Bioanalytical procedures and developments in the determination of alcohol biomarkers in biological specimens

Bioanalysis

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 229-251

  Oppolzer, David ^a   Barroso, Mário ^b   Gallardo, Eugenia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BEIRA INTERIOR   (Portugal)

^b INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE MEDICINA LEGAL E CIÊNCIAS FORENSES   (Portugal)

Author keywords

cut off value; effect based biomarkers; exposure based biomarkers; sensitivity; specificity

Indexed keywords

5 HYDROXYTRYPTOPHOL; ALCOHOL; ALCOHOL DERIVATIVE; ALDEHYDE DERIVATIVE; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CARBOHYDRATE DEFICIENT TRANSFERRIN; ETHYL GLUCURONIDE; ETHYL SULFATE; FATTY ACID ESTER; HEMOGLOBIN ASSOCIATED ACETALDEHYDE; ORGANIC COMPOUND; PHOSPHATIDYLETHANOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; TRANSFERRIN;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOL METABOLISM; ARTICLE; BONE MARROW; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; EXPOSURE; FETUS (ANATOMY); FINGER NAIL; HAIR; HUMAN; LIMIT OF DETECTION; LIMIT OF QUANTITATION; LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; LIVER; MASS FRAGMENTOGRAPHY; MECONIUM; MUSCLE; PLACENTA; PLASMA; SEBUM; SERUM; TOOTH; TOXICOLOGY; URINE; CLINICAL CHEMISTRY; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; METABOLISM; PROCEDURES;

ALCOHOL DRINKING; BIOMARKERS; CLINICAL CHEMISTRY TESTS; ETHANOL; HUMANS; TRANSFERRIN;

EID: 84959041378     PISSN: 17576180     EISSN: 17576199     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4155/bio.15.240     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Hastedt M, Herre S, Pragst F, Rothe M, Hartwig S. Workplace alcohol testing program by combined use of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl esters in hair. Alcohol Alcohol. 47(2), 127-132 (2012).
2. Isaksson A, Walther L, Hansson T, Andersson A, Alling C. Phosphatidylethanol in blood (B-PEth): a marker for alcohol use and abuse. Drug Test. Anal. 3(4), 195-200 (2011).
3. Maenhout TM, De Buyzere ML, Delanghe JR. Nonoxidative ethanol metabolites as a measure of alcohol intake. Clin. Chim. Acta 415, 322-329 (2013).
4. Joya X, Friguls B, Ortigosa S et al. Determination of maternal-fetal biomarkers of prenatal exposure to ethanol: a review. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 69, 209-222 (2012).
5. Helander A, Beck O. Analytical markers of acute and chronic alcohol consumption. In: Handbook of Analytical Separations. Bogusz M (Ed.). Elsevier B.V. Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 567-588 (2008).
6. Swift R. Direct measurement of alcohol and its metabolites. Addiction. 98(Suppl. 2), 73-80 (2003).
7. Caslavska J, Thormann W. Monitoring of alcohol markers by capillary electrophoresis. J. Sep. Sci. 36(1), 75-95 (2013).
8. Süße S, Selavka CM, Mieczkowski T, Pragst F. Fatty acid ethyl ester concentrations in hair and self-reported alcohol consumption in 644 cases from different origin. Forensic Sci. Int. 196(1-3), 111-117 (2010).
9. Helander A, Husa A, Jeppsson JO. Improved HPLC method for carbohydrate-deficient transferrin in serum. Clin. Chem. 49(11), 1881-1890 (2003).
10. Helander A, Eriksson G, Stibler H, Jeppsson JO. Interference of transferrin isoform types with carbohydrate-deficient transferrin quantification in the identification of alcohol abuse. Clin. Chem. 47(7), 1225-1233 (2001).
11. Luo LZ, Jin HW, Huang HQ. Application of capillary isoelectric focusing and peptide mass fingerprinting in carbohydrate-deficient transferrin detection. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 25(10), 1391-1398 (2011).
12. Bortolotti F, Tagliaro F, Cittadini F, Gottardo R, Trettene M, Marigo M. Determination of CDT, a marker of chronic alcohol abuse, for driving license issuing: immunoassay versus capillary electrophoresis. Forensic Sci. Int. 128(1-2), 53-58 (2002).
13. Lacey JM, Bergen HR, Magera MJ, Naylor S, O'Brien JF. Rapid determination of transferrin isoforms by immunoaffinity liquid chromatography and electrospray mass spectrometry. Clin. Chem. 47(3), 513-518 (2001).
14. Oberrauch W, Bergman AC, Helander A. HPLC and mass spectrometric characterization of a candidate reference material for the alcohol biomarker carbohydrate-deficienttransferrin (CDT). Clin. Chim. Acta 395(1-2), 142-145 (2008).
15. Kleinert P, Kuster T, Durka S et al. Mass spectrometric analysis of human transferrin in different body fluids. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 41(12), 1580-1588 (2003).
16. Sogawa K, Iida F, Kawshima Y et al. Evaluation of serum carbohydrate-deficient transferrin by HPLC and MALDITOF MS. Clin. Chim. Acta 448, 8-12 (2015).
17. Kohler I, Augsburger M, Rudaz S, Schappler J. New insights in carbohydrate-deficient transferrin analysis with capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci. Int. 243, 14-22 (2014).
18. Del Castillo Busto ME, Montes-Bayón M, Blanco-González E, Meija J, Sanz-Medel A. Strategies to study human serum transferrin isoforms using integrated liquid chromatography ICPMS, MALDI-TOF, and ESI-Q-TOF detection: application to chronic alcohol abuse. Anal. Chem. 77(17), 5615-5621 (2005).
19. Johnson RD, Lewis RJ, Canfield D V, Dubowski KM, Blank CL. Utilizing the urinary 5-HTOL/5-HIAA ratio to determine ethanol origin in civil aviation accident victims. J. Forensic Sci. 50(3), 670-675 (2005).
20. Beck O, Stephanson N, Böttcher M, Dahmen N, Fehr C, Helander A. Biomarkers to disclose recent intake of alcohol: potential of 5-hydroxytryptophol glucuronide testing using new direct UPLC-tandem MS and ELISA methods. Alcohol Alcohol. 42(4), 321-325 (2007).
21. Borucki K, Schreiner R, Dierkes J et al. Detection of recent ethanol intake with new markers: comparison of fatty acid ethyl esters in serum and of ethyl glucuronide and the ratio of 5-hydroxytryptophol to 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid in urine. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 29(5), 781-787 (2005).
22. Johnson RD, Lewis RJ, Canfield D V, Blank CL. Accurate assignment of ethanol origin in postmortem urine: liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination of serotonin metabolites. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 805(2), 223-234 (2004).
23. Stephanson N, Dahl H, Helander A, Beck O. Determination of urinary 5-hydroxytryptophol glucuronide by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 816(1-2), 107-112 (2005).
24. Stephanson N, Helander A, Beck O. Alcohol biomarker analysis: simultaneous determination of 5-hydroxytryptophol glucuronide and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid by direct injection of urine using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Mass Spectrom. 42, 940-949 (2007).
25. Bisaga A, Laposata M, Xie S, Evans SM. Comparison of serum fatty acid ethyl esters and urinary 5-hydroxytryptophol as biochemical markers of recent ethanol consumption. Alcohol Alcohol. 40(3), 214-218 (2005).
26. Zilly M, Langmann P, Lenker U, Satzinger V, Schirmer D, Klinker H. Highly sensitive gas chromatographic determination of ethanol in human urine samples. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 798(2), 179-186 (2003).
27. Niemelä O, Alatalo P. Biomarkers of alcohol consumption and related liver disease. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 70(5), 305-312 (2010).
28. De Martinis BS, Martin CCS. Automated headspace solidphase microextraction and capillary gas chromatography analysis of ethanol in postmortem specimens. Forensic Sci. Int. 128(3), 115-119 (2002).
29. Kristoffersen L, Stormyhr LE, Smith-Kielland A. Headspace gas chromatographic determination of ethanol: the use of factorial design to study effects of blood storage and headspace conditions on ethanol stability and acetaldehyde formation in whole blood and plasma. Forensic Sci. Int. 161(2-3), 151-157 (2006).
30. Al-asmari AI, Anderson R a, Appelblad P. Direct determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in postmortem urine specimens using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-electrospray ionizationtandem mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 34, 261-272 (2010).
31. Thierauf A, Kempf J, Perdekamp MG et al. Ethyl sulphate and ethyl glucuronide in vitreous humor as postmortem evidence marker for ethanol consumption prior to death. Forensic Sci. Int. 210(1-3), 63-68 (2011).
32. Wasfi IA, Al-Awadhi AH, Al-Hatali ZN, Al-Rayami FJ, Al Katheeri NA. Rapid and sensitive static headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the analysis of ethanol and abused inhalants in blood. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 799(2), 331-336 (2004).
33. Zuba D, Parczewski A, Reichenbächer M. Optimization of solid-phase microextraction conditions for gas chromatographic determination of ethanol and other volatile compounds in blood. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 773(1), 75-82 (2002).
34. Kristoffersen L, Skuterud B, Larssen BR, Skurtveit S, Smith-Kielland A. Fast quantification of ethanol in whole blood specimens by the enzymatic alcohol dehydrogenase method. Optimization by experimental design. J. Anal. Toxicol. 29(1), 66-70 (2005).
35. De Benedetto GE, Fanigiliulo M. A new CE-ESIMS method for the detection of stable hemoglobin acetaldehyde adducts, potential biomarkers of alcohol abuse. Electrophoresis. 30(10), 1798-1807 (2009).
36. Takeshita T, Morimoto K. Accumulation of hemoglobinassociated acetaldehyde with habitual alcohol drinking in the atypical ALDH2 genotype. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 24(1), 1-7 (2000).
37. Toennes SW, Wagner MG, Kauert GF. Application of LCTOF MS to analysis of hemoglobin acetaldehyde adducts in alcohol detoxification patients. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 398(2), 769-777 (2010).
38. Pragst F, Auwaerter V, Sporkert F, Spiegel K. Analysis of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair as possible markers of chronically elevated alcohol consumption by headspace solidphase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS). Forensic Sci. Int. 121(1-2), 76-88 (2001).
39. Politi L, Morini L, Groppi A, Poloni V, Pozzi F, Polettini A. Direct determination of the ethanol metabolites ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine by liquid chromatography/electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 19(10), 1321-1331 (2005).
40. Auwärter V, Sporkert F, Hartwig S, Pragst F, Vater H, Diefenbacher a. Fatty acid ethyl esters in hair as markers of alcohol consumption. Segmental hair analysis of alcoholics, social drinkers, and teetotalers. Clin. Chem. 47, 2114-2123 (2001).
41. Kulaga V, Pragst F, Koren G. The fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) hair test: emerging technology for the diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Ann. Toxicol. Anal. 21(2), 61-65 (2009).
42. Caprara DL, Klein J, Koren G. Baseline measures of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair of neonates born to abstaining or mild social drinking mothers. Ther. Drug Monit. 27(6), 811-815 (2005).
43. Moore C, Jones J, Lewis D, Buchi K. Prevalence of fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium specimens. Clin. Chem. 49(1), 133-136 (2003).
44. Ostrea EM, Hernandez JD, Bielawski DM et al. Fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium: are they biomarkers of fetal alcohol exposure and effect? Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 30(7), 1152-1159 (2006).
45. Roehsig M, de Paula DML, Moura S, Diniz EMDA, Yonamine M. Determination of eight fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium samples by headspace solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Sep. Sci. 33(14), 2115-2122 (2010).
46. Zimmermann CM, Jackson GP. Gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for biomarkers of alcohol abuse in human hair. Ther. Drug Monit. 32(2), 216-223 (2010).
47. Cabarcos P, Álvarez I, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ, López P, Fernández P. Analysis of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Anal. Lett. 42(916770576), 2962-2977 (2009).
48. Cabarcos P, Tabernero MJ, Álvarez I, Miguez M, Fernández P, Bermejo AM. A new method for quantifying prenatal exposure to ethanol by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of meconium followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 404(1), 147-155 (2012).
49. De Giovanni N, Donadio G, Chiarotti M. The reliability of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) as biological markers for the diagnosis of alcohol abuse. J. Anal. Toxicol. 31(2), 93-97 (2007).
50. González-Illán F, Ojeda-Torres G, Díaz-Vázquez LM, Rosario O. Detection of fatty acid ethyl esters in skin surface lipids as biomarkers of ethanol consumption in alcoholics, social drinkers, light drinkers, and teetotalers using a methodology based on microwave-assisted extraction followed by solidphase microextrac. J. Anal. Toxicol. 35(4), 232-237 (2011).
51. Pichini S, Pellegrini M, Gareri J et al. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for fatty acidethyl esters in meconium: assessment of prenatal exposure to alcohol in two European cohorts. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 48(3), 927-933 (2008).
52. Chan D, Bar-Oz B, Pellerin B et al. Population baseline of meconium fatty acid ethyl esters among infants of nondrinking women in Jerusalem and Toronto. Ther. Drug Monit. 25(3), 271-278 (2003).
53. Bearer CF, Santiago LM, O'Riordan MA, Buck K, Lee SC, Singer LT. Fatty acid ethyl esters: quantitative biomarkers for maternal alcohol consumption. J. Pediatr. 146(6), 824-830 (2005).
54. Kwak H-S, Kang Y-S, Han K-O et al. Quantitation of fatty acid ethyl esters in human meconium by an improved liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B. Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 878(21), 1871-1874 (2010).
55. Garcia-Algar O, Kulaga V, Gareri J et al. Alarming prevalence of fetal alcohol exposure in a Mediterranean city. Ther. Drug Monit. 30(2), 249-254 (2008).
56. Himes SK, Concheiro M, Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. Validation of a novel method to identify in utero ethanol exposure: simultaneous meconium extraction of fatty acid ethyl esters, ethyl glucuronide, and ethyl sulfate followed by LC-MS/MS quantification. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 406(7), 1945-1955 (2014).
57. Hutson JR, Rao C, Fulga N, Aleksa K, Koren G. An improved method for rapidly quantifying fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium suitable for prenatal alcohol screening. Alcohol 45(2), 193-199 (2011).
58. Pragst F, Auwärter V, Kiessling B, Dyes C. Wipe-test and patch-test for alcohol misuse based on the concentration ratio of fatty acid ethyl esters and squalene CFAEE/CSQ in skin surface lipids. Forensic Sci. Int. 143(2-3), 77-86 (2004).
59. Borucki K, Kunstmann S, Dierkes J et al. In heavy drinkers fatty acid ethyl esters in the serum are increased for 44 hr after ethanol consumption. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 28(7), 1102-1106 (2004).
60. Refaai MA, Nguyen PN, Steffensen TS, Evans RJ, Cluette-Brown JE, Laposata M. Liver and adipose tissue fatty acid ethyl esters obtained at autopsy are postmortem markers for premortem ethanol intake. Clin. Chem. 48(1), 77-83 (2002).
61. Kulig CC, Beresford TP, Everson GT. Rapid, accurate, and sensitive fatty acid ethyl ester determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 147(3), 133-138 (2006).
62. Yegles M, Labarthe A, Auwärter V et al. Comparison of ethyl glucuronide and fatty acid ethyl ester concentrations in hair of alcoholics, social drinkers and teetotallers. Forensic Sci. Int. 145(2-3), 167-173 (2004).
63. Kintz P. 2014 Consensus for the use of alcohol markers in hair for assessment of both abstinence and chronic excessive alcohol consumption. Forensic Sci. Int. 249, A1-A2 (2015).
64. Bakdash A, Burger P, Goecke TW et al. Quantification of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) in meconium from newborns for detection of alcohol abuse in a maternal health evaluation study. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 396(7), 2469-2477 (2010).
65. Politi L, Mari F, Furlanetto S, Del Bravo E, Bertol E. Determination of fatty acid ethyl esters in hair by GC-MS and application in a population of cocaine users. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 54(5), 1192-1195 (2011).
66. Kharbouche H, Sporkert F, Troxler S, Augsburger M, Mangin P, Staub C. Development and validation of a gas chromatography-negative chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair and its application to forensic toxicology. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 877(23), 2337-2343 (2009).
67. Cabarcos P, Hassan HM, Tabernero MJ, Scott KS. Analysis of ethyl glucuronide in hair samples by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). J. Appl. Toxicol. 33(7), 638-643 (2013).
68. Tarcomnicu I, van Nuijs AL, Aerts K, De Doncker M, Covaci A, Neels H. Ethyl glucuronide determination in meconium and hair by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci. Int. 196(1-3), 121-127 (2010).
69. Lamoureux F, Gaulier JM, Sauvage FL, Mercerolle M, Vallejo C, Lachâtre G. Determination of ethyl-glucuronide in hair for heavy drinking detection using liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry following solid-phase extraction. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 394(7), 1895-1901 (2009).
70. Álvarez I, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ, Fernández P, Cabarcos P, López P. Microwave-assisted extraction: a simpler and faster method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 393(4), 1345-1350 (2009).
71. Zimmer H, Schmitt G, Aderjan R. Preliminary immunochemical test for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in serum and urine: comparison of screening method results with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 26(1), 11-16 (2002).
72. Jung B, Caslavska J, Thormann W. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in human serum by capillary zone electrophoresis and an immunoassay. J. Sep. Sci. 32(20), 3497-3506 (2009).
73. Kivánková L, Caslavska J, Malášková H, Gebauer P, Thormann W. Analysis of ethyl glucuronide in human serum by capillary electrophoresis with sample self-stacking and indirect detection. J. Chromatogr. A. 1081(1), 2-8 (2005).
74. Nováková M, Kivánková L. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in human serum by hyphenation of capillary isotachophoresis and zone electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 29(8), 1694-1700 (2008).
75. Caslavska J, Jung B, Thormann W. Confirmation analysis of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in human serum and urine by CZE-ESI-MS(n) after intake of alcoholic beverages. Electrophoresis 32(13), 1760-1764 (2011).
76. Paul R, Tsanaclis L, Kingston R, Berry A, Guwy A. Simultaneous determination of GHB and EtG in hair using GCMS/MS. Drug Test. Anal. 3(4), 201-205 (2011).
77. Paul R, Kingston R, Tsanaclis L, Berry A, Guwy A. Do drug users use less alcohol than non-drug users? A comparison of ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair between the two groups in medico-legal cases. Forensic Sci. Int. 176, 82-86 (2008).
78. Freire I, Barrera A, Silva P, Duque M, Gomez P, Eijo P. Microwave assisted extraction for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Appl. Toxicol. 28(2), 773-778 (2008).
79. Janda I, Alt A. Improvement of ethyl glucuronide determination in human urine and serum samples by solid-phase extraction. J. Chromatogr. B. Biomed. Sci. Appl. 758(2), 229-234 (2001).
80. Jurado C, Soriano T, Giménez MP, Menéndez M. Diagnosis of chronic alcohol consumption: hair analysis for ethylglucuronide. Forensic Sci. Int. 145(2-3), 161-166 (2004).
81. Matlow JN, Aleksa K, Lubetsky A, Koren G. The detection and quantification of ethyl glucuronide in placental tissue and placental perfusate by headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Popul. Ther. Clin. Pharmacol. 19(3), e473-e482 (2012).
82. Agius R, Nadulski T, Kahl HG et al. Validation of a headspace solid-phase microextraction-GC-MS/MS for the determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair according to forensic guidelines. Forensic Sci. Int. 196(1-3), 3-9 (2010).
83. Mönch B, Becker R, Jung C, Nehls I. The homogeneity testing of EtG in hair reference materials: a high-throughput procedure using GC-NCI-MS. Forensic Sci. Int. 226(1-3), 202-207 (2013).
84. Keten A, Zeren C, Arslan MM, Daglioglu N, Karanfil R, Sen BB. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in fingernails by LC/MS-MS. Rom. J. Leg. Med. 21(1), 67-72 (2013).
85. Jones J. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay to detect ethyl glucuronide in human fingernail: comparison to hair and gender differences. Am. J. Anal. Chem. 03(01), 83-91 (2012).
86. Yaldiz F, Daglioglu N, Hilal A, Keten A, Gulmen MK. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in human hair by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Forensic Leg. Med. 20(7), 799-802 (2013).
87. Turfus SC, Beyer J, Gerostamoulos D, Drummer OH. A comparison of the performance of quality controls prepared from spiked, fortified and authentic hair for ethyl glucuronide analysis. Forensic Sci. Int. 232(1-3), 60-66 (2013).
88. Pirro V, Di Corcia D, Seganti F, Salomone A, Vincenti M. Determination of ethyl glucuronide levels in hair for the assessment of alcohol abstinence. Forensic Sci. Int. 232(1-3), 229-236 (2013).
89. Morini L, Colucci M, Ruberto MG, Groppi A. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in nails by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry as a potential new biomarker for chronic alcohol abuse and binge drinking behavior. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 402(5), 1865-1870 (2012).
90. Albermann ME, Musshoff F, Aengenheister L, Madea B. Investigations on the influence of different grinding procedures on measured ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair determined with an optimized and validated LC-MS/ MS method. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 403(3), 769-776 (2012).
91. Albermann ME, Musshoff F, Madea B. A high-performance liquid chromatographictandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine validated according to forensic guidelines. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 50(1), 51-56 (2012).
92. Imbert L, Gaulier JM, Dulaurent S et al. Improved liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method for the determination of ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair: applications to forensic cases. Int. J. Legal Med. 128(1), 53-58 (2014).
93. Concheiro M, Cruz A, Mon M et al. Ethylglucuronide determination in urine and hair from alcohol withdrawal patients. J. Anal. Toxicol. 33(3), 155-161 (2009).
94. Kintz P, Villain M, Vallet E, Etter M, Salquebre G, Cirimele V. Ethyl glucuronide: unusual distribution between head hair and pubic hair. Forensic Sci. Int. 176(1), 87-90 (2008).
95. Kronstrand R, Brinkhagen L, Nyström FH. Ethyl glucuronide in human hair after daily consumption of 16 or 32 g of ethanol for 3 months. Forensic Sci. Int. 215(1-3), 51-55 (2012).
96. Morini L, Politi L, Groppi A, Stramesi C, Polettini A. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in hair samples by liquid chromatography/electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. J. Mass Spectrom. 41(1), 34-42 (2006).
97. Stephanson N, Dahl H, Helander A, Beck O. Direct quantification of ethyl glucuronide in clinical urine samples by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Ther. Drug Monit. 24(5), 645-651 (2002).
98. Weinmann W, Schaefer P, Thierauf A, Schreiber A, Wurst FM. Confirmatory analysis of ethylglucuronide in urine by liquid-chromatography/electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry according to forensic guidelines. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 15(2), 188-193 (2004).
99. Hegstad S, Helland A, Hagemann C, Michelsen L, Spigset O. EtG/EtS in urine from sexual assault victims determined by UPLC-MS-MS. J. Anal. Toxicol. 37(4), 227-232 (2013).
100. Schloegl H, Rost T, Schmidt W, Wurst FM, Weinmann W. Distribution of ethyl glucuronide in rib bone marrow, other tissues and body liquids as proof of alcohol consumption before death. Forensic Sci. Int. 156(2-3), 213-218 (2006).
101. Bicker W, Lämmerhofer M, Keller T, Schuhmacher R, Krska R, Lindner W. Validated method for the determination of the ethanol consumption markers ethyl glucuronide, ethyl phosphate, and ethyl sulfate in human urine by reversedphase/ weak anion exchange liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 78(16), 5884-5892 (2006).
102. Hegstad S, Johnsen L, MØrland J, Christophersen AS. Determination of ethylglucuronide in oral fluid by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Toxicol. 33(4), 204-207 (2009).
103. Kaufmann E, Alt A. Detection of ethyl glucuronide in dried human blood using LC-MS/MS. Int. J. Legal Med. 122(3), 245-249 (2008).
104. Morini L, Falcón M, Pichini S et al. Ethyl-glucuronide and ethyl-sulfate in placental and fetal tissues by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Biochem. 418(1), 30-36 (2011).
105. Goll M, Schmitt G, Ganssmann B, Aderjan RE. Excretion profiles of ethyl glucuronide in human urine after internal dilution. J. Anal. Toxicol. 26(5), 262-266 (2002).
106. Morini L, Politi L, Zucchella A, Polettini A. Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulphate determination in serum by liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Clin. Chim. Acta 376(1-2), 213-219 (2007).
107. Lostia AM, Vicente JL, Cowan DA. Measurement of ethyl glucuronide, ethyl sulphate and their ratio in the urine and serum of healthy volunteers after two doses of alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(1), 74-82 (2013).
108. Zeren C, Keten A, Çelik S et al. Demonstration of ethyl glucuronide in dental tissue samples by liquid chromatography/electro-spray tandem mass spectrometry. J. Forensic Leg. Med. 20(6), 706-710 (2013).
109. Janda I, Weinmann W, Kuehnle T, Lahore M, Alt A. Determination of ethyl-glucuronide in human hair by SPE and LC-MS/MS. Forensic Sci. Int. t1128, 59-65 (2002).
110. Hernández Redondo A, Schroeck A, Kneubuehl B, Weinmann W. Determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate from dried blood spots. Int. J. Legal Med. 127(4), 769-775 (2013).
111. Hernández Redondo A, Körber C, König S, Längin A, Al-Ahmad A, Weinmann W. Inhibition of bacterial degradation of EtG by collection as dried urine spots (DUS). Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 402(7), 2417-2424 (2012).
112. Winkler M, Kaufmann E, Thoma D et al. Detection of ethyl glucuronide in blood spotted on different surfaces. Forensic Sci. Int. 210(1-3), 243-246 (2011).
113. Morini L, Marchei E, Pellegrini M et al. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection for the measurement of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in meconium: new biomarkers of gestational ethanol exposure? Ther. Drug Monit. 30(6), 725-732 (2008).
114. Mönch B, Becker R, Nehls I. Quantification of ethyl glucuronide in hair: effect of milling on extraction efficiency. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(5), 558-563 (2013).
115. Pirro V, Di Corcia D, Pellegrino S, Vincenti M, Sciutteri B, Salomone A. A study of distribution of ethyl glucuronide in different keratin matrices. Forensic Sci. Int. 210(1-3), 271-277 (2011).
116. HØiseth G, Karinen R, Christophersen AS, Olsen L, Normann PT, MØrland J. A study of ethyl glucuronide in post-mortem blood as a marker of ante-mortem ingestion of alcohol. Forensic Sci. Int. 165(1), 41-45 (2007).
117. HØiseth G, Yttredal B, Karinen R, Gjerde H, Christophersen A. Levels of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in oral fluid, blood, and urine after use of mouthwash and ingestion of nonalcoholic wine. J. Anal. Toxicol. 34(2), 84-88 (2010).
118. Favretto D, Nalesso A, Frison G, Viel G, Traldi P, Ferrara SD. A novel and an effective analytical approach for the LC-MS determination of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in urine. Int. J. Legal Med. 124(2), 161-164 (2010).
119. Beyer J, Vo TN, Gerostamoulos D, Drummer OH. Validated method for the determination of ethylglucuronide and ethylsulfate in human urine. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 400(1), 189-196 (2011).
120. Agius R, Nadulski T, Kahl HG, Dufaux B. Ethyl glucuronide in hair-a highly effective test for the monitoring of alcohol consumption. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1-3), 10-14 (2012).
121. Kaushik R, LaCourse WR, Levine B. Determination of ethyl glucuronide in urine using reversed-phase HPLC and pulsed electrochemical detection (Part II). Anal. Chim. Acta 556(2), 267-274 (2006).
122. Shah R, LaCourse WR. An improved method to detect ethyl glucuronide in urine using reversed-phase liquid chromatography and pulsed electrochemical detection. Anal. Chim. Acta 576(2), 239-245 (2006).
123. Boscolo-Berto R, Favretto D, Cecchetto G et al. Sensitivity and specificity of EtG in hair as a marker of chronic excessive drinking: pooled analysis of raw data and meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy studies. Ther. Drug Monit. 36(5), 560-575 (2014).
124. Morini L, Marchei E, Vagnarelli F et al. Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in meconium and hair-potential biomarkers of intrauterine exposure to ethanol. Forensic Sci. Int. 196(1-3), 74-77 (2010).
125. Pichini S, Marchei E, Vagnarelli F et al. Assessment of prenatal exposure to ethanol by meconium analysis: results of an Italian multicenter study. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 36(3), 417-424 (2012).
126. Morini L, Marchei E, Tarani L et al. Testing ethylglucuronide in maternal hair and nails for the assessment of fetal exposure to alcohol: comparison with meconium testing. Ther. Drug Monit. 35(3), 402-407 (2013).
127. Pichini S, Morini L, Pacifici R et al. Development of a new immunoassay for the detection of ethyl glucuronide (EtG) in meconium: validation with authentic specimens analyzed using LC-MS/MS. Preliminary results. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 52(8), 1179-1185 (2014).
128. Suesse S, Pragst F, Mieczkowski T et al. Practical experiences in application of hair fatty acid ethyl esters and ethyl glucuronide for detection of chronic alcohol abuse in forensic cases. Forensic Sci. Int. 218(1-3), 82-91 (2012).
129. Helander A, Beck O. Mass spectrometric identification of ethyl sulfate as an ethanol metabolite in humans. Clin. Chem. 50(5), 936-937 (2004).
130. Dresen S, Weinmann W, Wurst FM. Forensic confirmatory analysis of ethyl sulfate-a new marker for alcohol consumption-by liquid-chromatography/electrospray ionization/tandem mass spectrometry. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 15(11), 1644-1648 (2004).
131. Bunz SC, Weinmann W, Neusüß C. The selective determination of sulfates, sulfonates, and phosphates in urine by capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry. Electrophoresis 31, 1274-1281 (2010).
132. Jung B, Caslavska J, Thormann W. Determination of ethyl sulfate in human serum and urine by capillary zone electrophoresis. J. Chromatogr. A. 1206(1), 26-32 (2008).
133. Esteve-Turrillas FA, Bicker W, Lämmerhofer M, Keller T, Lindner W. Determination of ethyl sulfate-a marker for recent ethanol consumption-in human urine by CE with indirect UV detection. Electrophoresis 27(23), 4763-4771 (2006).
134. Helander A, Zheng Y. Molecular species of the alcohol biomarker phosphatidylethanol in human blood measured by LC-MS. Clin. Chem. 55(7), 1395-1405 (2009).
135. Gnann H, Engelmann C, Skopp G et al. Identification of 48 homologues of phosphatidylethanol in blood by LC-ESI-MS/ MS. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 396(7), 2415-2423 (2010).
136. Zheng Y, Beck O, Helander A. Method development for routine liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry measurement of the alcohol biomarker phosphatidylethanol (PEth) in blood. Clin. Chim. Acta 412(15-16), 1428-1435 (2011).
137. Varga A, Nilsson S. Nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis for analysis of the ethanol consumption biomarker phosphatidylethanol. Electrophoresis 29(8), 1667-1671 (2008).
138. Gnann H, Weinmann W, Engelmann C et al. Selective detection of phosphatidylethanol homologues in blood as biomarkers for alcohol consumption by LC-ESI-MS/MS. J. Mass Spectrom. 44(9), 1293-1299 (2009).
139. Kwak HS, Han J-Y, Ahn H-K et al. Blood levels of phosphatidylethanol in pregnant women reporting positive alcohol ingestion, measured by an improved LC-MS/MS analytical method. Clin. Toxicol. 50(10), 886-891 (2012).
140. Faller A, Richter B, Kluge M et al. LC-MS/MS analysis of phosphatidylethanol in dried blood spots versus conventional blood specimens. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 401(4), 1163-1166 (2011).
141. Cabarcos P, Angel Cocho J, Moreda A et al. Application of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the determination of phosphatidylethanol in blood by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 111C, 189-195 (2013).
142. Nalesso A, Viel G, Cecchetto G et al. Quantitative profiling of phosphatidylethanol molecular species in human blood by liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A. 1218(46), 8423-8431 (2011).
143. Tolonen A, Lehto TM, Hannuksela ML, Savolainen MJ. A method for determination of phosphatidylethanol from high density lipoproteins by reversed-phase HPLC with TOF-MS detection. Anal. Biochem. 341(1), 83-88 (2005).
144. Jones J, Jones M, Plate C, Lewis D. The detection of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanol in human dried blood spots. Anal. Methods 3(5), 1101 (2011).
145. Stewart SH, Law TL, Randall PK, Newman R. Phosphatidylethanol and alcohol consumption in reproductive age women. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 34(3), 488-492 (2010).
146. Aradóttir S, Seidl S, Wurst FM, Jö nsson B AG, Alling C. Phosphatidylethanol in human organs and blood: a study on autopsy material and influences by storage conditions. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 28(11), 1718-1723 (2004).
147. Aradottir S, Olsson BL. Methodological modifications on quantification of phosphatidylethanol in blood from humans abusing alcohol, using high-performance liquid chromatography and evaporative light scattering detection. BMC Biochem. 6, 18 (2005).
148. Nalesso A, Viel G, Cecchetto G, Frison G, Ferrara SD. Analysis of the alcohol biomarker phosphatidylethanol by NACE with on-line ESI-MS. Electrophoresis 31(7), 1227-1233 (2010).
149. Helander A, Ullah S, Beck O. Phosphatidylethanols in breath: a possible noninvasive screening test for heavy alcohol consumption. Clin. Chem. 7(61), 991-993 (2015).
150. Hansson P, Varga A, Krantz P, Alling C. Phosphatidylethanol in post-mortem blood as a marker of previous heavy drinking. Int. J. Legal Med. 115(3), 158-161 (2001).
151. Viel G, Boscolo-Berto R, Cecchetto G, Fais P, Nalesso A, Ferrara S. Phosphatidylethanol in blood as a marker of chronic alcohol use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13(12), 14788-14812 (2012).
152. Nissinen AE, Mäkelä SM, Vuoristo JT et al. Immunological detection of in vitro formed phosphatidylethanol-an alcohol biomarker-with monoclonal antibodies. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 32(6), 921-928 (2008).