Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates

Developmental Review

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 180-200

  Best, John R ^a   Miller, Patricia H ^a   Jones, Lara L ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

^b WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Academic achievement; Cognitive control; Cognitive development; Executive functions; Inhibition

Indexed keywords

EID: 68949218825     PISSN: 02732297     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Alloway T.P., Gathercole S.E., and Pickering S.J. Verbal and visuospatial short-term and WM in children: Are they separable?. Child Development 77 (2006) 1698-1716
2. Altemeier L., Jones J., Abbott R.D., and Berninger V.W. Executive functions in becoming writing readers and reading writers: Note taking and report writing in third and fifth graders. Developmental Neuropsychology 29 (2006) 161-173
3. Amso D., and Casey B.J. Beyond what develops when: Neuroimaging may inform how cognition changes with development. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15 (2006) 24-29
4. Anderson P. Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology 8 (2002) 71-82
5. Anderson V.A., Anderson P., Northam E., Jacobs R., and Catroppa C. Development of executive functions through late childhood and adolescence in an Australian sample. Developmental Neuropsychology 20 (2001) 385-406
6. Archibald S.J., and Kerns K.A. Identification and description of new tests of executive functioning in children. Child Neuropsychology 5 (1999) 115-129
7. Ardila A., Rosselli M., Matute E., and Guajardo S. The influence of the parents' educational level on the development of executive functions. Developmental Neuropsychology 28 (2005) 539-560
8. Aron A.R. Progress in executive-function research: From tasks to functions to regions to networks. Current Directions in Psychological Science 17 (2008) 124-129
9. Asato M.R., Sweeney J.A., and Luna B. Cognitive processes in the development of TOL performance. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2259-2269
10. Bäckman L., Nyberg L., Lindenberger U., Li S., and Farde L. The correlative triad among aging, dopamine, and cognition: Current status and future prospects. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30 (2006) 791-807
11. Baker K., Segalowitz S.J., and Ferlisi M.-C. The effect of differing scoring methods for the tower of London task on developmental patterns of performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 15 (2001) 309-313
12. Basak C., Boot W.R., Voss M.W., and Kramer A.F. Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?. Psychology and Aging 23 (2008) 765-777
13. Bell M.A., and Wolfe C.D. Emotion and cognition: An intricately bound developmental process. Child Development 75 (2004) 366-370
14. Bell M.A., and Wolfe C.D. Changes in brain functioning from infancy to early childhood: Evidence from EEG power and coherence during WM tasks. Developmental Neuropsychology 31 (2007) 21-38
15. Bell M.A., Wolfe C.D., and Adkins D.R. Frontal lobe development during infancy and childhood. In: Coch D., Dawson G., and Fischer K.W. (Eds). Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Typical development (2007), Guilford, New York 247-276
16. Bernstein J.H., and Waber D.P. Executive capacities from a developmental perspective. In: Meltzer L. (Ed). Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2007), Guilford Press, New York, NY 39-54
17. Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H., submitted for publication. Developmental perspectives on executive function.
18. Beveridge M., Jarrold C., and Pettit E. An experimental approach to executive fingerprinting in young children. Infant and Child Development 11 (2002) 107-123
19. Blair C., and Razza R.P. Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development 78 (2007) 647-663
20. Braver T.S., and Barch D.M. A theory of cognitive control, aging cognition, and neuromodulation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 26 (2002) 809-817
21. Brocki K.C., and Bohlin G. Executive functions in children aged 6-13: A dimensional and developmental study. Developmental Neuropsychology 26 (2004) 571-593
22. Bull R., Johnston R.S., and Roy J.A. Exploring the roles of the visual-spatial sketch pad and central executive in children's arithmetical skills: Views from cognition and developmental neuropsychology. Developmental Neuropsychology 15 (1999) 421-442
23. Bull R., and Scerif G. Executive functioning as a predictor of children's mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and WM. Developmental Neuropsychology 19 (2001) 273-293
24. Bunch K., Andrews G., and Halford G. Complexity effects on the children's gambling task. Cognitive Development 22 (2007) 376-383
25. Burke S.N., and Barnes C.A. Neural plasticity in the ageing brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7 (2006) 30-40
26. Bush G., Luu P., and Posner M.I. Cognitive and emotional influences in anterior cingulate cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (2000) 215-222
27. Carlson S.M., and Moses L.J. Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development 72 (2001) 1032-1053
28. Casey B.J., Amso D., and Davidson M.C. Learning about learning and development with modern imaging technology. In: Munakata Y., and Johnson M.H. (Eds). Processes of change in brain and cognitive development: Attention and performance Vol. 21 (2006), Oxford University Press, Oxford 513-533
29. Casey B.J., Trainor R.J., Orendi J.L., Schubert A.B., Nystrom L.E., Giedd J.N., et al. A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 9 (1997) 835-847
30. Cepeda N.J., Kramer A.F., and Gonzales de Sather J.C.M. Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance. Developmental Psychology 37 (2001) 715-730
31. Colcombe S.J., Kramer A.F., Erickson K.I., and Scalf P. The implications of cortical recruitment and brain morphology for individual differences in inhibitory function in aging humans. Psychology and Aging 20 (2005) 363-375
32. Crone E.A., Somsen R.J.M., Zanolie K., and Molen M.W.v.d. A heart rate analysis of developmental change in feedback processing and rule shifting from childhood to early adulthood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 95 (2006) 99-116
33. Das J.P., Naglieri J.A., and Kirby J.R. Assessment of cognitive processes: The PASS theory of intelligence (1994), Allyn and Bacon, Boston
34. Davidson M.C., Amso D., Anderson L.C., and Diamond A. Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2037-2078
35. Davis E.P., Bruce J., Snyder K., and Nelson C.A. The X trials: Neural correlates of an inhibitory control task in children and adults. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15 (2003) 432-443
36. Davis, C. L., Tomprowski, P. D., McDowell, J. E., Austin, B. P., Miller, P. H., Yanasak, N. E. et al. (in press). Exercise improves executive function and alters neural activation in overweight children: A randomized controlled trial. Health Psychology.
37. Davis C.L., Tomporowski P.D., Boyle C.A., Waller J.L., Miller P.H., Naglieri J.A., et al. Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children's cognitive functioning: A randomized controlled trial. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 78 (2007) 510-519
38. Dempster F.N. The rise and fall of the inhibitory mechanism: Toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging. Developmental Review 12 (1992) 45-75
39. Diamond A., and Taylor C. Development of an aspect of executive control: Development of the abilities to remember what I said and to "Do as I say, not as I do". Developmental Psychobiology 29 (1996) 315-334
40. Dibbets P., and Jolles J. The switch task for children: Measuring mental flexibility in young children. Cognitive Development 21 (2006) 60-71
41. Durston S., Davidson M.C., Tottenham N., Galvan A., Spicer J., Fossella J.A., et al. A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development. Developmental Science 9 (2006) 1-20
42. Durston S., Thomas K.M., Yang Y., Ulug A.M., Zimmerman R.D., and Casey B.J. A neural basis for the development of inhibitory control. Developmental Science 5 (2002) 9-16
43. Eigsti I.-M., Zayas V., Mischel W., Shoda Y., Ayduk O., Dadlani M.B., et al. Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Science 17 (2006) 478-484
44. Eling P., Derckx K., and Maes R. On the historical and conceptual background of the Wisconsin card sorting test. Brain and Cognition 67 (2008) 247-253
45. Ellefson, M. R., Johnstone, E. L., Blagrove, E. L., & Chater, N. (2006, July). Can developmental changes in switch costs be explained by age alone? Poster presented at the 28th annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Vancouver, BC, Canada. In R. Sun (Ed.), The Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (p. 2476). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
46. Fahie C.M., and Symons D.K. Executive functioning and theory of mind in children clinically referred for attention and behavior problems. Applied Developmental Psychology 24 (2003) 51-73
47. Fincham J.M., and Anderson J.R. Distinct roles of the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex in the acquisition and performance of a cognitive skill. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 103 (2006) 12941-12946
48. Fischer K.W., and Daley S.G. Connecting cognitive science and neuroscience to education: Potentials and pitfalls in inferring executive processes. In: Meltzer L. (Ed). Executive function in education: From theory to practice (2007), Guilford Press, New York 55-73
49. Fisk J.E., and Sharp C.A. Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 26 (2004) 874-890
50. Friedman N.P., Haberstick B.C., Willcutt E.G., Miyake A., Young S.E., Corley R.P., et al. Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychological Science 18 (2007) 893-900
51. Galambos N.L., MacDonald S.W.S., Naphtali C., Cohen A., and de Frias C.M. Cognitive performance differentiates selected aspects of psychosocial maturity in adolescence. Developmental Neuropsychology 28 (2005) 473-492
52. Garon N., Bryson S.E., and Smith I.M. Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin 134 (2008) 31-60
53. Gathercole S.E., Pickering S.J., Ambridge B., and Wearing H. The structure of WM from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology 40 (2004) 177-190
54. Gioia G.A., Isquith P.K., Guy S.C., and Kenworthy L. Behavior rating inventory of executive function. Child Neuropsychology 6 (2000) 235-238
55. Gogtay N., Giedd J.N., Lusk L., Hayashi K.M., Greenstein D., Vaituzis A.C., et al. Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 101 (2004) 8174-8179
56. Goldman-Rakic P.S. Cellular basis of WM. Neuron 14 (1995) 477-485
57. González C., Fuentes L.J., Carranza J.A., and Estévez A.F. Temperament and attention in the self-regulation of 7-year-old children. Personality and Individual Differences 30 (2001) 931-946
58. Handley S.J., Capon A., Beveridge M., Dennis I., and Evans J.S.B.T. WM and inhibitory control in the development of children's reasoning. Thinking and Reasoning 10 (2004) 175-196
59. Hartman M., Bolton E., and Fehnel S.E. Accounting for age differences on the Wisconsin card sorting test: Decreased WM, not flexibility. Psychology and Aging 16 (2001) 385-399
60. Hooper S.R., Swartz C.W., Wakely M.B., de Kruif R.E.L., and Montgomery J.W. Executive functions in elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Journal of Learning Disabilities 36 (2002) 57-68
61. Hooper S.R., Wakely M.B., de Kruif R.E.L., and Swartz C.W. Aptitude-treatment interactions revisited: Effect of metacognitive intervention on subtypes of written expression in elementary school students. Developmental Neuropsychology 29 (2006) 217-241
62. Hughes C. Executive function in preschoolers: Links with theory of mind and verbal ability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 16 (1998) 233-253
63. Hughes C., and Ensor R. Executive function and theory of mind: Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4. Developmental Psychology 43 (2007) 1447-1459
64. Hughes C., and Graham A. Measuring executive functions in childhood: Problems and solutions?. Child and Adolescent Mental Health 7 (2002) 131-142
65. Huizinga M., Dolan C.V., and Molen M.W.v.d. Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2017-2036
66. Huizinga M., and van der Molen M.W. Age-group differences in set-switching and set-maintenance on the Wisconsin card sorting task. Developmental Neuropsychology 31 (2007) 193-215
67. Im-Bolter N., Johnson J., and Pascual-Leone J. Processing limitations in children with specific language impairment: The role of executive function. Child Development 77 (2006) 1822-1841
68. Isquith P.K., Gioia G.A., and Espy K.A. Executive function in preschool children: Examination through everyday behavior. Developmental Neuropsychology 26 (2004) 403-422
69. Jacobson, L. A., & Pianta, R. C. (2007, April). Executive function skills and children's academic and social adjustment to sixth grade. Poster presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston.
70. Jarvis H.L., and Gathercole S.E. Verbal and non-verbal WM and achievements on national curriculum tests at 11 and 14 years of age. Educational and Child Psychology 20 (2003) 123-140
71. Jurado M.B., and Rosselli M. The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review 17 (2007) 213-233
72. Klenberg L., Korkman M., and Lahti-Nuuttila P. Differential development of attention and executive functions in 3- to 12-year-old Finnish children. Developmental Neuropsychology 20 (2001) 407-428
73. Klimkeit E.I., Mattingley J.B., Sheppard D.M., Farrow M., and Bradshaw J.L. Examining the development of attention and executive functions in children with a novel paradigm. Child Neuropsychology 10 (2004) 201-211
74. Klingberg T., Fernell E., Olesen P.J., Johnson M., Gustafsson P., Dahlstrom K., et al. Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 44 2 (2005) 177-186
75. Klingberg T., Forssberg H., and Westerberg H. Increased brain activity in frontal and parietal cortex underlies the development of visuospatial WM capacity during childhood. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14 (2002) 1-10
76. Konishi S., Nakajima K., Uchida I., Kameyama M., Nakahara K., Sekihara K., et al. Transient activation of inferior prefrontal cortex during cognitive set shifting. Nature Neuroscience 1 (1998) 80-84
77. Kray J., Eber J., and Lindenberger U. Age differences in executive functioning across the lifespan: The role of verbalization in task preparation. Acta Psychologica 115 (2004) 143-165
78. Kroesbergen E.H., van Luit J.E.H., and Naglieri J.A. Mathematical learning difficulties and PASS cognitive processes. Journal of Learning Disabilities 36 (2003) 574-582
79. Lamm C., Zelazo P.D., and Lewis M.D. Neural correlates of cognitive control in childhood and adolescence: Disentangling the contributions of age and executive function. Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2139-2148
80. Lehto J.E., Juujärvi P., Kooistra L., and Pulkkinen L. Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 21 (2003) 59-80
81. Leon-Carrion J., Garcia-Orza J., and Perez-Santamaria F.J. Development of the inhibitory component of the executive functions in children and adolescents. International Journal of Neuroscience 114 (2004) 1291-1311
82. Liston C., Watts R., Tottenham N., Davidson M.C., Niogi S., Ulug A.M., et al. Frontostriatal microstructure modulates efficient recruitment of cognitive control. Cerebral Cortex 16 (2006) 553-560
83. Luciana M. The neural and functional development of human prefrontal cortex. In: Krasnegor N.A., Lyon G.R., and Goldman-Rakic P.S. (Eds). Development of the prefrontal cortex (1997), Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore 157-177
84. Luciana M. Practitioner review: Computerized assessment of neuropsychological function in children: clinical and research applications of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44 (2003) 649-663
85. Luciana M., Conklin H.M., Hooper C.J., and Yarger R.S. The development of nonverbal WM and executive control processes in adolescents. Child Development 76 (2005) 697-712
86. Luciana, M., Schissel, A. M., Collins, P. F., & Lim, K. O. (2007, April). The adolescent development of planning skills as assessed by the tower of London task: Behavioral and brain correlates. Poster presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston.
87. Luciana M., and Nelson C.A. The functional emergence of prefrontally-guided WM systems in four- to eight-year-old children. Neuropsychologia 36 (1998) 273-293
88. Luciana M., and Nelson C.A. Assessment of neuropsychological function through use of the Cambridge neuropsychological testing automated battery: Performance in 4- to 12-year-old children. Developmental Neuropsychology 22 (2002) 595-624
89. Luna B., Garver K.E., Urban T.A., Lazar N.A., and Sweeney J.A. Maturation of cognitive processes from late childhood to adulthood. Child Development 75 (2004) 1357-1372
90. Luria A.R. Higher cortical functions in man (1966), Basic Books, NY
91. Mäntylä T., Carelli M.G., and Forman H. Time monitoring and executive functioning in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 96 (2007) 1-19
92. McCrea S.M., Mueller J.H., and Parrila R.K. Quantitative analyses of schooling effects on executive function in young children. Child Neuropsychology 5 (1999) 242-250
93. Miyake A., Friedman N.P., Emerson M.J., Witzki A.H., Howerter A., and Wager T.D. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology 41 (2000) 49-100
94. Moscovitch M., and Winocur R. The frontal cortex and working with memory. In: Stuss D.T., and Knight R.T. (Eds). Principles of frontal lobe function (2002), Oxford University Press, New York 188-209
95. Moses L.J., and Baldwin D.A. What can the study of cognitive development reveal about children's ability to appreciate and cope with advertising?. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 24 (2005) 186-201
96. Naglieri J.A., and Das J.P. Cognitive assessment system (1997), Riverside, Itasca, IL
97. Naglieri J.A., and Gottling S.H. Mathematics instruction and PASS cognitive processes: An intervention study. Journal of Learning Disabilities 30 (1997) 513-520
98. Nagy Z., Westerberg H., and Klingberg T. Maturation of white matter is associated with the development of cognitive functions during childhood. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16 (2004) 1227-1233
99. Nigg J.T. On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin 126 (2000) 220-246
100. Nilsson J.P., Söderström M., Karlsson A.U., Lekander M., Åkerstedt T., Lindroth N.E., et al. Less effective executive functioning after one night's sleep deprivation. Journal of Sleep Research 14 (2005) 1-6
101. O'Hare E.D., and Sowell E.R. Imaging developmental changes in gray and white matter in the human brain. In: Nelson C.A., and Luciana M. (Eds). Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience. 2nd ed. (2008), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 23-38
102. Olson E.A., and Luciana M. The development of prefrontal cortex functions in adolescence: Theoretical models and a possible dissociation of dorsal versus ventral subregions. In: Nelson C.A., and Luciana M. (Eds). Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience. 2nd ed. (2008), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 575-590
103. Protopapas A., Archonti A., and Skaloumbakas C. Reading ability is negatively related to stroop interference. Cognitive Psychology 54 (2007) 251-282
104. Resnick S.M., Pham D.L., Kraut M.A., Zonderman A.B., and Davatzikos C. Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging studies of older adults: A shrinking brain. The Journal of Neuroscience 23 (2003) 3295-3301
105. Rhodes M.G. Age-related differences in performance on the Wisconsin card sorting test: A meta-analytic review. Psychology and Aging 19 (2004) 482-494
106. Riggs N.R., Blair C.B., and Greenberg M.T. Concurrent and 2-year longitudinal relations between executive function and the behavior of 1st and 2nd grade children. Child Neuropsychology 9 (2003) 267-276
107. Roberts R.J., and Pennington B.F. An interactive framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology 12 (1996) 105-126
108. Roebers C.M., and Schneider W. Individual differences in young children's suggestibility: Relations to event memory, language abilities, WM, and executive functioning. Cognitive Development 20 (2005) 427-447
109. Romine C.B., and Reynolds C.R. A model of the development of frontal lobe function: Findings from a meta-analysis. Applied Neuropsychology 12 (2005) 190-201
110. Rothbart M.K. Temperament, development, and personality. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007) 207-212
111. Rothbart M.K., Ahadi S.A., Hershey K.L., and Fisher P. Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The children's behavior questionnaire. Child Development 72 (2001) 1394-1408
112. Rothbart M.K., and Bates J.C. Temperament. In: Eisenburg N. (Ed). Social, emotional, and personality development. In: Damon W. (Ed). Handbook of child psychology Vol. 3 (1998), Wiley, New York 105-176
113. Rubia K., Smith A.B., Woolley J., Nosarti C., Heyman I., Taylor E., et al. Progressive increase of frontostriatal brain activation from childhood to adulthood during event-related tasks of cognitive control. Human Brain Mapping 27 (2006) 973-993
114. Rueda M.R., Fan J., McCandliss B.D., Halparin J.D., Gruder D.B., Lercari L.P., et al. Development of attentional networks in childhood. Neuropsychologia 42 (2004) 1029-1040
115. Rueda M.R., Posner M.I., and Rothbart M.K. The development of executive attention: Contributions to the emergence of self-regulation. Developmental Neuropsychology 28 (2005) 573-594
116. Ruffman T., Rustin C., Garnham W., and Parkin A.J. Source monitoring and false memories in children: Relation to certainty and executive functioning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 80 (2001) 95-111
117. Sabbagh M.A., Xu F., Carlson S.M., Moses L.J., and Lee K. The development of executive functioning and theory of mind: A comparison of Chinese and US preschoolers. Psychological Science 17 7 (2006) 4-81
118. Salthouse T.A., Fristoe N.M., and Rhee S.H. How localized are age-related effects on neuropsychological measures?. Neuropsychology 10 (1996) 272-285
119. Scherf K.S., Sweeney J.A., and Luna B. Brain basis of developmental change in visuospatial WM. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18 (2006) 1045-1058
120. Senn T.E., Espy K.A., and Kaufmann P.M. Using path analysis to understand executive function organization in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology 26 (2004) 445-464
121. Shimamura A.P. The role of the prefrontal cortex in dynamic filtering. Psychobiology 28 (2000) 207-218
122. Simonds J., Kieras J.E., Rueda M.R., and Rothbart M.K. Effortful control, executive attention, and emotional regulation in 7-10-year-old children. Cognitive Development 22 (2007) 474-488
123. Simpson A., and Riggs K.J. Inhibitory and WM demands of the day-night task in children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 23 (2005) 471-486
124. Smith A.B., Taylor E., Brammer M., and Rubia K. Neural correlates of switching set as measured in fast, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping 21 (2004) 247-256
125. Somsen R.J.M. The development of attention regulation in the Wisconsin card sorting task. Developmental Science 10 (2007) 664-680
126. St. Clair-Thompson H.L., and Gathercole S.E. Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and WM. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 59 (2006) 745-759
127. Steinberg L.S. Risk-taking in adolescence: New perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007) 55-59
128. Stuss D.T., and Benson D.F. Neuropsychological studies of frontal lobes. Psychological Bulletin 95 (1984) 3-28
129. Stuss D.T., Levine B., Alexander M.P., Hong J., Palumbo C., Hamer L., et al. Wisconsin card sorting test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage: Effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes. Neuropsychologia 38 (2000) 388-402
130. Tomporowski P.D., Davis C.L., Miller P.H., and Naglieri J.A. Exercise and children's intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review 20 (2008) 111-131
131. van der Schoot M., Licht R., Horsley T.M., and Sergeant J.A. Inhibitory deficits in reading disability depend on subtype: Guessers but not spellers. Child Neuropsychology 6 (2000) 297-312
132. von Hippel W. Aging, executive functioning, and social control. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16 (2007) 240-244
133. Waber D.P., Gerber E.B., Turcios V.Y., Wagner E.R., and Forbes P.W. Executive functions and performance on high-stakes testing in children from urban schools. Developmental Neuropsychology 29 (2006) 459-477
134. Wechsler D. Manual for the Wechsler intelligence scale for children-Revised (1974), Psychological Corporation, New York
135. Welsh M.C., Pennington B.F., and Groisser D.B. A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children. Developmental Neuropsychology 7 (1991) 131-149
136. Weyandt L.L. Executive functioning in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (2005), Erlbaum, Mahway, NJ
137. Wiebe S.A., Espy K.A., and Charak D. Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure. Developmental Psychology 44 (2008) 575-587
138. Wolfe C.D., and Bell M.A. WM and inhibitory control in early childhood: Contributions from physiology, temperament, and language. Developmental Psychobiology 44 (2004) 68-83
139. Wood A.G., and Smith E. Pediatric neuroimaging studies: A window to neurocognitive development of the frontal lobes. In: Anderson V., Jacobs R., and Anderson P. (Eds). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective (2008), Taylor & Francis, New York 203-217
140. Zelazo P.D., Craik F.I.M., and Booth L. Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychologica 115 (2004) 167-183
141. Zelazo P.D., Müller U., and Frye D. The development of executive function. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 68 (2003) 11-27
142. Zelazo P.D., Qu L., and Müller U. Hot and cool aspects of executive function: Relations in early development. In: Schneider W., Schumann-Hengsteler R., and Sodian B. (Eds). Young children's cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, WM, verbal ability, and theory of mind (2005), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah 71-94