Wang, T., Ren, X., & Li, C. (2013). Developmental differences in the structure of executive function in middle childhood and adolescence. PLoS ONE, 8, e77770. http://dx.doi .org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077770
240. Yeh, Z. (2013). Role of theory of mind and executive function in explaining social intelligence: A structural equation modeling approach. Aging & Mental Health, 17, 527-534. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607863. .2012.758235
241. Yehene, E., & Meiran, N. (2007). Is there a general task switching ability? Acta Psychologica, 126, 169-195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy .2006.11.007
242. Ziegler, G., Dahnke, R., Winkler, A. D., & Gaser, C. (2013). Partial least squares correlation of multivariate cognitive abilities and local brain structure in children and adolescents. NeuroImage, 82, 284-294. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.088