Oral and intestinal sweet and fat tasting: Impact of receptor polymorphisms and dietary modulation for metabolic disease

Nutrition Reviews

Volumn 73, Issue 5, 2015, Pages 318-334

  Cvijanovic, Nada ^a,b   Feinle Bisset, Christine ^a,c   Young, Richard L ^a,b,c,d   Little, Tanya J ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^b SOUTH AUSTRALIAN HEALTH AND MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^d ROYAL ADELAIDE HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Fat; Fatty acids; Gastrointestinal receptors; Non caloric sweeteners; Nutrient sensing; Obesity; Oral receptors; Sugars; Taste; Type 2 diabetes

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; CD36 ANTIGEN; CHOLECYSTOKININ; FAT; FATTY ACID FFAR1 RECEPTOR; FATTY ACID FFAR4 RECEPTOR; FATTY ACID GPR119 RECEPTOR; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONE; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER; INCRETIN; PEPTIDE YY; RECEPTOR; SWEETENING AGENT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; FAT INTAKE; SUGAR INTAKE;

ARTICLE; CALORIC INTAKE; FOOD INTAKE; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; INTESTINE EPITHELIUM; LIPID DIET; MOUTH CAVITY; MOUTH MUCOSA; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; SATIETY; SMALL INTESTINE; SWEETNESS; TASTE BUD; TASTE PREFERENCE; DIET; FAT INTAKE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMAN; METABOLIC DISEASES; METABOLISM; MOUTH; PHYSIOLOGY; SUGAR INTAKE; TASTE;

DIET; DIETARY FATS; DIETARY SUCROSE; ENERGY INTAKE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMANS; INTESTINE, SMALL; METABOLIC DISEASES; MOUTH; OBESITY; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC; TASTE;

EID: 84954201297     PISSN: 00296643     EISSN: 17534887     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuu026     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Alemany M. Adjustment to dietary energy availability: from starvation to overnutrition. RSC Advances. 2013;3:1636-1651.
2. De Silva A, Salem V, Matthews PM, et al. The use of functional MRI to study appetite control in the CNS. Exp Diabetes Res. 2012: doi:10.1155/2012/764017.
3. Power ML, Schulkin J. Anticipatory physiological regulation in feeding biology: cephalic phase responses. Appetite. 2008;50:194-206.
4. Smeets PA, Erkner A, de Graaf C. Cephalic phase responses and appetite. Nutr Rev. 2010;68:643-655.
5. Guh DP, Zhang W, Bansback N, et al. The incidence of co-morbidities related to obesity and overweight: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:88.
6. Konner M, Eaton SB. Paleolithic nutrition: twenty-five years later. Nutr Clin Pract. 2010;25:594-602.
7. Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastian A, et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:341-354.
8. Fasano A, Shea-Donohue T. Mechanisms of disease: the role of intestinal barrier function in the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal autoimmune diseases. Nat Clin Pract Gastr. 2005;2:416-422.
9. Depoortere I. Taste receptors of the gut: emerging roles in health and disease. Gut. 2014;63:179-190.
10. Cummings DE, Overduin J. Gastrointestinal regulation of food intake. J Clin Invest. 2007;117:13-23.
11. Tolhurst G, Reimann F, Gribble F. Intestinal sensing of nutrients. In: H-G Joost, ed. Appetite Control. Vol. 209. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2012:309-335.
12. Rindi G, Leiter AB, Kopin AS, et al. The "normal" endocrine cell of the gut: changing concepts and new evidences. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1014:1-12.
13. Lieverse RJ, Jansen JB, Masclee AA, et al. Effect of a low dose of intraduodenal fat on satiety in humans: studies using the type A cholecystokinin receptor antagonist loxiglumide. Gut. 1994;35:501-505.
14. Feinle-Bisset C, Patterson M, Ghatei MA, et al. Fat digestion is required for suppression of ghrelin and stimulation of peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide secretion by intraduodenal lipid. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;289: E948-E953.
15. Feinle C, Chapman IM, Wishart J, et al. Plasma glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) responses to duodenal fat and glucose infusions in lean and obese men. Peptides. 2002;23:1491-1495.
16. Egerod KL, Engelstoft MS, Grunddal KV, et al. A major lineage of enteroendocrine cells coexpress CCK, secretin, GIP, GLP-1, PYY, and neurotensin but not somatostatin. Endocrinology. 2012;153:5782-5795.
17. Creutzfeldt W, Ebert R. New developments in the incretin concept. Diabetologia. 1985;28:565-573.
18. Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, et al. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:5992-5995.
19. Cummings DE, Foster-Schubert KE, Overduin J. Ghrelin and energy balance: focus on current controversies. Curr drug targets. 2005;6:153-169.
20. Tanaka T, Katsuma S, Adachi T, et al. Free fatty acids induce cholecystokinin secretion through GPR120. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2008;377: 523-527.
21. Hirasawa A, Tsumaya K, Awaji T, et al. Free fatty acids regulate gut incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion through GPR120. Nat Med. 2005;11:90-94.
22. Moran AW, Al-Rammahi MA, Arora DK, et al. Expression of Na+/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) is enhanced by supplementation of the diet of weaning piglets with artificial sweeteners. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:637-646.
23. Gerspach AC, Steinert RE, Schonenberger L, et al. The role of the gut sweet taste receptor in regulating GLP-1, PYY, and CCK release in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011;301:E317-E325.
24. Janssen S, Laermans J, Verhulst PJ, et al. Bitter taste receptors and alpha-gustducin regulate the secretion of ghrelin with functional effects on food intake and gastric emptying. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:2094-2099.
25. Matsumura S, Mizushige T, Yoneda T, et al. GPR expression in the rat taste bud relating to fatty acid sensing. Biomed Res-Tokyo. 2007;28:49-55.
26. Martin C, Passilly-Degrace P, Chevrot M, et al. Lipid-mediated release of GLP-1 by mouse taste buds from circumvallate papillae: putative involvement of GPR120 and impact on taste sensitivity. J Lipid Res. 2012;53:2256-2265.
27. Cartoni C, Yasumatsu K, Ohkuri T, et al. Taste preference for fatty acids is mediated by GPR40 and GPR120. J Neurosci. 2010;30:8376-8382.
28. Ichimura A, Hirasawa A, Poulain-Godefroy O, et al. Dysfunction of lipid sensor GPR120 leads to obesity in both mouse and human. Nature. 2012;483: 350-354.
29. Duca FA, Swartz TD, Sakar Y, et al. Decreased intestinal nutrient response in dietinduced obese rats: role of gut peptides and nutrient receptors. Int J Obes. 2013; 37:375-381.
30. Kawai T, Fushiki T. Importance of lipolysis in oral cavity for orosensory detection of fat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;285:R447-R454.
31. Itoh Y, Kawamata Y, Harada M, et al. Free fatty acids regulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells through GPR40. Nature. 2003;422:173-176.
32. Edfalk S, Steneberg P, Edlund H. Gpr40 is expressed in enteroendocrine cells and mediates free fatty acid stimulation of incretin secretion. Diabetes. 2008;57: 2280-2287.
33. Liou AP, Lu X, Sei Y, et al. The G-protein-coupled receptor GPR40 directly mediates long-chain fatty acid-induced secretion of cholecystokinin. Gastroenterology. 2011;140:903-912.
34. Lan H, Hoos LM, Liu L, et al. Lack of FFAR1/GPR40 does not protect mice from high-fat diet-induced metabolic disease. Diabetes. 2008;57:2999-3006.
35. Steneberg P, Rubins N, Bartoov-Shifman R, et al. The FFA receptor GPR40 links hyperinsulinemia, hepatic steatosis, and impaired glucose homeostasis in mouse. Cell Metab. 2005;1:245-258.
36. Latour MG, Alquier T, Oseid E, et al. GPR40 is necessary but not sufficient for fatty acid stimulation of insulin secretion in vivo. Diabetes. 2007;56: 1087-1094.
37. Briscoe CP, Tadayyon M, Andrews JL, et al. The orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR40 is activated by medium and long chain fatty acids. J Biol Chem. 2003; 278:11303-11311.
38. Kebede M, Alquier T, Latour MG, et al. The fatty acid receptor GPR40 plays a role in insulin secretion in vivo after high-fat feeding. Diabetes. 2008;57:2432-2437.
39. Lauffer LM, Iakoubov R, Brubaker PL. GPR119 is essential for oleoylethanolamide- induced glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion from the intestinal enteroendocrine L-cell. Diabetes. 2009;58:1058-1066.
40. Lan H, Vassileva G, Corona A, et al. GPR119 is required for physiological regulation of glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion but not for metabolic homeostasis. J Endocrinol. 2009;201:219-230.
41. Overton HA, Babbs AJ, Doel SM, et al. Deorphanization of a G protein-coupled receptor for oleoylethanolamide and its use in the discovery of small-molecule hypophagic agents. Cell Metab. 2006;3:167-175.
42. Hansen HS, Rosenkilde MM, Holst JJ, et al. GPR119 as a fat sensor. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2012;33:374-381.
43. Chu ZL, Carroll C, Alfonso J, et al. A role for intestinal endocrine cell-expressed g protein-coupled receptor 119 in glycemic control by enhancing glucagon-like Peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic Peptide release. Endocrinology. 2008;149:2038-2047.
44. Laugerette F, Passilly-Degrace P, Patris B, et al. CD36 involvement in orosensory detection of dietary lipids, spontaneous fat preference, and digestive secretions. J Clin Invest. 2005;115:3177-3184.
45. Simons PJ, Kummer JA, Luiken JJ, et al. Apical CD36 immunolocalization in human and porcine taste buds from circumvallate and foliate papillae. Acta Histochem. 2011;113:839-843.
46. Drover VA, Ajmal M, Nassir F, et al. CD36 deficiency impairs intestinal lipid secretion and clearance of chylomicrons from the blood. J Clin Invest. 2005;115: 1290-1297.
47. Zhang X-J, Zhou L-H, Ban X, et al. Decreased expression of CD36 in circumvallate taste buds of high-fat diet induced obese rats. Acta Histochem. 2011;113:663-667.
48. Poirier H, Degrace P, Niot I, et al. Localization and regulation of the putative membrane fatty-acid transporter (FAT) in the small intestine. Comparison with fatty acid-binding proteins (FABP). Eur J Biochem. 1996;238:368-373.
49. Lobo MV, Huerta L, Ruiz-Velasco N, et al. Localization of the lipid receptors CD36 and CLA-1/SR-BI in the human gastrointestinal tract: towards the identification of receptors mediating the intestinal absorption of dietary lipids. J Histochem Cytochem. 2001;49:1253-1260.
50. Schwartz GJ, Fu J, Astarita G, et al. The lipid messenger OEA links dietary fat intake to satiety. Cell Metab. 2008;8:281-288.
51. Nelson G, Hoon MA, Chandrashekar J, et al. Mammalian sweet taste receptors. Cell. 2001;106:381-390.
52. Margolskee RF, Dyer J, Kokrashvili Z, et al. T1R3 and gustducin in gut sense sugars to regulate expression of Na+-glucose cotransporter 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:15075-15080.
53. Jang HJ, Kokrashvili Z, Theodorakis MJ, et al. Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:15069-15074.
54. Dyer J, Salmon KS, Zibrik L, et al. Expression of sweet taste receptors of the T1R family in the intestinal tract and enteroendocrine cells. Biochem Soc Trans. 2005; 33:302-305.
55. Young RL, Sutherland K, Pezos N, et al. Expression of taste molecules in the upper gastrointestinal tract in humans with and without type 2 diabetes. Gut. 2009; 58:337-346.
56. Young RL, Chia B, Isaacs NJ, et al. Disordered control of intestinal sweet taste receptor expression and glucose absorption in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2013;62: 3532-3541.
57. Yoshida A, Takata K, Kasahara T, et al. Immunohistochemical localization of Na(+)-dependent glucose transporter in the rat digestive tract. Histochem J. 1995;27:420-426.
58. Gorboulev V, Schurmann A, Vallon V, et al. Na(+)-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 is pivotal for intestinal glucose absorption and glucose-dependent incretin secretion. Diabetes. 2012;61:187-196.
59. Dyer J, Wood IS, Palejwala A, et al. Expression of monosaccharide transporters in intestine of diabetic humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2002;282: G241-G248.
60. Stearns AT, Balakrishnan A, Rhoads DB, et al. Rapid upregulation of sodium-glucose transporter SGLT1 in response to intestinal sweet taste stimulation. Ann Surg. 2010;251:865-871.
61. Lindemann B. Receptors and transduction in taste. Nature. 2001;413:219-225.
62. Breslin PA. An evolutionary perspective on food and human taste. Curr Biol. 2013;23:R409-R418.
63. Steinert RE, Beglinger C. Nutrient sensing in the gut: interactions between chemosensory cells, visceral afferents and the secretion of satiation peptides. Physiol Behav. 2011;105:62-70.
64. Daly K, Al-Rammahi M, Arora DK, et al. Expression of sweet receptor components in equine small intestine: relevance to intestinal glucose transport. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;303:R199-R208.
65. Xu H, Staszewski L, Tang H, et al. Different functional roles of T1R subunits in the heteromeric taste receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:14258-14263.
66. Liu D, Liman ER. Intracellular Ca2+ and the phospholipid PIP2 regulate the taste transduction ion channel TRPM5. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:15160-15165.
67. Corson SL, Kim M, Mistretta CM, et al. Gustatory solitary tract development: A role for neuropilins. Neuroscience. 2013;252:35-44.
68. Maller O, Desor JA. Effect of taste on ingestion by human newborns. In: Bosma JF, ed. Oral Sensation and Perception: Development in the Infant and Fetus. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC; 1973.
69. Mennella JA, Beauchamp GK. Early flavor experiences: research update. Nutr Rev. 1998;56:205-211.
70. Anderson GH. Sugars, sweetness, and food intake. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;62: 195S-202S.
71. Bartoshuk LM, Duffy VB, Hayes JE, et al. Psychophysics of sweet and fat perception in obesity: problems, solutions and new perspectives. Philos T Roy Soc B. 2006;361:1137-1148.
72. Burge JC, Schaumburg JZ, Choban PS, et al. Changes in patients' taste acuity after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for clinically severe obesity. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995; 95:666-670.
73. Naslund E, Melin I, Gryback P, et al. Reduced food intake after jejunoileal bypass: a possible association with prolonged gastric emptying and altered gut hormone patterns. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66:26-32.
74. Eny KM, Wolever TM, Corey PN, et al. Genetic variation in TAS1R2 (Ile191Val) is associated with consumption of sugars in overweight and obese individuals in 2 distinct populations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:1501-1510.
75. Fushan AA, Simons CT, Slack JP, et al. Allelic polymorphism within the TAS1R3 promoter is associated with human taste sensitivity to sucrose. Curr Biol. 2009; 19:1288-1293.
76. Hamid YH, Vissing H, Holst B, et al. Studies of relationships between variation of the human G protein-coupled receptor 40 Gene and Type 2 diabetes and insulin release. Diabetic Med. 2005;22:74-80.
77. Ogawa T, Hirose H, Miyashita K, et al. GPR40 gene Arg211His polymorphism may contribute to the variation of insulin secretory capacity in Japanese men. Metabolism. 2005;54:296-299.
78. Vettor R, Granzotto M, De Stefani D, et al. Loss-of-function mutation of the GPR40 gene associates with abnormal stimulated insulin secretion by acting on intracellular calcium mobilization. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93: 3541-3550.
79. Pepino MY, Love-Gregory L, Klein S, et al. The fatty acid translocase gene CD36 and lingual lipase influence oral sensitivity to fat in obese subjects. J Lipid Res. 2012;53:561-566.
80. Keller KL, Liang LC, Sakimura J, et al. Common variants in the CD36 gene are associated with oral fat perception, fat preferences, and obesity in African Americans. Obesity. 2012;20:1066-1073.
81. Bokor S, Legry V, Meirhaeghe A, et al. Single-nucleotide polymorphism of CD36 locus and obesity in European adolescents. Obesity. 2010;18:1398-1403.
82. Heni M, Mussig K, Machicao F, et al. Variants in the CD36 gene locus determine whole-body adiposity, but have no independent effect on insulin sensitivity. Obesity. 2011;19:1004-1009.
83. Mainland JD, Matsunami H. Taste perception: how sweet it is (to be transcribed by you). Current Biol. 2009;19:R655-R656.
84. Kim UK, Wooding S, Riaz N, et al. Variation in the human TAS1R taste receptor genes. Chem Senses. 2006;31:599-611.
85. Hofer D, Puschel B, Drenckhahn D. Taste receptor-like cells in the rat gut identified by expression of alpha-gustducin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1996;93: 6631-6634.
86. Young RL. Sensing via intestinal sweet taste pathways. Front Neurosci. 2011;5: Article 23.
87. Mace OJ, Affleck J, Patel N, et al. Sweet taste receptors in rat small intestine stimulate glucose absorption through apical GLUT2. J Physiol. 2007;582:379-392.
88. Kokrashvili Z, Mosinger B, Margolskee RF. Taste signaling elements expressed in gut enteroendocrine cells regulate nutrient-responsive secretion of gut hormones. Clin Nutr. 2009;90:822S-825S.
89. Hass N, Schwarzenbacher K, Breer H. T1R3 is expressed in brush cells and ghrelin-producing cells of murine stomach. Cell Tissue Res. 2010;339:493-504.
90. Moriya R, Shirakura T, Ito J, et al. Activation of sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 ameliorates hyperglycemia by mediating incretin secretion in mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2009;297:E1358-E1365.
91. Shirazi-Beechey SP, Moran AW, Bravo D, et al. Nonruminant nutrition symposium: intestinal glucose sensing and regulation of glucose absorption: implications for swine nutrition. J Anim Sci. 2011;89:1854-1862.
92. Roder PV, Geillinger KE, Zietek TS, et al. The role of SGLT1 and GLUT2 in intestinal glucose transport and sensing. PLoS One. 2014;9:e89977.
93. Singh SK, Bartoo AC, Krishnan S, et al. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) stimulates transepithelial glucose transport. Obesity. 2008;16: 2412-2416.
94. Loflin P, Lever JE. HuR binds a cyclic nucleotide-dependent, stabilizing domain in the 3' untranslated region of Na(+)/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1) mRNA. FEBS Lett. 2001;509:267-271.
95. Bates SL, Sharkey KA, Meddings JB. Vagal involvement in dietary regulation of nutrient transport. Am J Physiol. 1998;274:G552-G560.
96. Guan X, Karpen HE, Stephens J, et al. GLP-2 receptor localizes to enteric neurons and endocrine cells expressing vasoactive peptides and mediates increased blood flow. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:150-164.
97. Nelson DW, Sharp JW, Brownfield MS, et al. Localization and activation of glucagon- like peptide-2 receptors on vagal afferents in the rat. Endocrinology. 2007; 148:1954-1962.
98. Shirazi-Beechey SP, Moran AW, Batchelor DJ, et al. Glucose sensing and signalling; regulation of intestinal glucose transport. Proc Nutr Soc. 2011;70: 185-193.
99. Rayner CK, Schwartz MP, van Dam PS, et al. Small intestinal glucose absorption and duodenal motility in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97: 3123-3130.
100. Horowitz M, O'Donovan D, Jones KL, et al. Gastric emptying in diabetes: clinical significance and treatment. Diabetic Med. 2002;19:177-194.
101. Bytzer P, Talley NJ, Leemon M, et al. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms associated with diabetes mellitus: a population-based survey of 15,000 adults. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:1989-1996.
102. Toft-Nielsen MB, Damholt MB, Madsbad S, et al. Determinants of the impaired secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 in type 2 diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:3717-3723.
103. Vilsboll T, Krarup T, Deacon CF, et al. Reduced postprandial concentrations of intact biologically active glucagon-like peptide 1 in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes. 2001;50:609-613.
104. Malik VS, Hu FB. Sweeteners and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes: the role of sugar-sweetened beverages. Curr Diab Rep. 2012;12:195-203.
105. Pereira MA. Diet beverages and the risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease: a review of the evidence. Nutr Rev. 2013;71:433-440.
106. Raben A, Vasilaras TH, Moller AC, et al. Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:721-729.
107. Fagherazzi G, Vilier A, Saes Sartorelli D, et al. Consumption of artificially and sugar-sweetened beverages and incident type 2 diabetes in the Etude Epidemiologique aupres des femmes de la Mutuelle Generale de l'Education Nationale-European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;97:517-523.
108. Brown RJ, Walter M, Rother KI. Ingestion of diet soda before a glucose load augments glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion. Diabetes care. 2009;32:2184-2186.
109. Brown RJ, Walter M, Rother KI. Effects of diet soda on gut hormones in youths with diabetes. Diabetes care. 2012;35:959-964.
110. Wu T, Bound MJ, Standfield SD, et al. Artificial sweeteners have no effect on gastric emptying, glucagon-like Peptide-1, or glycemia after oral glucose in healthy humans. Diabetes care. 2013;36:e202-e203.
111. Ma J, Bellon M, Wishart JM, et al. Effect of the artificial sweetener, sucralose, on gastric emptying and incretin hormone release in healthy subjects. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2009;296:G735-G739.
112. Fujita Y, Wideman RD, Speck M, et al. Incretin release from gut is acutely enhanced by sugar but not by sweeteners in vivo. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2009;296:E473-E479.
113. Steinert RE, Frey F, Topfer A, et al. Effects of carbohydrate sugars and artificial sweeteners on appetite and the secretion of gastrointestinal satiety peptides. Br J Nutr. 2011;105:1320-1328.
114. Bryant CE, Wasse LK, Astbury N, et al. Non-nutritive sweeteners: no class effect on the glycaemic or appetite responses to ingested glucose. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014;68:629-663.
115. Sato S, Hokari R, Kurihara C, et al. Dietary lipids and sweeteners regulate glucagon- like peptide-2 secretion. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2013;304: G708-G714.
116. Zheng Y, Sarr MG. Effect of the artificial sweetener, acesulfame potassium, a sweet taste receptor agonist, on glucose uptake in small intestinal cell lines. J Gastrointest Surg. 2013;17:153-158.
117. Galindo MM, Voigt N, Stein J, et al. G protein-coupled receptors in human fat taste perception. Chem Senses. 2012;37:123-139.
118. Stewart JE, Feinle-Bisset C, Golding M, et al. Oral sensitivity to fatty acids, food consumption and BMI in human subjects. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:145-152.
119. Mattes RD. Is there a fatty acid taste?. Annu Rev Nutr. 2009;29:305-327.
120. Okada S, York DA, Bray GA, et al. Differential inhibition of fat intake in two strains of rat by the peptide enterostatin. Am J Physiol. 1992;262:R1111-1116.
121. Stewart JE, Keast RS. Recent fat intake modulates fat taste sensitivity in lean and overweight subjects. Int J Obes. 2012;36:834-842.
122. Stewart JE, Seimon RV, Otto B, et al. Marked differences in gustatory and gastrointestinal sensitivity to oleic acid between lean and obese men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:703-711.
123. Matzinger D, Degen L, Drewe J, et al. The role of long chain fatty acids in regulating food intake and cholecystokinin release in humans. Gut. 2000;46: 688-693.
124. Hunt JN, Knox MT. A relation between the chain length of fatty acids and the slowing of gastric emptying. J Physiol. 1968;194:327-336.
125. Meyer JH, Hlinka M, Tabrizi Y, et al. Chemical specificities and intestinal distributions of nutrient-driven satiety. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:R1293-R1307.
126. McLaughlin J, Grazia Luca M, Jones MN, et al. Fatty acid chain length determines cholecystokinin secretion and effect on human gastric motility. Gastroenterology. 1999;116:46-53.
127. Feltrin KL, Little TJ, Meyer JH, et al. Effects of intraduodenal fatty acids on appetite, antropyloroduodenal motility, and plasma CCK and GLP-1 in humans vary with their chain length. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2004;287: R524-R533.
128. Feltrin KL, Little TJ, Meyer JH, et al. Comparative effects of intraduodenal infusions of lauric and oleic acids on antropyloroduodenal motility, plasma cholecystokinin and peptide YY, appetite, and energy intake in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1181-1187.
129. Gilbertson TA, Liu L, York DA, et al. Dietary fat preferences are inversely correlated with peripheral gustatory fatty acid sensitivity. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998;855: 165-168.
130. Waguri T, Goda T, Kasezawa N, et al. The combined effects of genetic variations in the GPR120 gene and dietary fat intake on obesity risk. Biomed Res-Tokyo. 2013;34:69-74.
131. Godinot N, Yasumatsu K, Barcos ME, et al. Activation of tongue-expressed GPR40 and GPR120 by non caloric agonists is not sufficient to drive preference in mice. Neuroscience. 2013;250:20-30.
132. Lan H, Lin HV, Wang CF, et al. Agonists at GPR119 mediate secretion of GLP-1 from mouse enteroendocrine cells through glucose-independent pathways. Brit J Pharmacol. 2012;165:2799-2807.
133. Kang SU. GPR119 agonists: a promising approach for T2DM treatment? A SWOT analysis of GPR119. Drug Discov Today. 2013;18:1309-1315.
134. Sundaresan S, Shahid R, Riehl TE, et al. CD36-dependent signaling mediates fatty acid-induced gut release of secretin and cholecystokinin. FASEB J. 2013;27: 1191-1202.
135. Masuda D, Hirano K, Oku H, et al. Chylomicron remnants are increased in the postprandial state in CD36 deficiency. J Lipid Res. 2009;50:999-1011.
136. Keller KL. Genetic influences on oral fat perception and preference: presented at the symposium "The Taste for Fat: New Discoveries on the Role of Fat in Sensory Perception, Metabolism, Sensory Pleasure and Beyond" held at the Institute of Food Technologists 2011 Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, June 12, 2011. J Food Sci. 2012;77:S143-S147.
137. Martin C, Passilly-Degrace P, Gaillard D, et al. The lipid-sensor candidates CD36 and GPR120 are differentially regulated by dietary lipids in mouse taste buds: impact on spontaneous fat preference. PLoS One. 2011;6:e24014.
138. Singh A, Balint JA, Edmonds RH, et al. Adaptive changes of the rat small intestine in response to a high fat diet. Biochimica et biophysica acta. 1972;260:708-715.
139. Primeaux SD, Braymer HD, Bray GA. CD36 mRNA in the gastrointestinal tract is differentially regulated by dietary fat intake in obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats. Dig Dis Sci. 2013;58:363-370.
140. Greiner T, Backhed F. Effects of the gut microbiota on obesity and glucose homeostasis. Trends Endocrin Met. 2011;22:117-123.
141. Backhed F, Ding H, Wang T, et al. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:15718-15723.
142. Backhed F, Manchester JK, Semenkovich CF, et al. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007; 104:979-984.
143. Duca FA, Swartz TD, Sakar Y, et al. Increased oral detection, but decreased intestinal signaling for fats in mice lacking gut microbiota. PLoS One. 2012; 7:e39748.