Alternative sampling strategies for the assessment of alcohol intake of living persons

Clinical Biochemistry

Volumn 49, Issue 13-14, 2016, Pages 1078-1091

  Kummer, Natalie ^a   Lambert, Willy E E ^b   Samyn, Nele ^a   Stove, Christophe P ^b  

^a National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology   (Belgium)

^b GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Alcohol; Dried blood spots; Dried urine spots; Exhaled breath; Hair; Meconium; Nail; Oral fluid; Placenta; Review; Skin surface lipids; Sweat; Umbilical cord

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; FATTY ACID ESTER; GLUCURONIDE; SKIN LIPID; SULFATE;

ALCOHOL ABSTINENCE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ARTICLE; BODY WEIGHT; DRIED BLOOD SPOT TESTING; FLUID INTAKE; HAIR; HUMAN; MECONIUM; NAIL; PLACENTA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SWEAT; UMBILICAL CORD; BODY FLUID; DRINKING BEHAVIOR;

ALCOHOL DRINKING; BODY FLUIDS; DRIED BLOOD SPOT TESTING; HUMANS;

EID: 84971659187     PISSN: 00099120     EISSN: 18732933     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2016.05.007     Document Type: Article

References (234)

1. [1] World Health Organization, Global status report on alcohol and health., 2014 Available from: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/en/ (accessed December 14, 2015).
2. [2] Cabarcos, P., Álvarez, I., Tabernero, M., Bermejo, A., Determination of direct alcohol markers: a review. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 407 (2015), 4907–4925, 10.1007/s00216-015-8701-7.
3. [3] Karch, S.B., (eds.) Drug Abuse Handbook, second ed., 1998, CRC Press, New York.
4. [4] Bendtsen, P., Hultberg, J., Carlsson, M., Jones, A.W., Monitoring ethanol exposure in a clinical setting by analysis of blood, breath, saliva, and urine. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 23 (1999), 1446–1451, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04665.x.
5. [5] Stephanson, N., Dahl, H., Helander, A., Beck, O., Direct quantification of ethyl glucuronide in clinical urine samples by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Ther. Drug Monit. 24 (2002), 645–651, 10.1097/00007691-200210000-00011.
6. [6] Høiseth, G., Bernard, J.P., Karinen, R., Johnsen, L., Helander, A., Christophersen, A.S., et al. A pharmacokinetic study of ethyl glucuronide in blood and urine: applications to forensic toxicology. Forensic Sci. Int. 172 (2007), 119–124, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.01.005.
7. [7] Dahl, H., Stephanson, N., Beck, O., Helander, A., Comparison of urinary excretion characteristics of ethanol and ethyl glucuronide. J. Anal. Toxicol. 26 (2002), 201–204, 10.1093/jat/26.4.201.
8. [8] Xu, J., Chen, Y., Li, L., Li, Z., Wang, C., Zhou, T., et al. An improved HPLC method for the quantitation of 3′-phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphate (PAP) to assay sulfotransferase enzyme activity in HepG2 cells. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 62 (2012), 182–186, 10.1016/j.jpba.2011.12.015.
9. [9] Høiseth, G., Bernard, J.P., Stephanson, N., Normann, P.T., Christophersen, A.S., Mørland, J., et al. Comparison between the urinary alcohol markers EtG, EtS, and GTOL/5-HIAA in a controlled drinking experiment. Alcohol Alcohol. 43 (2008), 187–191, 10.1093/alcalc/agm175.
10. [10] Wurst, F.M., Dresen, S., Allen, J.P., Wiesbeck, G., Graf, M., Weinmann, W., Ethyl sulphate: a direct ethanol metabolite reflecting recent alcohol consumption. Addiction 101 (2006), 204–211, 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01245.x.
11. [11] Bicker, W., Lämmerhofer, M., Keller, T., Schuhmacher, R., Krska, R., Lindner, W., Validated method for the determination of the ethanol consumption markers ethyl glucuronide, ethyl phosphate, and ethyl sulfate in human urine by reversed-phase/weak anion exchange liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 78 (2006), 5884–5892, 10.1021/ac060680+.
12. [12] Høiseth, G., Yttredal, B., Karinen, R., Gjerde, H., Mørland, J., Christophersen, A., Ethyl glucuronide concentrations in oral fluid, blood, and urine after volunteers drank 0.5 and 1.0 g/kg doses of ethanol. J. Anal. Toxicol. 34 (2010), 319–324, 10.1093/jat/34.6.319.
13. [13] Kharbouche, H., Steiner, N., Morelato, M., Staub, C., Boutrel, B., Mangin, P., et al. Influence of ethanol dose and pigmentation on the incorporation of ethyl glucuronide into rat hair. Alcohol 44 (2010), 507–514, 10.1016/j.alcohol.2010.05.001.
14. [14] Joya, X., Friguls, B., Ortigosa, S., Papaseit, E., Martínez, S.E., Manich, A., et al. Determination of maternal-fetal biomarkers of prenatal exposure to ethanol: a review. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 69 (2012), 209–222, 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.01.006.
15. [15] Gnann, H., Engelmann, C., Skopp, G., Winkler, M., Auwärter, V., Dresen, S., et al. Identification of 48 homologues of phosphatidylethanol in blood by LC–ESI-MS/MS. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 396 (2010), 2415–2423, 10.1007/s00216-010-3458-5.
16. [16] Nalesso, A., Viel, G., Cecchetto, G., Mioni, D., Pessa, G., Favretto, D., et al. Quantitative profiling of phosphatidylethanol molecular species in human blood by liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A 1218 (2011), 8423–8431, 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.09.068.
17. [17] Helander, A., Zheng, Y., Molecular species of the alcohol biomarker phosphatidylethanol in human blood measured by LC–MS. Clin. Chem. 55 (2009), 1395–1405, 10.1373/clinchem.2008.120923.
18. [18] Zheng, Y., Beck, O., Helander, A., Method development for routine liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry measurement of the alcohol biomarker phosphatidylethanol (PEth) in blood. Clin. Chim. Acta 412 (2011), 1428–1435, 10.1016/j.cca.2011.04.022.
19. [19] Viel, G., Boscolo-Berto, R., Cecchetto, G., Fais, P., Nalesso, A., Ferrara, S., Phosphatidylethanol in blood as a marker of chronic alcohol use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13 (2012), 14788–14812, 10.3390/ijms131114788.
20. [20] Varga, A., Hansson, P., Johnson, G., Alling, C., Normalization rate and cellular localization of phosphatidylethanol in whole blood from chronic alcoholics. Clin. Chim. Acta 299 (2000), 141–150, 10.1016/S0009-8981(00)00291-6.
21. [21] Aradóttir, S., Seidl, S., Wurst, F.M., Jönsson, B.A.G., Alling, C., Phosphatidylethanol in human organs and blood: a study on autopsy material and influences by storage conditions. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 28 (2004), 1718–1723, 10.1097/01.alc.0000145687.41646.e5.
22. [22] Aradottir, S., Asanovska, G., Gjerss, S., Hansson, P., Alling, C., Phosphatidylethanol (PEth) concentrations in blood are correlated to reported alcohol intake in alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol Alcohol. 41 (2006), 431–437, 10.1093/alcalc/agl027.
23. [23] Gunnarsson, T., Karlsson, A., Hansson, P., Johnson, G., Alling, C., Odham, G., Determination of phosphatidylethanol in blood from alcoholic males using high-performance liquid chromatography and evaporative light scattering or electrospray mass spectrometric detection. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. 705 (1998), 243–249, 10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00541-0.
24. [24] Varga, A., Nilsson, S., Nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis for analysis of the ethanol consumption biomarker phosphatidylethanol. Electrophoresis 29 (2008), 1667–1671, 10.1002/elps.200700548.
25. [25] Jones, J., Jones, M., Plate, C., Lewis, D., The detection of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanol in human dried blood spots. Anal. Methods 3 (2011), 1101–1106, 10.1039/C0AY00636J.
26. [26] Faller, A., Richter, B., Kluge, M., Koenig, P., Seitz, H., Thierauf, A., et al. LC–MS/MS analysis of phosphatidylethanol in dried blood spots versus conventional blood specimens. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 401 (2011), 1163–1166, 10.1007/s00216-011-5221-y.
27. [27] Gnann, H., Weinmann, W., Engelmann, C., Wurst, F.M., Skopp, G., Winkler, M., et al. Selective detection of phosphatidylethanol homologues in blood as biomarkers for alcohol consumption by LC–ESI-MS/MS. J. Mass Spectrom. 44 (2009), 1293–1299, 10.1002/jms.1608.
28. [28] Schröck, A., Thierauf, A., Wurst, F.M., Thon, N., Weinmann, W., Progress in monitoring alcohol consumption and alcohol abuse by phosphatidylethanol. Bioanalysis 6 (2014), 2285–2294, 10.4155/bio.14.195.
29. [29] Best, C.A., Laposata, M., Fatty acid ethyl esters: toxic non-oxidative metabolites of ethanol and markers of ethanol intake. Front. Biosci. 1 (2003), e202–e217, 10.2741/931.
30. [30] Politi, L., Leone, F., Morini, L., Polettini, A., Bioanalytical procedures for determination of conjugates or fatty acid esters of ethanol as markers of ethanol consumption: a review. Anal. Biochem. 368 (2007), 1–16, 10.1016/j.ab.2007.05.003.
31. [31] Garriott, J.C., Garriot's Medicolegal Aspects of Alcohol. fifth ed., 2009, Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, Inc., Tucson, Arizona.
32. [32] Keten, A., Zeren, C., Arslan, M.M., Daglioglu, N., Karanfil, R., Sen, B.B., Determination of ethyl glucuronide in fingernails by LC/MS–MS. Rom. Soc. Leg. Med. 21 (2013), 67–72, 10.4323/rjlm.2013.67.
33. [33] Morini, L., Marchei, E., Vagnarelli, F., Garcia Algar, O., Groppi, A., Mastrobattista, L., et al. Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in meconium and hair-potential biomarkers of intrauterine exposure to ethanol. Forensic Sci. Int. 196 (2010), 74–77, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.035.
34. [34] Schummer, C., Appenzeller, B.M.R., Wennig, R., Quantitative determination of ethyl glucuronide in sweat. Ther. Drug Monit. 30 (2008), 536–539, 10.1097/FTD.0b013e318180c83d.
35. [35] Thierauf, A., Kempf, J., Perdekamp, M.G., Auwärter, V., Gnann, H., Wohlfarth, A., et al. Ethyl sulphate and ethyl glucuronide in vitreous humor as postmortem evidence marker for ethanol consumption prior to death. Forensic Sci. Int. 210 (2011), 63–68, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.01.036.
36. [36] Burd, L., Hofer, R., Biomarkers for detection of prenatal alcohol exposure: a critical review of fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium. Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol. 82 (2008), 487–493, 10.1002/bdra.20464.
37. [37] Pragst, F., Rothe, M., Moench, B., Hastedt, M., Herre, S., Simmert, D., Combined use of fatty acid ethyl esters and ethyl glucuronide in hair for diagnosis of alcohol abuse: interpretation and advantages. Forensic Sci. Int. 196 (2010), 101–110, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.028.
38. [38] Crunelle, C.L., Yegles, M., van Nuijs, A.L.N., Covaci, A., De Doncker, M., Maudens, K.E., et al. Hair ethyl glucuronide levels as a marker for alcohol use and abuse: a review of the current state of the art. Drug Alcohol Depend. 134 (2014), 1–11, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.10.008.
39. [39] Cappelle, D., Yegles, M., Neels, H., van Nuijs, A.N., De Doncker, M., Maudens, K., et al. Nail analysis for the detection of drugs of abuse and pharmaceuticals: a review. Forensic Toxicol. 33 (2015), 12–36, 10.1007/s11419-014-0258-1.
40. [40] Tavakoli, H.R., Hull, M., Michael Okasinski, L.T., Review of current clinical biomarkers for the detection of alcohol dependence. Innov. Clin. Neurosci. 8 (2011), 26–33 (PMID: 21487543).
41. [41] Pragst, F., Balikova, M.A., State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drug and alcohol abuse. Clin. Chim. Acta 370 (2006), 17–49, 10.1016/j.cca.2006.02.019.
42. [42] De Giovanni, N., Fucci, N., The current status of sweat testing for drugs of abuse: a review. Curr. Med. Chem. 20 (2013), 545–561, 10.2174/092986713804910139.
43. [43] Hawthorne, J.S., Wojcik, M.H., Transdermal alcohol measurement: a review of the literature. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 39 (2006), 65–71, 10.1080/00085030.2006.10757138.
44. [44] Sadones, N., Capiau, S., De Kesel, P.M., Lambert, W.E., Stove, C.P., Spot them in the spot: analysis of abused substances using dried blood spots. Bioanalysis 6 (2014), 2211–2227, 10.4155/bio.14.156.
45. [45] Oppolzer, D., Barroso, M., Gallardo, E., Bioanalytical procedures and developments in the determination of alcohol biomarkers in biological specimens. Bioanalysis 8 (2016), 229–251, 10.4155/bio.15.240.
46. [46] Bakhireva, L.N., Leeman, L., Savich, R.D., Cano, S., Gutierrez, H., Savage, D.D., et al. The validity of phosphatidylethanol in dried blood spots of newborns for the identification of prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 38 (2014), 1078–1085, 10.1111/acer.12349.
47. [47] De Kesel, P.M., Capiau, S., Lambert, W.E., Stove, C.P., Current strategies for coping with the hematocrit problem in dried blood spot analysis. Bioanalysis 6 (2014), 1871–1874, 10.4155/bio.14.151.
48. [48] Jager, N.G.L., Rosing, H., Schellens, J.H.M., Beijnen, J.H., Procedures and practices for the validation of bioanalytical methods using dried blood spots: a review. Bioanalysis 6 (2014), 2481–2514, 10.4155/bio.14.185.
49. [49] De Kesel, P.M., Sadones, N., Capiau, S., Lambert, W.E., Stove, C.P., Hemato-critical issues in quantitative analysis of dried blood spots: challenges and solutions. Bioanalysis 5 (2013), 2023–2041, 10.4155/bio.13.156.
50. [50] Abu-Rabie, P., Denniff, P., Spooner, N., Brynjolffssen, J., Galluzzo, P., Sanders, G., Method of applying internal standard to dried matrix spot samples for use in quantitative bioanalysis. Anal. Chem. 83 (2011), 8779–8786, 10.1021/ac202321q.
51. [51] Bean, P., Sutphin, M.S., Necessary, P., Agopian, M.S., Liegmann, K., Ludvigsen, C., et al. Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin evaluation in dry blood spots. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 20 (1996), 56–60, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01044.x.
52. [52] Bertaso, A., Vandoros, A., Sorio, D., De Palo, E.F., Bortolotti, F., Tagliaro, F., Dried Blood Spots in Combination With Capillary Electrophoresis: A New Way for the Screening of Chronic Alcohol Abuse. ATDMCT Satell. Meet. - Altern. Sampl. Strateg. Toxicol. Ther. Drug Monit., 2014 (Availaible from: http://users.ugent.be/~cstove/Alternative-Sampling-Strategies/Abstract%20Book%20Ghent%20Symposium%20on%20Alternative%20Sampling%20Strategies.pdf (accessed April 7, 2016)).
53. [53] Halter, C., Dresen, S., Auwaerter, V., Wurst, F., Weinmann, W., Kinetics in serum and urinary excretion of ethyl sulfate and ethyl glucuronide after medium dose ethanol intake. Int. J. Legal Med. 122 (2008), 123–128, 10.1007/s00414-007-0180-8.
54. [54] Høiseth, G., Karinen, R., Christophersen, A.S., Olsen, L., Normann, P.T., Mørland, J., A study of ethyl glucuronide in post-mortem blood as a marker of ante-mortem ingestion of alcohol. Forensic Sci. Int. 165 (2007), 41–45, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.02.045.
55. [55] Høiseth, G., Morini, L., Polettini, A., Christophersen, A., Mørland, J., Blood kinetics of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate in heavy drinkers during alcohol detoxification. Forensic Sci. Int. 188 (2009), 52–56, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.03.017.
56. [56] Bogstrand, S.T., Høiseth, G., Rossow, I., Normann, P.T., Ekeberg, Ø., Prevalence of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate among patients injured when driving or at work. Alcohol Alcohol. 50 (2015), 68–73, 10.1093/alcalc/agu070.
57. [57] Jung, B., Caslavska, J., Thormann, W., Determination of ethyl sulfate in human serum and urine by capillary zone electrophoresis. J. Chromatogr. A 1206 (2008), 26–32, 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.05.086.
58. [58] Nováková, M., Křivánková, L., Determination of ethyl glucuronide in human serum by hyphenation of capillary isotachophoresis and zone electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 29 (2008), 1694–1700, 10.1002/elps.200700663.
59. [59] Morini, L., Politi, L., Zucchella, A., Polettini, A., Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate determination in serum by liquid chromatography–electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Clin. Chim. Acta 376 (2007), 213–219, 10.1016/j.cca.2006.08.024.
60. [60] Janda, I., Alt, A., Improvement of ethyl glucuronide determination in human urine and serum samples by solid-phase extraction. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. 758 (2001), 229–234, 10.1016/S0378-4347(01)00186-4.
61. [61] Lostia, A.M., Vicente, J.L., Cowan, D.A., Measurement of ethyl glucuronide, ethyl sulphate and their ratio in the urine and serum of healthy volunteers after two doses of alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol. 48 (2013), 74–82, 10.1093/alcalc/ags108.
62. [62] Høiseth, G., Yttredal, B., Karinen, R., Gjerde, H., Christophersen, A., Levels of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in oral fluid, blood, and urine after use of mouthwash and ingestion of nonalcoholic wine. J. Anal. Toxicol. 34 (2010), 84–88, 10.1093/jat/34.2.84.
63. [63] Hernandez Redondo, A., Schroeck, A., Kneubuehl, B., Weinmann, W., Determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate from dried blood spots. Int. J. Legal Med. 127 (2013), 769–775, 10.1007/s00414-012-0815-2.
64. [64] Winkler, M., Kaufmann, E., Thoma, D., Thierauf, A., Weinmann, W., Skopp, G., et al. Detection of ethyl glucuronide in blood spotted on different surfaces. Forensic Sci. Int. 210 (2011), 243–246, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.03.013.
65. [65] Kaufmann, E., Alt, A., Detection of ethyl glucuronide in dried human blood using LC–MS/MS. Int. J. Legal Med. 122 (2008), 245–249, 10.1007/s00414-007-0219-x.
66. [66] Gnann, H., Weinmann, W., Thierauf, A., Formation of phosphatidylethanol and its subsequent elimination during an extensive drinking experiment over 5 days. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 36 (2012), 1507–1511, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01768.x.
67. [67] Kummer, N., Ingels, A.S., Wille, S.M., Hanak, C., Verbanck, P., Lambert, W.E., et al. Quantification of phosphatidylethanol 16:0/18:1, 18:1/18:1, and 16:0/16:0 in venous blood and venous and capillary dried blood spots from patients in alcohol withdrawal and control volunteers. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 408 (2016), 825–838, 10.1007/s00216-015-9169-1.
68. [68] Aradottir, S., Moller, K., Alling, C., Phosphatidylethanol formation and degradation in human and rat blood. Alcohol Alcohol. 39 (2004), 8–13, 10.1093/alcalc/agh003.
69. [69] Aradottir, S., Olsson, B., Methodological modifications on quantification of phosphatidylethanol in blood from humans abusing alcohol, using high-performance liquid chromatography and evaporative light scattering detection. BMC Biochem. 6 (2005), 18–25, 10.1186/1471-2091-6-18.
70. [70] Nalesso, A., Viel, G., Cecchetto, G., Frison, G., Ferrara, S.D., Analysis of the alcohol biomarker phosphatidylethanol by NACE with on-line ESI-MS. Electrophoresis 31 (2010), 1227–1233, 10.1002/elps.200900430.
71. [71] Faller, A., Richter, B., Kluge, M., Koenig, P., Seitz, H.K., Skopp, G., Stability of phosphatidylethanol species in spiked and authentic whole blood and matching dried blood spots. Int. J. Legal Med. 127 (2012), 1–8, 10.1007/s00414-012-0799-y.
72. [72] Cabarcos, P., Angel Cocho, J., Moreda, A., Miguez, M., Jesus Tabernero, M., Fernandez, P., et al. Application of dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction for the determination of phosphatidylethanol in blood by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 111 (2013), 189–195, 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.03.008.
73. [73] Gnann, H., Thierauf, A., Hagenbuch, F., Röhr, B., Weinmann, W., Time dependence of elimination of different PEth homologues in alcoholics in comparison with social drinkers. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 38 (2014), 322–326, 10.1111/acer.12277.
74. [74] Schrock, A., Hernandez Redondo, A., Martin Fabritius, M., Konig, S., Weinmann, W., Phosphatidylethanol (PEth) in blood samples from “driving under the influence” cases as indicator for prolonged excessive alcohol consumption. Int. J. Legal Med. 130 (2016), 393–400, 10.1007/s00414-015-1300-5.
75. [75] Hahn, J.A., Dobkin, L.M., Mayanja, B., Emenyonu, N.I., Kigozi, I.M., Shiboski, S., et al. Phosphatidylethanol (PEth) as a biomarker of alcohol consumption in HIV-positive patients in sub-Saharan Africa. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 36 (2012), 854–862, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01669.x.
76. [76] Bakhireva, L.N., Savich, R.D., Raisch, D.W., Cano, S., Annett, R.D., Leeman, L., et al. The feasibility and cost of neonatal screening for prenatal alcohol exposure by measuring phosphatidylethanol in dried blood spots. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 37 (2013), 1008–1015, 10.1111/acer.12045.
77. [77] Kummer, N., Wille, S.M.R., Poll, A., Lambert, W.E., Samyn, N., Stove, C.P., Quantification of EtG in Hair, EtG and EtS in Urine and PEth Species in Capillary Dried Blood Spots to Assess the Alcohol Consumption in Driver's Licence Regranting Cases. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2016 (resubmitted for publication).
78. [78] Walther, L., de Bejczy, A., Löf, E., Hansson, T., Andersson, A., Guterstam, J., et al. Phosphatidylethanol is superior to carbohydrate-deficient transferrin and γ-glutamyltransferase as an alcohol marker and is a reliable estimate of alcohol consumption level. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 39 (2015), 2200–2208, 10.1111/acer.12883.
79. [79] Helander, A., Ullah, S., Beck, O., Phosphatidylethanols in breath: a possible noninvasive screening test for heavy alcohol consumption. Clin. Chem. 61 (2015), 991–993, 10.1373/clinchem.2015.239848.
80. [80] Kummer, N., Wille, S., Di Fazio, V., Lambert, W.E., Samyn, N., A fully validated method for the quantification of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate in urine by UPLC–ESI-MS/MS applied in a prospective alcohol self-monitoring study. J. Chromatogr. B 929 (2013), 149–154, 10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.04.011.
81. [81] Albermann, M.E., Musshoff, F., Madea, B., A high-performance liquid chromatographic–tandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine validated according to forensic guidelines. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 50 (2012), 51–56, 10.1093/chromsci/bmr012.
82. [82] Favretto, D., Nalesso, A., Frison, G., Viel, G., Traldi, P., Ferrara, S., A novel and an effective analytical approach for the LC–MS determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine. Int. J. Legal Med. 124 (2010), 161–164, 10.1007/s00414-009-0376-1.
83. [83] Weinmann, W., Schaefer, P., Thierauf, A., Schreiber, A., Wurst, F.M., Confirmatory analysis of ethylglucuronide in urine by liquid-chromatography/electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry according to forensic guidelines. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 15 (2004), 188–193, 10.1016/j.jasms.2003.10.010.
84. [84] Rohrig, T.P., Huber, C., Goodson, L., Ross, W., Detection of ethylglucuronide in urine following the application of Germ-X. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30 (2006), 703–704, 10.1093/jat/30.9.703.
85. [85] Borucki, K., Schreiner, R., Dierkes, J., Jachau, K., Krause, D., Westphal, S., et al. Detection of recent ethanol intake with new markers: comparison of fatty acid ethyl esters in serum and of ethyl glucuronide and the ratio of 5-hydroxytryptophol to 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid in urine. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29 (2005), 781–787, 10.1097/01.alc.0000164372.67018.ea.
86. [86] Helander, A., Böttcher, M., Fehr, C., Dahmen, N., Beck, O., Detection times for urinary ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in heavy drinkers during alcohol detoxification. Alcohol Alcohol. 44 (2009), 55–61, 10.1093/alcalc/agn084.
87. [87] Esteve-Turrillas, F.A., Bicker, W., Lämmerhofer, M., Keller, T., Lindner, W., Determination of ethyl sulfate – a marker for recent ethanol consumption – in human urine by CE with indirect UV detection. Electrophoresis 27 (2006), 4763–4771, 10.1002/elps.200600155.
88. [88] Al-Asmari, Direct determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in postmortem urine specimens using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 34 (2010), 261–272 (PMID: 20529460).
89. [89] Politi, L., Morini, L., Groppi, A., Poloni, V., Pozzi, F., Polettini, A., Direct determination of the ethanol metabolites ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine by liquid chromatography/electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 19 (2005), 1321–1331, 10.1002/rcm.1932.
90. [90] Hegstad, S., Helland, A., Hagemann, C., Michelsen, L., Spigset, O., EtG/EtS in urine from sexual assault victims determined by UPLC–MS–MS. J. Anal. Toxicol. 37 (2013), 227–232, 10.1093/jat/bkt008.
91. [91] Musshoff, F., Albermann, M., Madea, B., Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine after consumption of various beverages and foods—misleading results?. Int. J. Legal Med. 124 (2010), 623–630, 10.1007/s00414-010-0511-z.
92. [92] Bergström, J., Helander, A., Jones, A.W., Ethyl glucuronide concentrations in two successive urinary voids from drinking drivers: relationship to creatinine content and blood and urine ethanol concentrations. Forensic Sci. Int. 133 (2003), 86–94, 10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00053-7.
93. [93] Concheiro, M., Cruz, A., Mon, M., de Castro, A., Quintela, O., Lorenzo, A., et al. Ethylglucuronide determination in urine and hair from alcohol withdrawal patients. J. Anal. Toxicol. 33 (2009), 155–161, 10.1093/jat/33.3.155.
94. [94] Reisfield, G.M., Goldberger, B.A., Crews, B.O., Pesce, A.J., Wilson, G.R., Teitelbaum, S.A., et al. Ethyl glucuronide, ethyl sulfate, and ethanol in urine after sustained exposure to an ethanol-based hand sanitizer. J. Anal. Toxicol. 35 (2011), 85–91, 10.1093/anatox/35.2.85.
95. [95] Wurst, F.M., Seidl, S., Ladewig, D., Müller-Spahn, F., Alt, A., Ethyl glucuronide: on the time course of excretion in urine during detoxification. Addict. Biol. 7 (2002), 427–434, 10.1080/1355621021000006035.
96. [96] Böttcher, M., Beck, O., Helander, A., Evaluation of a new immunoassay for urinary ethyl glucuronide testing. Alcohol Alcohol. 43 (2008), 46–48, 10.1093/alcalc/agm153.
97. [97] Thierauf, A., Serr, A., Halter, C.C., Al-Ahmad, A., Rana, S., Weinmann, W., Influence of preservatives on the stability of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate in urine. Forensic Sci. Int. 182 (2008), 41–45, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.011.
98. [98] Agius, R., Dufaux, B., Kahl, H.-G., Nadulski, T., Is urine an alternative to cosmetically treated hair for the detection of drugs and alcohol?. Drug Test. Anal. 6 (2014), 120–122, 10.1002/dta.1629.
99. [99] Freire, I.Á., Barrera, A.M.B., Silva, P.C., Duque, M.J.T., Gómez, P.F., Eijo, P.L., Microwave assisted extraction for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in urine by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Appl. Toxicol. 28 (2008), 773–778, 10.1002/jat.1338.
100. [100] Albermann, M.E., Musshoff, F., Doberentz, E., Heese, P., Banger, M., Madea, B., Preliminary investigations on ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate cutoffs for detecting alcohol consumption on the basis of an ingestion experiment and on data from withdrawal treatment. Int. J. Legal Med. 126 (2012), 757–764, 10.1007/s00414-012-0725-3.
101. [101] Wojcik, M.H., Hawthorne, J.S., Sensitivity of commercial ethyl glucuronide (ETG) testing in screening for alcohol abstinence. Alcohol Alcohol. 42 (2007), 317–320, 10.1093/alcalc/agm014.
102. [102] Zheng, Y., Helander, A., Solid-phase extraction procedure for ethyl glucuronide in urine. J. Anal. Toxicol. 32 (2008), 778–781, 10.1093/jat/32.9.778.
103. [103] Costantino, A., DiGregorio, E.J., Korn, W., Spayd, S., Rieders, F., The effect of the use of mouthwash on ethylglucuronide concentrations in urine. J. Anal. Toxicol. 30 (2006), 659–662, 10.1093/jat/30.9.659.
104. [104] Thierauf, A., Halter, C.C., Rana, S., Auwaerter, V., Wohlfarth, A., Wurst, F.M., et al. Urine tested positive for ethyl glucuronide after trace amounts of ethanol. Addiction 104 (2009), 2007–2012, 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02722.x.
105. [105] Thierauf, A., Wohlfarth, A., Auwärter, V., Perdekamp, M.G., Wurst, F.M., Weinmann, W., Urine tested positive for ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate after the consumption of yeast and sugar. Forensic Sci. Int. 202 (2009), e45–e47, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.06.028.
106. [106] Thierauf, A., Gnann, H., Wohlfarth, A., Auwarter, V., Perdekamp, M.G., Buttler, K.J., et al. Urine tested positive for ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate after the consumption of “non-alcoholic” beer. Forensic Sci. Int. 202 (2010), 82–85, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.04.031.
107. [107] Beyer, J., Vo, T., Gerostamoulos, D., Drummer, O., Validated method for the determination of ethylglucuronide and ethylsulfate in human urine. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 400 (2011), 189–196, 10.1007/s00216-011-4667-2.
108. [108] Le Merdy, M., Decleves, X., Labat, L., Ethyl glucuronide dans les urines : étude de stabilité et données en toxicologie clinique. Toxicol. Anal. Clin. 26 (2014), 139–147, 10.1016/j.toxac.2014.07.004.
109. [109] Hernández Redondo, A., Körber, C., König, S., Längin, A., Al-Ahmad, A., Weinmann, W., Inhibition of bacterial degradation of EtG by collection as dried urine spots (DUS). Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 402 (2012), 2417–2424, 10.1007/s00216-011-5687-7.
110. [110] Helander, A., Dahl, H., Urinary tract infection: a risk factor for false-negative urinary ethyl glucuronide but not ethyl sulfate in the detection of recent alcohol consumption. Clin. Chem. 51 (2005), 1728–1730, 10.1373/clinchem.2005.051565.
111. [111] Baranowski, S., Serr, A., Thierauf, A., Weinmann, W., Perdekamp, M.G., Wurst, F.M., et al. In vitro study of bacterial degradation of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate. Int. J. Legal Med. 122 (2008), 389–393, 10.1007/s00414-008-0229-3.
112. [112] Helander, A., Olsson, I., Dahl, H., Postcollection synthesis of ethyl glucuronide by bacteria in urine may cause false identification of alcohol consumption. Clin. Chem. 53 (2007), 1855–1857, 10.1373/clinchem.2007.089482.
113. [113] Dresen, S., Weinmann, W., Wurst, F.M., Forensic confirmatory analysis of ethyl sulfate–a new marker for alcohol consumption–by liquid-chromatography/electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 15 (2004), 1644–1648, 10.1016/j.jasms.2004.08.004.
114. [114] Albermann, M.E., Musshoff, F., Madea, B., A fully validated high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair for the proof of strict alcohol abstinence. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 396 (2010), 2441–2447, 10.1007/s00216-009-3388-2.
115. [115] De Kesel, P.M.M., Lambert, W.E., Stove, C.P., Does volumetric absorptive microsampling eliminate the hematocrit bias for caffeine and paraxanthine in dried blood samples? A comparative study. Anal. Chim. Acta 881 (2015), 65–73, 10.1016/j.aca.2015.04.056.
116. [116] Kidwell, D.A., Holland, J.C., Athanaselis, S., Testing for drugs of abuse in saliva and sweat. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. 713 (1998), 111–135, 10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00572-0.
117. [117] Clarys, P., Barel, A., Quantitative evaluation of skin surface lipids. Clin. Dermatol. 13 (1995), 307–321, 10.1016/0738-081X(95)00079-U.
118. [118] Thody, A.J., Shuster, S., Control and function of sebaceous glands. Physiol. Rev. 69 (1989), 383–416 (PMID: 2648418).
119. [119] Pragst, F., Auwärter, V., Kießling, B., Dyes, C., Wipe-test and patch-test for alcohol misuse based on the concentration ratio of fatty acid ethyl esters and squalene CFAEE/CSQ in skin surface lipids. Forensic Sci. Int. 143 (2004), 77–86, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.02.041.
120. [120] Appenzeller, B.M.R., Schummer, C., Rodrigues, S.B., Wennig, R., Determination of the volume of sweat accumulated in a sweat-patch using sodium and potassium as internal reference. J. Chromatogr. B 852 (2007), 333–337, 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.01.037.
121. [121] Mathes, S.H., Ruffner, H., Graf-Hausner, U., The use of skin models in drug development. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 69–70 (2014), 81–102, 10.1016/j.addr.2013.12.006.
122. [122] González-Illán, F., Ojeda-Torres, G., Díaz-Vázquez, L.M., Rosario, O., Detection of fatty acid ethyl esters in skin surface lipids as biomarkers of ethanol consumption in alcoholics, social drinkers, light drinkers, and teetotalers using a methodology based on microwave-assisted extraction followed by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 35 (2011), 232–237, 10.1093/anatox/35.4.232.
123. [123] Leffingwell, T.R., Cooney, N.J., Murphy, J.G., Luczak, S., Rosen, G., Dougherty, D.M., et al. Continuous objective monitoring of alcohol use: twenty-first century measurement using transdermal sensors. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 37 (2013), 16–22, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01869.x.
124. [124] Gamella, M., Campuzano, S., Manso, J., de Rivera, G.G., López-Colino, F., Reviejo, A.J., et al. A novel non-invasive electrochemical biosensing device for in situ determination of the alcohol content in blood by monitoring ethanol in sweat. Anal. Chim. Acta 806 (2014), 1–7, 10.1016/j.aca.2013.09.020.
125. [125] Phillips, M., McAloon, M.H., A sweat-patch test for alcohol consumption: evaluation in continuous and episodic drinkers. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 4 (1980), 391–395 (PMID: 7004238).
126. [126] Phillips, M., Sweat-patch test for alcohol consumption: rapid assay with an electrochemical detector. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 6 (1982), 532–534, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1982.tb05018.x.
127. [127] Phillips, M., Subjective responses to the sweat-patch test for alcohol consumption. Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abuse 3 (1984), 61–67, 10.1300/J251v03n04_06.
128. [128] Phillips, M., An improved adhesive patch for long-term collection of sweat. Artif. Cells Blood Substit. Biotechnol. 8 (1980), 13–21, 10.3109/10731198009118969.
129. [129] Brown, D.J., The pharmacokinetics of alcohol excretion in human perspiration. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 7 (1985), 539–544 (PMID: 4079588).
130. [130] Brown, D.J., A method for determining the excretion of volatile substances through skin. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 7 (1985), 269–274 (PMID: 4033304).
131. [131] Giles, H.G., Rertaud, G.E., Meggiorini, S., Israel, Y., New instrument using gas sensors for the quantitative analysis of ethanol in biological liquids. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 10 (1986), 521–525, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1986.tb05135.x.
132. [132] Giles, H.G., Meggiorini, S., Renaud, G., Thiessen, J., Vidins, E., Ethanol vapor above skin: determination by a gas sensor instrument and relationship with plasma concentration. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 11 (1987), 249–253, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1987.tb01300.x.
133. [133] Kamei, T., Tsuda, T., Mibu, Y., Kitagawa, S., Wada, H., Naitoh, K., et al. Novel instrumentation for determination of ethanol concentrations in human perspiration by gas chromatography and a good interrelationship between ethanol concentrations in sweat and blood. Anal. Chim. Acta 365 (1998), 259–266, 10.1016/S0003-2670(97)00673-9.
134. [134] Marques, P.R., McKnight, A.S., Field and laboratory alcohol detection with 2 types of transdermal devices. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 33 (2009), 703–711, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00887.x.
135. [135] Ayala, J., Simons, K., Kerrigan, S., Quantitative determination of caffeine and alcohol in energy drinks and the potential to produce positive transdermal alcohol concentrations in human subjects. J. Anal. Toxicol. 33 (2009), 27–33, 10.1093/jat/33.1.27.
136. [136] Sakai, J.T., Mikulich-Gilbertson, S.K., Long, R.J., Crowley, T.J., Validity of transdermal alcohol monitoring: fixed and self-regulated dosing. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 30 (2006), 26–33, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00004.x.
137. [137] Dumett, M., Rosen, G., Sabat, J., Shaman, A., Tempelman, L., Wang, C., et al. Deconvolving an estimate of breath measured blood alcohol concentration from biosensor collected transdermal ethanol data. Appl. Math. Comput. 196 (2008), 724–743, 10.1016/j.amc.2007.07.026.
138. [138] Swift, R.M., Martin, C.S., Swette, L., LaConti, A., Kackley, N., Studies on a wearable, electronic, transdermal alcohol sensor. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 16 (1992), 721–725, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1992.tb00668.x.
139. [139] Swift, R., Direct measurement of alcohol and its metabolites. Addiction 98 (2003), 73–80, 10.1046/j.1359-6357.2003.00605.x.
140. [140] Hill-Kapturczak, N., Roache, J.D., Liang, Y., Karns, T.E., Cates, S.E., Dougherty, D.M., Accounting for sex-related differences in the estimation of breath alcohol concentrations using transdermal alcohol monitoring. Psychopharmacology 232 (2014), 115–123, 10.1007/s00213-014-3644-9.
141. [141] Swift, R.M., Transdermal measurement of alcohol consumption. Addiction 88 (1993), 1037–1039, 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02122.x.
142. [142] Dougherty, D.M., Charles, N.E., Acheson, A., John, S., Furr, R.M., Hill-Kapturczak, N., Comparing the detection of transdermal and breath alcohol concentrations during periods of alcohol consumption ranging from moderate drinking to binge drinking. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 20 (2012), 373–381, 10.1037/a0029021.
143. [143] Barnett, N.P., Tidey, J., Murphy, J.G., Swift, R., Colby, S.M., Contingency management for alcohol use reduction: a pilot study using a transdermal alcohol sensor. Drug Alcohol Depend. 118 (2011), 391–399, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.04.023.
144. [144] Rosen, I.G., Luczak, S.E., Weiss, J., Blind deconvolution for distributed parameter systems with unbounded input and output and determining blood alcohol concentration from transdermal biosensor data. Appl. Math. Comput. 231 (2014), 357–376, 10.1016/j.amc.2013.12.099.
145. [145] Dougherty, D.M., Hill-Kapturczak, N., Liang, Y., Karns, T.E., Cates, S.E., Lake, S.L., et al. Use of continuous transdermal alcohol monitoring during a contingency management procedure to reduce excessive alcohol use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 142 (2014), 301–306, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.06.039.
146. [146] Dougherty, D.M., Karns, T.E., Mullen, J., Liang, Y., Lake, S.L., Roache, J.D., et al. Transdermal alcohol concentration data collected during a contingency management program to reduce at-risk drinking. Drug Alcohol Depend. 148 (2015), 77–84, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.021.
147. [147] Aps, J.K.M., Martens, L.C., Review: the physiology of saliva and transfer of drugs into saliva. Forensic Sci. Int. 150 (2005), 119–131, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.026.
148. [148] Smolle, K.-H., Hofmann, G., Kaufmann, P., Lueger, A., Brunner, G., Q.E.D. alcohol test: a simple and quick method to detect ethanol in saliva of patients in emergency departments. Intensive Care Med. 25 (1999), 492–495, 10.1007/s001340050886.
149. [149] Jones, A.W., Measuring ethanol in saliva with the QED® enzymatic test device: comparison of results with blood- and breath-alcohol concentrations. J. Anal. Toxicol. 19 (1995), 169–174, 10.1093/jat/19.3.169.
150. [150] Degutis, L.C., Rabinovici, R., Sabbaj, A., Mascia, R., D'Onofrio, G., The saliva strip test is an accurate method to determine blood alcohol concentration in trauma patients. Acad. Emerg. Med. 11 (2004), 885–887, 10.1197/j.aem.2004.02.529.
151. [151] Tu, G., Kapur, B., Israel, Y., Characteristics of a new urine, serum, and saliva alcohol reagent strip. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 16 (1992), 222–227, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1992.tb01367.x.
152. [152] Phair, I.C., Mardel, S., Bodiwala, G.G., Blood alcohol concentration measurement using a salivary reagent stick: a reliable tool for emergency departments?. Emerg. Med. J. 7 (1990), 69–72, 10.1136/emj.7.2.69.
153. [153] Pate, L.A., Hamilton, J.D., Park, R.S., Strobel, R.M., Evaluation of a saliva alcohol test stick as a therapeutic adjunct in an alcoholism treatment program. J. Stud. Alcohol 54 (1993), 520–521, 10.15288/jsa.1993.54.520.
154. [154] Penttilä, A., Karhunen, P.J., Pikkarainen, J., Alcohol screening with the Alcoscan test strip in forensic praxis. Forensic Sci. Int. 44 (1990), 43–48, 10.1016/0379-0738(90)90165-U.
155. [155] Gubala, W., Zuba, D., Saliva as an alternative specimen for alcohol determination in the human body. Pol. J. Pharmacol. 54 (2002), 161–165 (PMID: 12139114).
156. [156] Gubala, W., Zuba, D., Gender differences in the pharmacokinetics of ethanol in saliva and blood after oral ingestion. Pol. J. Pharmacol. 55 (2003), 639–644 (PMID: 14581724).
157. [157] Bueno, L.H.P., da Silva, R.H.A., Azenha, A.V., de Souza Dias, M.C., De Martinis, B.S., Oral fluid as an alternative matrix to determine ethanol for forensic purposes. Forensic Sci. Int. 242 (2014), 117–122, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.06.024.
158. [158] Jones, A.W., Pharmacokinetics of ethanol in saliva: comparison with blood and breath alcohol profiles, subjective feelings of intoxication, and diminished performance. Clin. Chem. 39 (1993), 1837–1844 (PMID: 8375057).
159. [159] Gjerde, H., Christophersen, A.S., Moan, I.S., Yttredal, B., Walsh, J.M., Normann, P.T., et al. Use of alcohol and drugs by Norwegian employees: a pilot study using questionnaires and analysis of oral fluid. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 5 (2010), 1745–6673, 10.1186/1745-6673-5-13.
160. [160] Hegstad, S., Johnsen, L., Morland, J., Christophersen, A.S., Determination of ethylglucuronide in oral fluid by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 33 (2009), 204–207, 10.1093/jat/33.4.204.
161. [161] Beck, O., Olin, A.-C., Mirgorodskaya, E., Potential of mass spectrometry in developing clinical laboratory biomarkers of nonvolatiles in exhaled breath. Clin. Chem. 62 (2016), 84–91, 10.1373/clinchem.2015.239285.
162. [162] Cooper, G.A.A., Kronstrand, R., Kintz, P., Society of hair testing guidelines for drug testing in hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 218 (2012), 20–24, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.10.024.
163. [163] Kintz, P., 2014 consensus for the use of alcohol markers in hair for assessment of both abstinence and chronic excessive alcohol consumption. Forensic Sci. Int. 249 (2015), A1–A2, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.11.001.
164. [164] Albermann, M.E., Musshoff, F., Aengenheister, L., Madea, B., Investigations on the influence of different grinding procedures on measured ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair determined with an optimized and validated LC–MS/MS method. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 403 (2012), 769–776, 10.1007/s00216-012-5926-6.
165. [165] Kronstrand, R., Brinkhagen, L., Nystrom, F.H., Ethyl glucuronide in human hair after daily consumption of 16 or 32 g of ethanol for 3 months. Forensic Sci. Int. 215 (2012), 51–55, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.01.044.
166. [166] Mönch, B., Becker, R., Nehls, I., Quantification of ethyl glucuronide in hair: effect of milling on extraction efficiency. Alcohol Alcohol. 48 (2013), 558–563, 10.1093/alcalc/agt059.
167. [167] Morini, L., Politi, L., Groppi, A., Stramesi, C., Polettini, A., Determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair samples by liquid chromatography/electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. J. Mass Spectrom. 41 (2006), 34–42, 10.1002/jms.943.
168. [168] Bendroth, P., Kronstrand, R., Helander, A., Greby, J., Stephanson, N., Krantz, P., Comparison of ethyl glucuronide in hair with phosphatidylethanol in whole blood as post-mortem markers of alcohol abuse. Forensic Sci. Int. 176 (2008), 76–81 (PMID: 18023314).
169. [169] Lamoureux, F., Gaulier, J., Sauvage, F.-L., Mercerolle, M., Vallejo, C., Lachâtre, G., Determination of ethyl-glucuronide in hair for heavy drinking detection using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry following solid-phase extraction. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 394 (2009), 1895–1901, 10.1007/s00216-009-2863-0.
170. [170] Cabarcos, P., Hassan, H.M., Tabernero, M.J., Scott, K.S., Analysis of ethyl glucuronide in hair samples by liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–ESI-MS/MS). J. Appl. Toxicol. 33 (2013), 638–643, 10.1002/jat.1791.
171. [171] Suesse, S., Pragst, F., Mieczkowski, T., Selavka, C.M., Elian, A., Sachs, H., et al. Practical experiences in application of hair fatty acid ethyl esters and ethyl glucuronide for detection of chronic alcohol abuse in forensic cases. Forensic Sci. Int. 218 (2012), 82–91, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.10.006.
172. [172] Kintz, P., Villain, M., Vallet, E., Etter, M., Salquebre, G., Cirimele, V., Ethyl glucuronide: unusual distribution between head hair and pubic hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 176 (2008), 87–90, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.08.012.
173. [173] Pirro, V., Di Corcia, D., Pellegrino, S., Vincenti, M., Sciutteri, B., Salomone, A., A study of distribution of ethyl glucuronide in different keratin matrices. Forensic Sci. Int. 210 (2011), 271–277, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.03.026.
174. [174] Turfus, S.C., Beyer, J., Gerostamoulos, D., Drummer, O.H., A comparison of the performance of quality controls prepared from spiked, fortified and authentic hair for ethyl glucuronide analysis. Forensic Sci. Int. 232 (2013), 60–66, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.07.003.
175. [175] Imbert, L., Gaulier, J.-M., Dulaurent, S., Morichon, J., Bevalot, F., Izac, P., et al. Improved liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair: applications to forensic cases. Int. J. Legal Med. 128 (2014), 53–58, 10.1007/s00414-013-0894-8.
176. [176] Kummer, N., Wille, S.M., Di Fazio, V., Del Mar Ramírez Fernández, M., Yegles, M., Lambert, W.E., et al. Impact of the grinding process on the quantification of ethyl glucuronide in hair using a validated UPLC–ESI-MS–MS method. J. Anal. Toxicol. 39 (2015), 17–23, 10.1093/jat/bku108.
177. [177] Oppolzer, D., Barroso, M., Gallardo, E., Determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair to assess excessive alcohol consumption in a student population. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 4 (2015), 1–8, 10.1007/s00216-015-9155-7.
178. [178] Crunelle, C.L., Cappelle, D., Yegles, M., De Doncker, M., Michielsen, P., Dom, G., et al. Ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair: a controlled alcohol-dosing study in healthy volunteers. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 408 (2016), 2019–2025, 10.1007/s00216-015-9117-0.
179. [179] Pragst, F.P., Yegles, M.P., Determination of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) in hair: a promising way for retrospective detection of alcohol abuse during pregnancy?. Ther. Drug Monit. 30 (2008), 255–263, 10.1097/FTD.0b013e318167d602.
180. [180] Maenhout, T., De Buyzere, M.L., Delanghe, J.R., Non-oxidative ethanol metabolites as a measure of alcohol intake. Clin. Chim. Acta 415 (2013), 322–329, 10.1016/j.cca.2012.11.014.
181. [181] Høiseth, G., Morini, L., Polettini, A., Christophersen, A., Mørland, J., Ethyl glucuronide in hair compared with traditional alcohol biomarkers—a pilot study of heavy drinkers referred to an alcohol detoxification unit. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 33 (2009), 812–816, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.00900.x.
182. [182] Appenzeller, B.M.R., Schuman, M., Yegles, M., Wennig, R., Ethyl glucuronide concentration in hair is not influenced by pigmentation. Alcohol Alcohol. 42 (2007), 326–327, 10.1093/alcalc/agm016.
183. [183] Ettlinger, J., Kirchen, L., Yegles, M., Influence of thermal hair straightening on ethyl glucuronide content in hair. Drug Test Anal. 6:Suppl. 1 (2014), 74–77, 10.1002/dta.1648.
184. [184] Sporkert, F., Kharbouche, H., Augsburger, M.P., Klemm, C., Baumgartner, M.R., Positive EtG findings in hair as a result of a cosmetic treatment. Forensic Sci. Int. 218 (2012), 97–100, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.10.009.
185. [185] Mönch, B., Becker, R., Nehls, I., Determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair: a rapid sample pretreatment involving simultaneous milling and extraction. Int. J. Legal Med. 128 (2014), 69–72, 10.1007/s00414-013-0939-z.
186. [186] Bossers, L.C.A.M., Paul, R., Berry, A.J., Kingston, R., Middendorp, C., Guwy, A.J., An evaluation of washing and extraction techniques in the analysis of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl esters from hair samples. J. Chromatogr. B 953–954 (2014), 115–119, 10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.01.049.
187. [187] Yegles, M., Labarthe, A., Auwärter, V., Hartwig, S., Vater, H., Wennig, R., et al. Comparison of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl ester concentrations in hair of alcoholics, social drinkers and teetotallers. Forensic Sci. Int. 145 (2004), 167–173, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.032.
188. [188] Albermann, M.E., Musshoff, F., Madea, B., Comparison of ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) concentrations in hair for testing abstinence. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 400 (2011), 175–181, 10.1007/s00216-010-4443-8.
189. [189] Wurst, F.M., Alexson, S., Wolfersdorf, M., Bechtel, G., Forster, S., Alling, C., et al. Concentration of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair of alcoholics: comparison to other biological state markers and self reported-ethanol intake. Alcohol Alcohol. 39 (2004), 33–38, 10.1093/alcalc/agh005.
190. [190] Hastedt, M., Büchner, M., Rothe, M., Gapert, R., Herre, S., Krumbiegel, F., et al. Detecting alcohol abuse: traditional blood alcohol markers compared to ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) measurement in hair. Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol. 9 (2013), 471–477, 10.1007/s12024-013-9416-8.
191. [191] Hartwig, S., Auwarter, V., Pragst, F., Effect of hair care and hair cosmetics on the concentrations of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair as markers of chronically elevated alcohol consumption. Forensic Sci. Int. 131 (2003), 90–97, 10.1016/S0379-0738(02)00412-7.
192. [192] Suesse, S., Blueml, M., Pragst, F., Effect of the analyzed hair length on fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE) concentrations in hair — is there congruence of cut-offs for 0–3 and 0–6 cm hair segments?. Forensic Sci. Int. 249 (2015), 1–5, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.11.020.
193. [193] Gareri, J., Rao, C., Koren, G., Examination of sex differences in fatty acid ethyl ester and ethyl glucuronide hair analysis. Drug Test. Anal. 6 (2014), 30–36, 10.1002/dta.1653.
194. [194] Auwärter, V., Sporkert, F., Hartwig, S., Pragst, F., Vater, H., Diefenbacher, A., Fatty acid ethyl esters in hair as markers of alcohol consumption. Segmental hair analysis of alcoholics, social drinkers, and teetotalers. Clin. Chem. 47 (2001), 2114–2123 (PMID: 11719475).
195. [195] Hartwig, S., Auwärter, V., Pragst, F., Fatty acid ethyl esters in scalp, pubic, axillary, beard and body hair as markers for alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol. 38 (2003), 163–167, 10.1093/alcalc/agg046.
196. [196] Gareri, J., Appenzeller, B., Walasek, P., Koren, G., Impact of hair-care products on FAEE hair concentrations in substance abuse monitoring. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 400 (2011), 183–188, 10.1007/s00216-011-4685-0.
197. [197] Kintz, P., Nicholson, D., Testing for ethanol markers in hair: discrepancies after simultaneous quantification of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl esters. Forensic Sci. Int. 243 (2014), 44–46, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.03.012.
198. [198] Hastedt, M., Herre, S., Pragst, F., Rothe, M., Hartwig, S., Workplace alcohol testing program by combined use of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl esters in hair. Alcohol Alcohol. 47 (2012), 127–132, 10.1093/alcalc/agr148.
199. [199] Kulaga, V., Velazquez-Armenta, Y., Aleksa, K., Vergee, Z., Koren, G., The effect of hair pigment on the incorporation of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE). Alcohol Alcohol. 44 (2009), 287–292, 10.1093/alcalc/agn114.
200. [200] Jones, J., Jones, M., Plate, C., Lewis, D., Fendrich, M., Berger, L., et al. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry assay to detect ethyl glucuronide in human fingernail: comparison to hair and gender differences. Am. J. Anal. Chem. 3 (2012), 83–91, 10.4236/ajac.2012.31012.
201. [201] Morini, L., Colucci, M., Ruberto, M.G., Groppi, A., Determination of ethyl glucuronide in nails by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry as a potential new biomarker for chronic alcohol abuse and binge drinking behavior. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 402 (2012), 1–6, 10.1007/s00216-011-5609-8.
202. [202] Berger, L., Fendrich, M., Jones, J., Fuhrmann, D., Plate, C., Lewis, D., Ethyl glucuronide in hair and fingernails as a long-term alcohol biomarker. Addiction 109 (2014), 425–431, 10.1111/add.12402.
203. [203] Morini, L., Marchei, E., Tarani, L., Trivelli, M., Rapisardi, G., Elicio, M.R., et al. Testing ethylglucuronide in maternal hair and nails for the assessment of fetal exposure to alcohol: comparison with meconium testing. Ther. Drug Monit. 35 (2013), 402–407, 10.1097/FTD.0b013e318283f719.
204. [204] K.A. Madej, Analysis of meconium, nails and tears for determination of medicines and drugs of abuse, TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 29 (3) 246-259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2010.01.005.
205. [205] Morini, L.Bs., Marchei, E.Bs., Pellegrini, M.Bs., Groppi, A.P., Stramesi, C.P., Vagnarelli, F.M.D., et al. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection for the measurement of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in meconium: new biomarkers of gestational ethanol exposure?. Ther. Drug Monit. 30 (2008), 725–732, 10.1097/FTD.0b013e31818b2fd9.
206. [206] Himes, S.K., Dukes, K.A., Tripp, T., Petersen, J.M., Raffo, C., Burd, L., et al. Clinical sensitivity and specificity of meconium fatty acid ethyl ester, ethyl glucuronide, and ethyl sulfate for detecting maternal drinking during pregnancy. Clin. Chem. 61 (2015), 523–532, 10.1373/clinchem.2014.233718.
207. [207] Pichini, S., Morini, L., Marchei, E., Palmi, I., Rotolo, M.C., Vagnarelli, F., et al. Ethylglucuronide and ethylsulfate in meconium to assess gestational ethanol exposure: preliminary results in two Mediterranean cohorts. Can. J. Clin. Pharmacol. J. Can. Pharmacol. Clin. 16 (2009), e370–e375 (PMID: 19553703).
208. [208] Tarcomnicu, I., van Nuijs, A.L.N., Aerts, K., De Doncker, M., Covaci, A., Neels, H., Ethyl glucuronide determination in meconium and hair by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci. Int. 196 (2010), 121–127, 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.043.
209. [209] Morini, L., Groppi, A., Marchei, E., Vagnarelli, F., Algar, O.G., Zuccaro, P., et al. Population baseline of meconium ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate concentrations in newborns of nondrinking women in 2 Mediterranean cohorts. Ther. Drug Monit. 32 (2010), 359–363, 10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181d5f14a.
210. [210] Cabarcos, P., Tabernero, M.J., Otero, J.L., Míguez, M., Bermejo, A.M., Martello, S., et al. Quantification of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) in meconium for detection of alcohol abuse during pregnancy: correlation study between both biomarkers. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 100 (2014), 74–78, 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.07.023.
211. [211] Bakdash, A., Burger, P., Goecke, T.W., Fasching, P.A., Reulbach, U., Bleich, S., et al. Quantification of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) in meconium from newborns for detection of alcohol abuse in a maternal health evaluation study. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 396 (2010), 2469–2477, 10.1007/s00216-010-3474-5.
212. [212] Morini, L., Falcón, M., Pichini, S., Garcia-Algar, O., Danesino, P., Groppi, A., et al. Ethyl-glucuronide and ethyl-sulfate in placental and fetal tissues by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Biochem. 418 (2011), 30–36, 10.1016/j.ab.2011.06.038.
213. [213] Bearer, C.F., Lee, S., Salvator, A.E., Minnes, S., Swick, A., Yamashita, T., et al. Ethyl linoleate in meconium: a biomarker for prenatal ethanol exposure. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 23 (1999), 487–493, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04142.x.
214. [214] Klein, J., Karaskov, T., Koren, G., Fatty acid ethyl esters: a novel biologic marker for heavy in utero ethanol exposure: a case report. Ther. Drug Monit. 21 (1999), 644–646, 10.1097/00007691-199912000-00011.
215. [215] Ostrea, E.M., Hernandez, J.D., Bielawski, D.M., Kan, J.M., Leonardo, G.M., Abela, M.B., et al. Fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium: are they biomarkers of fetal alcohol exposure and effect?. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 30 (2006), 1152–1159, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00131.x.
216. [216] Chan, D., Bar-Oz, B., Pellerin, B., Paciorek, C., Klein, J., Kapur, B., et al. Population baseline of meconium fatty acid ethyl esters among infants of nondrinking women in Jerusalem and Toronto. Ther. Drug Monit. 25 (2003), 271–278, 10.1097/00007691-200306000-00004.
217. [217] Moore, C.M., Lewis, D., Fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium: biomarkers for the detection of alcohol exposure in neonates. Clin. Chim. Acta 312 (2001), 235–237, 10.1016/S0009-8981(01)00628-3.
218. [218] Bearer, C.F., Jacobson, J.L., Jacobson, S.W., Barr, D., Croxford, J., Molteno, C.D., et al. Validation of a new biomarker of fetal exposure to alcohol. J. Pediatr. 143 (2003), 463–469, 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00442-6.
219. [219] Hutson, J.R., Aleksa, K., Pragst, F., Koren, G., Detection and quantification of fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium by headspace-solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B 877 (2009), 8–12, 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.10.056.
220. [220] Hutson, J.R., Rao, C., Fulga, N., Aleksa, K., Koren, G., An improved method for rapidly quantifying fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium suitable for prenatal alcohol screening. Alcohol 45 (2011), 193–199, 10.1016/j.alcohol.2010.07.005.
221. [221] Pichini, S., Pellegrini, M., Gareri, J., Koren, G., Garcia-Algar, O., Vall, O., et al. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium: assessment of prenatal exposure to alcohol in two European cohorts. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 48 (2008), 927–933, 10.1016/j.jpba.2008.07.026.
222. [222] Kwak, H.-S., Kang, Y.-S., Han, K.-O., Moon, J.-T., Chung, Y.-C., Choi, J.-S., et al. Quantitation of fatty acid ethyl esters in human meconium by an improved liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B 878 (2010), 1871–1874, 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.05.001.
223. [223] Moore, C., Prevalence of fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium specimens. Clin. Chem. 49 (2003), 133–136, 10.1373/49.1.133.
224. [224] Caprara, D.L., Nash, K., Greenbaum, R., Rovet, J., Koren, G., Novel approaches to the diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 31 (2007), 254–260, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.015.
225. [225] Chan, D., Klein, J., Karaskov, T., Koren, G., Fetal exposure to alcohol as evidenced by fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium in the absence of maternal drinking history in pregnancy. Ther. Drug Monit. 26 (2004), 474–481, 10.1097/00007691-200410000-00003.
226. [226] Pichini, S., Marchei, E., Vagnarelli, F., Tarani, L., Raimondi, F., Maffucci, R., et al. Assessment of prenatal exposure to ethanol by meconium analysis: results of an Italian multicenter study. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 36 (2012), 417–424, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01647.x.
227. [227] Garcia-Algar, O., Kulaga, V., Gareri, J., Koren, G., Vall, O., Zuccaro, P., et al. Alarming prevalence of fetal alcohol exposure in a Mediterranean City. Ther. Drug Monit. 30 (2008), 249–254, 10.1097/FTD.0b013e31816a8657.
228. [228] Jones, J., Jones, M., Plate, C., Lewis, D., The detection of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanol and ethyl glucuronide in human umbilical cord. Am. J. Anal. Chem. 03 (2012), 800–810, 10.4236/ajac.2012.312106.
229. [229] Kulig, C.C., Beresford, T.P., Everson, G.T., Rapid, accurate, and sensitive fatty acid ethyl ester determination by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 147 (2006), 133–138, 10.1016/j.lab.2005.11.006.
230. [230] Borucki, K., Dierkes, J., Wartberg, J., Westphal, S., Genz, A., Luley, C., In heavy drinkers, fatty acid ethyl esters remain elevated for up to 99 hours. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 31 (2007), 423–427, 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00323.x.
231. [231] Soderberg, B.L., Sicinska, E.T., Blodget, E., Cluette-Brown, J.E., Suter, P.M., Schuppisser, T., et al. Preanalytical variables affecting the quantification of fatty acid ethyl esters in plasma and serum samples. Clin. Chem. 45 (1999), 2183–2190 (PMID: 10585351).
232. [232] Soderberg, B.L., Salem, R.O., Best, C.A., Cluette-Brown, J.E., Laposata, M., Fatty acid ethyl esters. Ethanol metabolites that reflect ethanol intake. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 119 (2003), S94–S99, 10.1309/6F39-EAR2-L4GY-X5G6.
233. [233] Kaphalia, B.S., Cai, P., Khan, M.F., Okorodudu, A.O., Ansari, G.A.S., Fatty acid ethyl esters: markers of alcohol abuse and alcoholism. Alcohol 34 (2004), 151–158, 10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.07.013.
234. [234] Stibler, H., Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin in serum: a new marker of potentially harmful alcohol consumption reviewed. Clin. Chem. 37 (1991), 2029–2037 (PMID: 1764777).