Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement

Psychological Assessment

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 319-330

  Willoughby, Michael T ^a   Blair, Clancy B ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^b NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Early childhood; Executive function; Formative measurement

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT; ANIMAL GO NO GO; ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; CHILD; CHILDHOOD; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CONTROLLED STUDY; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION TEST; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; KINDERGARTEN; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PICK THE PICTURE GAME; PREDICTION; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOMETRY; SILLY SOUND STROOP; SOMETHING THE SAME GAME; SPATIAL CONFLICT; SPATIAL CONFLICT ARROW; TASK PERFORMANCE; TEST RETEST RELIABILITY; WORKING MEMORY SPAN; AGE; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHYSIOLOGY; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; REPRODUCIBILITY;

AGE FACTORS; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS;

EID: 84933576273     PISSN: 10403590     EISSN: 1939134X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/pas0000152     Document Type: Article

References (53)

1. Blair, C. B., & Ursache, A. (2011). A bidirectional model of executive functions and self-regulation. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (2nd ed., pp. 300-320). New York, NY:Guilford Press.
2. Blalock, H. M. (Ed.). (1974). Measurement in the social sciences: Theories and strategies. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
3. Bollen, K. A. (1984). Multiple indicators: Internal consistency or no necessary relationship? Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 18, 377-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00227593
4. Bollen, K. A. (2007). Interpretational confounding is due to misspecification, not to type of indicator: Comment on Howell, Breivik, and Wilcox (2007). Psychological Methods, 12, 219-228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 1082-989X.12.2.219
5. Bollen, K. A., & Bauldry, S. (2011). Three Cs in measurement models:Causal indicators, composite indicators, and covariates. Psychological Methods, 16, 265-284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024448
6. Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2006). Latent curve models: A structural equation perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
7. Bollen, K., & Lennox, R. (1991). Conventional wisdom on measurement:A structural equation perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 305-314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.2.305
8. Bollen, K. A., Lennox, R. D., & Dahly, D. L. (2009). Practical application of the vanishing tetrad test for causal indicator measurement models: An example from health-related quality of life. Statistics in Medicine, 28, 1524-1536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sim.3560
9. Bollen, K. A., & Ting, K. F. (1993). Confirmatory tetrad analysis. Sociological Methodology, 23, 147-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/271009
10. Bollen, K. A., & Ting, K. F. (1998). Bootstrapping a test statistic for vanishing tetrads. Sociological Methods & Research, 27, 77-102. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/0049124198027001002
11. Bollen, K. A., & Ting, K. F. (2000). A tetrad test for causal indicators. Psychological Methods, 5, 3-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.5.1.3
12. Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Heerden, J. (2003). The theoretical status of latent variables. Psychological Review, 110, 203-219.
13. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2011). Building the brain's "air traffic control" system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function: Working Paper No. 11. Retrieved from http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu
14. Chrysikou, E. G., Weber, M. J., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2014). A matched filter hypothesis for cognitive control. Neuropsychologia, 62, 341-355.
15. Cole, M. W., Reynolds, J. R., Power, J. D., Repovs, G., Anticevic, A., & Braver, T. S. (2013). Multi-task connectivity reveals flexible hubs for adaptive task control. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 1348-1355. http://dx .doi.org/10.1038/nn.3470
16. Coltman, T., Devinney, T. M., Midgley, D. F., & Venaik, S. (2008). Formative versus reflective measurement models: Two applications of formative measurement. Journal of Business Research, 61, 1250-1262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.013
17. Diamantopoulos, A. (2008). Formative indicators: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Business Research, 61, 1201-1202. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.008
18. Diamantopoulos, A., & Papadopoulos, N. (2010). Assessing the crossnational invariance of formative measures: Guidelines for international business researchers. Journal of International Business Studies, 41, 360-370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.37
19. Diamantopoulos, A., Riefler, P., & Roth, K. P. (2008). Advancing formative measurement models. Journal of Business Research, 61, 1203-1218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.009
20. Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 335-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721412453722
21. Dill, B. T. (2001). Rediscovering rural America. In J. R. Blau (Ed.), Blackwell companions to sociology (pp. 196-210). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
22. Edwards, J. R. (2011). The fallacy of formative measurement. Organizational Research Methods, 14, 370 -388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1094428110378369
23. Espy, K., Clark, C., Chevalier, N., Nelson, J., Sheffield, T., Garza, J.,...Wiebe, S. (in press). The changing nature of executive control in preschool. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.
24. Ettenhofer, M. L., Hambrick, D. Z., & Abeles, N. (2006). Reliability and stability of executive functioning in older adults. Neuropsychology, 20, 607-613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.5.607
25. Fornell, C., & Bookstein, F. L. (1982). Two structural equation models:LISREL and PLS applied to consumer exit-voice theory. Journal of Marketing Research, 19, 440-452. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3151718
26. Hancock, G. R., & Mueller, R. O. (2001). Rethinking construct reliability within latent variable systems. In R. Cudeck, S. du Toit, & D. Sörbom (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: Present and future-A Festschrift in honor of Karl Jöreskog (pp. 195-216). Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
27. Heise, D. R. (1972). Employing nominal variables, induced variables, and block variables in path analyses. Sociological Methods & Research, 1, 147-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004912417200100201
28. Hipp, J. R., Bauer, D. J., & Bollen, K. A. (2005). Conducting tetrad tests of model fit and contrasts of tetrad-nested models: A new SAS macro. Structural Equation Modeling, 12, 76-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/ s15328007sem1201_4
29. Hipp, J. R., & Bollen, K. A. (2003). Model fit in structural equation models with censored, ordinal, and dichotomous variables: Testing vanishing tetrads. Sociological Methodology, 33, 267-305. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.0081-1750.2003.00133.x
30. Howell, R. D., Breivik, E., & Wilcox, J. B. (2007a). Is formative measurement really measurement? Reply to Bollen (2007) and Bagozzi (2007). Psychological Methods, 12, 238-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 1082-989X.12.2.238
31. Howell, R. D., Breivik, E., & Wilcox, J. B. (2007b). Reconsidering formative measurement. Psychological Methods, 12, 205-218. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.2.205
32. MacCallum, R. C., & Browne, M. W. (1993). The use of causal indicators in covariance structure models: Some practical issues. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 533-541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.533
33. MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Jarvis, C. B. (2005). The problem of measurement model misspecification in behavioral and organizational research and some recommended solutions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 710-730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.710
34. Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ cogp.1999.0734
35. Munakata, Y., Herd, S. A., Chatham, C. H., Depue, B. E., Banich, M. T., & O'Reilly, R. C. (2011). A unified framework for inhibitory control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 453-459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .tics.2011.07.011
36. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998 -2013). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.) Los Angeles, CA: Author.
37. Petersen, S. E., & Posner, M. I. (2012). The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 35, 73-89. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150525
38. Raghunathan, T. E., Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1996). Comparing correlated but nonoverlapping correlations. Psychological Methods, 1, 178-183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.178
39. Rock, D. A., & Pollack, J. M. (2002). Early childhood longitudinal study:Kindergarten class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K), Psychometric Report for kindergarten through first grade. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
40. Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Cognitive applications. San Diego, CA: Sattler Publisher, Inc.
41. Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Practitioner review:Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 131-143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12001
42. Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Family Life Key Investigators. (2013). The Family Life Project: An epidemiological and developmental study of young children living in poor rural communities. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78, 1-150.
43. Wechsler, D. (2002). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III; 3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
44. Widaman, K. F., Ferrer, E., & Conger, R. D. (2010). Factorial invariance within longitudinal structural equation models: Measuring the same construct across time. Child Development Perspectives, 4, 10-18. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00110.x
45. Wiebe, S. A., Espy, K. A., & Charak, D. (2008). Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure. Developmental Psychology, 44, 575-587. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.575
46. Wilcox, J. B., Howell, R. D., & Breivik, E. (2008). Questions about formative measurement. Journal of Business Research, 61, 1219-1228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.010
47. Willoughby, M., & Blair, C. (2011). Test-retest reliability of a new executive function battery for use in early childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 17, 564 -579. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.554390
48. Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., & Greenberg, M. (2010). The measurement of executive function at age 3 years: Psychometric properties and criterion validity of a new battery of tasks. Psychological Assessment, 22, 306-317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018708
49. Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., & Greenberg, M. (2012). The measurement of executive function at age 5: Psychometric properties and relationship to academic achievement. Psychological Assessment, 24, 226-239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025361
50. Willoughby, M. T., Holochwost, S. J., Blanton, Z. E., & Blair, C. B. (2014). Executive functions: Formative versus reflective measurement. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives, 12, 69-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15366367.2014.929453
51. Willoughby, M. T., Pek, J., & Blair, C. B. (2013). Measuring executive function in early childhood: A focus on maximal reliability and the derivation of short forms. Psychological Assessment, 25, 664-670. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031747
52. Willoughby, M. T., Wirth, R. J., Blair, C. B., & Family Life Project Investigators. (2012). Executive function in early childhood: Longitudinal measurement invariance and developmental change. Psychological Assessment, 24, 418-431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025779
53. Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Examiner's manual. Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside.