Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and their functional correlations in neurodegenerative diseases

Journal of Neural Transmission

Volumn 119, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 891-910

  Ramalingam, Mahesh ^a   Kim, Sung Jin ^a  

^a Kyung Hee University   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Apoptosis; Free radicals; Necrosis; Neurodegeneration; Neurons; Signaling

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CASPASE 3; CASPASE 9; COPPER ZINC SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; CYTOCHROME C; DEOXYADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE; FLAVONOID; GINSENOSIDE; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; I KAPPA B; ISOFLAVONE; MANGANESE SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; MITOCHONDRIAL PROTEIN; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; NERVE GROWTH FACTOR; NITRIC OXIDE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; PEROXYNITRITE; POLYPHENOL; PROTEIN KINASE B; REACTIVE NITROGEN SPECIES; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; STRESS ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; APOPTOSIS; BRAIN CELL; CELL DEATH; CELL FUNCTION; DNA DAMAGE; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; LIPID PEROXIDATION; MITOCHONDRIAL RESPIRATION; MORTALITY; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN INTERACTION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STROKE;

ANIMALS; BRAIN; FREE RADICALS; HUMANS; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES; REACTIVE NITROGEN SPECIES; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES;

EID: 84865018923     PISSN: 03009564     EISSN: 14351463     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00702-011-0758-7     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Abe-Dohmae S, Harada N, Yamada K, Tanaka R (1993) Bcl-2 gene is highly expressed during neurogenesis in the central nervous system. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 191(3):915-921. doi: S0006291X83713045[pii] (Pubitemid 23231577)
2. Allsopp TE, Wyatt S, Paterson HF, Davies AM (1993) The proto-oncogene bcl-2 can selectively rescue neurotrophic factor-dependent neurons from apoptosis. Cell 73(2):295-307 (Pubitemid 23123308)
3. Andreassen OA, Ferrante RJ, Dedeoglu A, Albers DW, Klivenyi P, Carlson EJ, Epstein CJ, Beal MF (2001) Mice with a partial deficiency of manganese superoxide dismutase show increased vulnerability to the mitochondrial toxins malonate, 3-nitropropionic acid, and MPTP. Exp Neurol 167(1):189-195. doi: 10.1006/exnr.2000.7525 (Pubitemid 32066422)
4. Andreyev AY, Kushnareva YE, Starkov AA (2005) Mitochondrial metabolism of reactive oxygen species. Biochemistry (Mosc) 70(2):200-214 (Pubitemid 40512329)
5. Bae BI, Xu H, Igarashi S, Fujimuro M, Agrawal N, Taya Y, Hayward SD, Moran TH, Montell C, Ross CA, Snyder SH, Sawa A (2005) p53 mediates cellular dysfunction and behavioral abnormalities in Huntington's disease. Neuron 47(1):29-41. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2005.06.005 (Pubitemid 40922848)
6. Baeuerle PA, Baltimore D (1996) NF-kappa B: ten years after. Cell 87(1):13-20 (Pubitemid 26337386)
7. Bamford KA, Caine ED, Kido DK, Cox C, Shoulson I (1995) A prospective evaluation of cognitive decline in early Huntington's disease: functional and radiographic correlates. Neurology 45(10):1867-1873 (Pubitemid 27122960)
8. Banati RB, Gehrmann J, Schubert P, Kreutzberg GW (1993) Cytotoxicity of microglia. Glia 7(1):111-118. doi: 10.1002/glia.440070117
9. Bannai S, Ishii T (1982) Transport of cystine and cysteine and cell growth in cultured human diploid fibroblasts: effect of glutamate and homocysteate. J Cell Physiol 112(2):265-272. doi: 10.1002/jcp.1041120216 (Pubitemid 12097396)
10. Beal MF (1992) Does impairment of energy metabolism result in excitotoxic neuronal death in neurodegenerative illnesses? Ann Neurol 31(2):119-130. doi: 10.1002/ana.410310202
11. Beal MF (1996) Mitochondria, free radicals, and neurodegeneration. Curr Opin Neurobiol 6(5):661-666 (Pubitemid 26387722)
12. Beal MF (2000) Energetics in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Trends Neurosci 23(7):298-304 (Pubitemid 30387044)
13. Beal MF, Ferrante RJ, Browne SE, Matthews RT, Kowall NW, Brown RH Jr (1997) Increased 3-nitrotyrosine in both sporadic and familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Ann Neurol 42(4):644-654. doi: 10.1002/ana.410420416 (Pubitemid 27439028)
14. Becker T, Gebert M, Pfanner N, van der Laan M (2009) Biogenesis of mitochondrial membrane proteins. Curr Opin Cell Biol 21(4):484-493. doi: 10.1016/j.ceb.2009.04.002
15. Beckman JS (1996) Oxidative damage and tyrosine nitration from peroxynitrite. Chem Res Toxicol 9(5):836-844. doi: 10.1021/tx9501445 (Pubitemid 26250576)
16. Behl C, Davis J, Cole GM, Schubert D (1992) Vitamin E protects nerve cells from amyloid beta protein toxicity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 186(2):944-950
17. Benard G, Faustin B, Passerieux E, Galinier A, Rocher C, Bellance N, Delage JP, Casteilla L, Letellier T, Rossignol R (2006) Physiological diversity of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 291(6):C1172-C1182. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00195.2006 (Pubitemid 44878587)
18. Benedetti A, Comporti M, Esterbauer H (1980) Identification of 4-hydroxynonenal as a cytotoxic product originating from the peroxidation of liver microsomal lipids. Biochim Biophys Acta 620(2):281-296 (Pubitemid 11216247)
19. Bergeron C (1995) Oxidative stress: its role in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 129(Suppl):81-84
20. Bjelland S, Seeberg E (2003) Mutagenicity, toxicity and repair of DNA base damage induced by oxidation. Mutat Res 531(1-2):37-80 (Pubitemid 37456723)
21. Bolanos JP, Heales SJ, Peuchen S, Barker JE, Land JM, Clark JB (1996) Nitric oxide-mediated mitochondrial damage: a potential neuroprotective role for glutathione. Free Radic Biol Med 21(7):995-1001 (Pubitemid 26365953)
22. Bolokadze N, Lobjanidze I, Momtselidze N, Solomonia R, Shakarishvili R, McHedlishvili G (2004) Blood rheological properties and lipid peroxidation in cerebral and systemic circulation of neurocritical patients. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc 30(2):99-105 (Pubitemid 38402422)
23. Bowling AC, Schulz JB, Brown RH Jr, Beal MF (1993) Superoxide dismutase activity, oxidative damage, and mitochondrial energy metabolism in familial and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurochem 61(6):2322-2325 (Pubitemid 23354097)
24. Brigelius-Flohe R (1999) Tissue-specific functions of individual glutathione peroxidases. Free Radic Biol Med 27(9-10):951-965 (Pubitemid 29507469)
25. Browne SE, Ferrante RJ, Beal MF (1999) Oxidative stress in Huntington's disease. Brain Pathol 9(1):147-163 (Pubitemid 29056525)
26. Brunet A, Bonni A, Zigmond MJ, Lin MZ, Juo P, Hu LS, Anderson MJ, Arden KC, Blenis J, Greenberg ME (1999) Akt promotes cell survival by phosphorylating and inhibiting a Forkhead transcription factor. Cell 96(6):857-868 (Pubitemid 29165088)
27. Brunk UT, Terman A (2002) Lipofuscin: mechanisms of age-related accumulation and influence on cell function. Free Radic Biol Med 33(5):611-619 (Pubitemid 35245833)
28. Burke RE (1999) Parkinson's disease. In: Koliatsos VE, Ratan RR (eds) Cell death and diseases of the nervous system. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 459-475
29. Butterfield DA, Kanski J (2001) Brain protein oxidation in age-related neurodegenerative disorders that are associated with aggregated proteins. Mech Ageing Dev 122(9):945-962 (Pubitemid 32441616)
30. Buttke TM, Sandstrom PA (1994) Oxidative stress as a mediator of apoptosis. Immunol Today 15(1):7-10 (Pubitemid 24035087)
31. Chalovich EM, Zhu JH, Caltagarone J, Bowser R, Chu CT (2006) Functional repression of cAMP response element in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated neuronal cells. J Biol Chem 281(26):17870-17881. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M602632200 (Pubitemid 44035586)
32. Chan PH (2004) Mitochondria and neuronal death/survival signaling pathways in cerebral ischemia. Neurochem Res 29(11):1943-1949 (Pubitemid 39663875)
33. Chang J, Siedlak S, Moreira P, Nunomura A, Castellani RJ, Smith MA, Zhu X, Perry G, Casadesus G (2011) Oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease: a critical appraisal of the causes and the consequences. In: Basu S, Wiklund L (eds) Studies on experimental models. Oxidative stress in applied basic research and clinical practice. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 211-220. doi: 10.1007/978-1-60761-956-7-9
34. Chen J, Nagayama T, Jin K, Stetler RA, Zhu RL, Graham SH, Simon RP (1998) Induction of caspase-3-like protease may mediate delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus after transient cerebral ischemia. J Neurosci 18(13):4914-4928 (Pubitemid 28285400)
35. Chu CT, Berman SB (2011) Mitochondrial fission-fusion and Parkinson's disease: a dynamic question of compensatory networks. In: Lu B (ed) Mitochondrial dynamics and neurodegeneration. Springer, Netherlands, pp 197-213. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-1291-1-7
36. Coles B, Ketterer B (1990) The role of glutathione and glutathione transferases in chemical carcinogenesis. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 25(1):47-70. doi: 10.3109/10409239009090605
37. Coyle JT, Puttfarcken P (1993) Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders. Science 262(5134):689-695 (Pubitemid 23350687)
38. Cui J, Holmes EH, Greene TG, Liu PK (2000) Oxidative DNA damage precedes DNA fragmentation after experimental stroke in rat brain. FASEB J 14(7):955-967 (Pubitemid 30241673)
39. Culotta VC, Yang M, O'Halloran TV (2006) Activation of superoxide dismutases: putting the metal to the pedal. Biochim Biophys Acta 1763(7):747-758. doi: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2006.05.003 (Pubitemid 44189546)
40. Dawson VL, Dawson TM (1996) Nitric oxide neurotoxicity. J Chem Neuroanat 10(3-4):179-190 (Pubitemid 26197684)
41. de Belleroche J, Orrell R, King A (1995) Familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neurone disease (FALS): a review of current developments. J Med Genet 32(11):841-847
42. Demirkaya S, Topcuoglu MA, Aydin A, Ulas UH, Isimer AI, Vural O (2001) Malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase in peripheral blood erythrocytes of patients with acute cerebral ischemia. Eur J Neurol 8(1):43-51 (Pubitemid 32154573)
43. Desagher S, Glowinski J, Premont J (1996) Astrocytes protect neurons from hydrogen peroxide toxicity. J Neurosci 16(8):2553-2562 (Pubitemid 26122677)
44. Deschamps V, Barberger-Gateau P, Peuchant E, Orgogozo JM (2001) Nutritional factors in cerebral aging and dementia: epidemiological arguments for a role of oxidative stress. Neuroepidemiology 20(1):7-15 (Pubitemid 32171133)
45. Dringen R, Gutterer JM, Hirrlinger J (2000) Glutathione metabolism in brain metabolic interaction between astrocytes and neurons in the defense against reactive oxygen species. Eur J Biochem 267(16):4912-4916 (Pubitemid 30641287)
46. Du H, Yan SS (2010) Mitochondrial medicine for neurodegenerative diseases. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 42(5):560-572. doi: 10.1016/j.biocel.2010.01. 004
47. Dubois RN, Abramson SB, Crofford L, Gupta RA, Simon LS, Van De Putte LB, Lipsky PE (1998) Cyclooxygenase in biology and disease. FASEB J 12(12):1063-1073 (Pubitemid 28418937)
48. Ebadi M, Srinivasan SK, Baxi MD (1996) Oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 48(1):1-19 (Pubitemid 26111215)
49. Eguchi Y, Shimizu S, Tsujimoto Y (1997) Intracellular ATP levels determine cell death fate by apoptosis or necrosis. Cancer Res 57(10):1835-1840 (Pubitemid 27209706)
50. Emerit J, Edeas M, Bricaire F (2004) Neurodegenerative diseases and oxidative stress. Biomed Pharmacother 58(1):39-46 (Pubitemid 38117047)
51. Endres M, Wang ZQ, Namura S, Waeber C, Moskowitz MA (1997) Ischemic brain injury is mediated by the activation of poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 17(11):1143-1151. doi: 10.1097/00004647-199711000-00002 (Pubitemid 27514738)
52. Enomoto A, Itoh K, Nagayoshi E, Haruta J, Kimura T, O'Connor T, Harada T, Yamamoto M (2001) High sensitivity of Nrf2 knockout mice to acetaminophen hepatotoxicity associated with decreased expression of ARE-regulated drug metabolizing enzymes and antioxidant genes. Toxicol Sci 59(1):169-177 (Pubitemid 32117993)
53. Ferrante RJ, Browne SE, Shinobu LA, Bowling AC, Baik MJ, MacGarvey U, Kowall NW, Brown RH Jr, Beal MF (1997) Evidence of increased oxidative damage in both sporadic and familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Neurochem 69(5):2064-2074 (Pubitemid 27452754)
54. Fields RD, Stevens-Graham B (2002) New insights into neuron-glia communication. Science 298(5593):556-562. doi: 10.1126/science.298.5593.556 (Pubitemid 35215303)
55. Finkelstein E, Rosen GM, Rauckman EJ (1980) Spin trapping of superoxide and hydroxyl radical: practical aspects. Arch Biochem Biophys 200(1):1-16
56. Florence TM (1992) The role of free radicals in cancer and aging. In: Dreosti IE (ed) Trace elements, micronutrients, and free radicals. Contemporary issues in biomedicine, ethics, and society. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 171-198. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4612-0419-0-8
57. Floyd RA (1999) Antioxidants, oxidative stress, and degenerative neurological disorders. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 222(3):236-245 (Pubitemid 129708638)
58. Floyd RA, Carney JM (1992) Free radical damage to protein and DNA: mechanisms involved and relevant observations on brain undergoing oxidative stress. Ann Neurol 32(Suppl):S22-S27
59. Floyd RA, West MS, Eneff KL, Schneider JE, Wong PK, Tingey DT, Hogsett WE (1990) Conditions influencing yield and analysis of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine in oxidatively damaged DNA. Anal Biochem 188(1):155-158 (Pubitemid 20215891)
60. Fridovich I (1986) Superoxide dismutases. Adv Enzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol 58:61-97
61. Friedman J (2011) The role of free radicals in the nervous system. In: Gadoth N, Göbel HH (eds) Oxidative stress and free radical damage in neurology. Oxidative stress in applied basic research and clinical practice, 1 edn. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 1-17. doi: 10.1007/978-1-60327-514-9-1
62. Fujimura M, Morita-Fujimura Y, Murakami K, Kawase M, Chan PH (1998) Cytosolic redistribution of cytochrome c after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18(11):1239-1247. doi: 10.1097/00004647- 199811000-00010 (Pubitemid 28509838)
63. Gabbita SP, Lovell MA, Markesbery WR (1998) Increased nuclear DNA oxidation in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem 71(5):2034-2040 (Pubitemid 28491559)
64. Giulian D, Li J, Li X, George J, Rutecki PA (1994) The impact of microglia-derived cytokines upon gliosis in the CNS. Dev Neurosci 16(3-4):128-136
65. Goldberg AL (2003) Protein degradation and protection against misfolded or damaged proteins. Nature 426(6968):895-899. doi: 10.1038/nature02263 (Pubitemid 38056882)
66. Gorman AM, McGowan A, O'Neill C, Cotter T (1996) Oxidative stress and apoptosis in neurodegeneration. J Neurol Sci 139(Suppl):45-52 (Pubitemid 26323580)
67. Gotz ME, Kunig G, Riederer P, Youdim MB (1994) Oxidative stress: free radical production in neural degeneration. Pharmacol Ther 63(1):37-122 (Pubitemid 24250150)
68. Greenamyre JT (1986) The role of glutamate in neurotransmission and in neurologic disease. Arch Neurol 43(10):1058-1063 (Pubitemid 16023670)
69. Grunewald T, Beal MF (1999) Bioenergetics in Huntington's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 893:203-213 (Pubitemid 30038077)
70. Guglielmo MA, Chan PT, Cortez S, Stopa EG, McMillan P, Johanson CE, Epstein M, Doberstein CE (1998) The temporal profile and morphologic features of neuronal death in human stroke resemble those observed in experimental forebrain ischemia: the potential role of apoptosis. Neurol Res 20(4):283-296 (Pubitemid 28247120)
71. Halliwell B (1992) Reactive oxygen species and the central nervous system. J Neurochem 59(5):1609-1623
72. Halliwell B (2006) Oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: where are we now? J Neurochem 97(6):1634-1658. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.03907.x (Pubitemid 43873658)
73. Halliwell B, Clement MV, Long LH (2000) Hydrogen peroxide in the human body. FEBS Lett 486(1):10-13
74. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC (1985) Oxygen radicals and the nervous system. Trends Neurosci 8:22-26. doi: 10.1016/0166-2236(85)90010-4 (Pubitemid 15171404)
75. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC (1999) Free radicals in biology and medicine, 3rd edn. Oxford science publications, Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, Oxford
76. Han Y, Kim SJ (2003) Memory enhancing actions of Asiasari radix extracts via activation of insulin receptor and extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) I/II in rat hippocampus. Brain Res 974(1-2):193-201 (Pubitemid 36549233)
77. Han Y, Kwon EH, Kim SJ (2003) Protection of brain cells against AMPA-induced damage by Asiasari Radix extracts. Phytother Res 17(8):882-886. doi: 10.1002/ptr.1176 (Pubitemid 37152751)
78. Hansson E, Ronnback L (2003) Glial neuronal signaling in the central nervous system. FASEB J 17(3):341-348. doi: 10.1096/fj.02-0429rev (Pubitemid 36292950)
79. Hatefi Y (1985) The mitochondrial electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation system. Annu Rev Biochem 54:1015-1069. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi. 54.070185.005055 (Pubitemid 15073670)
80. Hazen SL, Hsu FF, Gaut JP, Crowley JR, Heinecke JW (1999) Modification of proteins and lipids by myeloperoxidase. Methods Enzymol 300:88-105 (Pubitemid 28500587)
81. Hazra TK, Hill JW, Izumi T, Mitra S (2001) Multiple DNA glycosylases for repair of 8-oxoguanine and their potential in vivo functions. Progr Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol 68:193-205 (Pubitemid 33804663)
82. Heales SJ, Bolanos JP, Land JM, Clark JB (1994) Trolox protects mitochondrial complex IV from nitric oxide-mediated damage in astrocytes. Brain Res 668(1-2):243-245
83. Hensley K, Maidt ML, Yu Z, Sang H, Markesbery WR, Floyd RA (1998) Electrochemical analysis of protein nitrotyrosine and dityrosine in the Alzheimer brain indicates region-specific accumulation. J Neurosci 18(20):8126-8132 (Pubitemid 28464991)
84. Higgins CM, Jung C, Ding H, Xu Z (2002) Mutant Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase that causes motoneuron degeneration is present in mitochondria in the CNS. J Neurosci 22(6):RC215
85. Hockenbery DM, Oltvai ZN, Yin XM, Milliman CL, Korsmeyer SJ (1993) Bcl-2 functions in an antioxidant pathway to prevent apoptosis. Cell 75(2):241-251 (Pubitemid 23320288)
86. Hofman A, Grobbee DE, Jong PTVM, Ouweland FA (1991) Determinants of disease and disability in the elderly: The Rotterdam elderly study. Eur J Epidemiol 7(4):403-422. doi: 10.1007/bf00145007
87. Hsu TC, Young MR, Cmarik J, Colburn NH (2000) Activator protein 1 (AP-1)- and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB)-dependent transcriptional events in carcinogenesis. Free Radic Biol Med 28(9):1338-1348 (Pubitemid 30621478)
88. Hur GM, Ryu YS, Yun HY, Jeon BH, Kim YM, Seok JH, Lee JH (1999) Hepatic ischemia/reperfusion in rats induces iNOS gene transcription by activation of NF-kappaB. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 261(3):917-922. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1999. 1143 (Pubitemid 29408157)
89. Imlay JA (2003) Pathways of oxidative damage. Annu Rev Microbiol 57:395-418. doi: 10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090938 (Pubitemid 37392949)
90. Ischiropoulos H, Beckman JS (2003) Oxidative stress and nitration in neurodegeneration: cause, effect, or association? J Clin Invest 111(2):163-169. doi: 10.1172/JCI17638 (Pubitemid 36105911)
91. Ito Y, Arakawa M, Ishige K, Fukuda H (1999) Comparative study of survival signal withdrawal- and 4-hydroxynonenal-induced cell death in cerebellar granule cells. Neurosci Res 35(4):321-327
92. Jackson-Lewis V, Tocilescu MA, DeVries R, Alessi DM, Przedborski S (2011) MPTP and oxidative stress: it's complicated! In: Basu S, Wiklund L (eds) Studies on experimental models. Oxidative stress in applied basic research and clinical practice. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 187-209. doi: 10.1007/978-1-60761- 956-7-8
93. Jaeschke H (1995) Mechanisms of oxidant stress-induced acute tissue injury. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 209(2):104-111
94. Jenner P, Olanow CW (1996) Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 47(6 Suppl 3):S161-S170
95. Jenner P, Olanow CW (1998) Understanding cell death in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 44(3 Suppl 1):S72-S84
96. Kamata H, Honda S, Maeda S, Chang L, Hirata H, Karin M (2005) Reactive oxygen species promote TNFalpha-induced death and sustained JNK activation by inhibiting MAP kinase phosphatases. Cell 120(5):649-661. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2004.12.041 (Pubitemid 40343077)
97. Kannan K, Jain SK (2000) Oxidative stress and apoptosis. Pathophysiology 7(3):153-163
98. Kehrer JP, Lund LG (1994) Cellular reducing equivalents and oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 17(1):65-75 (Pubitemid 24212712)
99. Keller JN, Dimayuga E, Chen Q, Thorpe J, Gee J, Ding Q (2004) Autophagy, proteasomes, lipofuscin, and oxidative stress in the aging brain. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 36(12):2376-2391. doi: 10.1016/j.biocel.2004.05.003 (Pubitemid 39119753)
100. Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (1972) Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer 26(4):239-257
101. Kim SJ, Han Y (2005) Insulin inhibits AMPA-induced neuronal damage via stimulation of protein kinase B (Akt). J Neural Transm 112(2):179-191. doi: 10.1007/s00702-004-0163-6 (Pubitemid 40179112)
102. Kim SJ, Lee K (2008) Extracts of Liriopsis tuber protect AMPA induced brain damage and improve memory with the activation of insulin receptor and ERK I/II. Phytother Res 22(11):1450-1457. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2475 (Pubitemid 352789612)
103. Klein JA, Ackerman SL (2003) Oxidative stress, cell cycle, and neurodegeneration. J Clin Invest 111(6):785-793. doi: 10.1172/JCI18182 (Pubitemid 37074950)
104. Kluck RM, Bossy-Wetzel E, Green DR, Newmeyer DD (1997) The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria: a primary site for Bcl-2 regulation of apoptosis. Science 275(5303):1132-1136 (Pubitemid 27097313)
105. Kohen R, Gati I (2000) Skin low molecular weight antioxidants and their role in aging and in oxidative stress. Toxicology 148(2-3):149-157 (Pubitemid 30621355)
106. Kohen R, Nyska A (2002) Oxidation of biological systems: oxidative stress phenomena, antioxidants, redox reactions, and methods for their quantification. Toxicol Pathol 30(6):620-650 (Pubitemid 36018731)
107. Kokoszka JE, Coskun P, Esposito LA, Wallace DC (2001) Increased mitochondrial oxidative stress in the Sod2 (+/-) mouse results in the age-related decline of mitochondrial function culminating in increased apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98(5):2278-2283. doi: 10.1073/pnas.051627098 (Pubitemid 32209473)
108. Koutsilieri E, Scheller C, Tribl F, Riederer P (2002) Degeneration of neuronal cells due to oxidative stress-microglial contribution. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 8(6):401-406 (Pubitemid 36151655)
109. Kruman II, Wersto RP, Cardozo-Pelaez F, Smilenov L, Chan SL, Chrest FJ, Emokpae R Jr, Gorospe M, Mattson MP (2004) Cell cycle activation linked to neuronal cell death initiated by DNA damage. Neuron 41(4):549-561 (Pubitemid 38253067)
110. Langston JW, Ballard P, Tetrud JW, Irwin I (1983) Chronic Parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine-analog synthesis. Science 219(4587):979-980 (Pubitemid 13189531)
111. Lehtinen MK, Bonni A (2006) Modeling oxidative stress in the central nervous system. Curr Mol Med 6(8):871-881 (Pubitemid 44888564)
112. Leist M, Single B, Castoldi AF, Kuhnle S, Nicotera P (1997) Intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration: a switch in the decision between apoptosis and necrosis. J Exp Med 185(8):1481-1486 (Pubitemid 27187604)
113. Lennon SV, Martin SJ, Cotter TG (1991) Dose-dependent induction of apoptosis in human tumour cell lines by widely diverging stimuli. Cell Prolif 24(2):203-214
114. Levine RL, Wehr N, Williams JA, Stadtman ER, Shacter E (2000) Determination of carbonyl groups in oxidized proteins. Methods Mol Biol 99:15-24. doi: 10.1385/1-59259-054-3:15
115. Lewen A, Matz P, Chan PH (2000) Free radical pathways in CNS injury. J Neurotrauma 17(10):871-890
116. Li JJ, Rhim JS, Schlegel R, Vousden KH, Colburn NH (1998) Expression of dominant negative Jun inhibits elevated AP-1 and NF-kappaB transactivation and suppresses anchorage independent growth of HPV immortalized human keratinocytes. Oncogene 16(21):2711-2721. doi: 10.1038/sj.onc.1201798 (Pubitemid 28279336)
117. Li P, Nijhawan D, Budihardjo I, Srinivasula SM, Ahmad M, Alnemri ES, Wang X (1997) Cytochrome c and dATP-dependent formation of Apaf-1/caspase-9 complex initiates an apoptotic protease cascade. Cell 91(4):479-489 (Pubitemid 27508237)
118. Liang LP, Patel M (2004) Iron-sulfur enzyme mediated mitochondrial superoxide toxicity in experimental Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 90(5):1076-1084. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02567.x (Pubitemid 39167341)
119. Lin MT, Beal MF (2006) Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Nature 443(7113):787-795. doi: 10.1038/nature05292 (Pubitemid 44622683)
120. Lindenau J, Noack H, Possel H, Asayama K, Wolf G (2000) Cellular distribution of superoxide dismutases in the rat CNS. Glia 29(1):25-34. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(20000101)29:1<25:AID-GLIA3>3.0.CO;2-G (Pubitemid 30031131)
121. Liu D, Yang R, Yan X, McAdoo DJ (1994) Hydroxyl radicals generated in vivo kill neurons in the rat spinal cord: electrophysiological, histological, and neurochemical results. J Neurochem 62(1):37-44
122. Love S, Barber R, Wilcock GK (1998) Apoptosis and expression of DNA repair proteins in ischaemic brain injury in man. Neuroreport 9(6):955-959 (Pubitemid 28266604)
123. Lovell MA, Gabbita SP, Markesbery WR (1999) Increased DNA oxidation and decreased levels of repair products in Alzheimer's disease ventricular CSF. J Neurochem 72(2):771-776 (Pubitemid 29055242)
124. Macmillan-Crow LA, Cruthirds DL (2001) Invited review: manganese superoxide dismutase in disease. Free Radic Res 34(4):325-336 (Pubitemid 32331659)
125. Mahesh R, Kim SJ (2009) The Protective effects of insulin on hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in C6 glial cells. Biomol Ther 17(4):395-402. doi: 10.4062/biomolther.2009.17.4.395
126. Margaill I, Plotkine M, Lerouet D (2005) Antioxidant strategies in the treatment of stroke. Free Radic Biol Med 39(4):429-443. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.05.003 (Pubitemid 41021642)
127. Mariani E, Polidori MC, Cherubini A, Mecocci P (2005) Oxidative stress in brain aging, neurodegenerative and vascular diseases: an overview. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 827(1):65-75. doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.04. 023 (Pubitemid 41551598)
128. Mattson MP (2004) Metal-catalyzed disruption of membrane protein and lipid signaling in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1012:37-50 (Pubitemid 38453514)
129. Mattson MP, Duan W, Pedersen WA, Culmsee C (2001) Neurodegenerative disorders and ischemic brain diseases. Apoptosis 6(1-2):69-81 (Pubitemid 32233956)
130. Mattson MP, Pedersen WA, Duan W, Culmsee C, Camandola S (1999) Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying perturbed energy metabolism and neuronal degeneration in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Ann N Y Acad Sci 893:154-175 (Pubitemid 30038074)
131. McConkey DJ (1998) Biochemical determinants of apoptosis and necrosis. Toxicol Lett 99(3):157-168 (Pubitemid 28529119)
132. Meister A (1992) On the antioxidant effects of ascorbic acid and glutathione. Biochem Pharmacol 44(10):1905-1915
133. Meister A (1995) Glutathione metabolism. Methods Enzymol 251:3-7
134. Meister A, Anderson ME (1983) Glutathione. Annu Rev Biochem 52:711-760. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.52.070183.003431 (Pubitemid 13030692)
135. Michikawa M, Lim KT, McLarnon JG, Kim SU (1994) Oxygen radical-induced neurotoxicity in spinal cord neuron cultures. J Neurosci Res 37(1):62-70. doi: 10.1002/jnr.490370109 (Pubitemid 24036476)
136. Mielke K, Herdegen T (2000) JNK and p38 stresskinases-degenerative effectors of signal-transduction-cascades in the nervous system. Prog Neurobiol 61(1):45-60. doi: S0301-0082(99)00042-8[pii] (Pubitemid 30100402)
137. Mizuno Y, Ohta S, Tanaka M, Takamiya S, Suzuki K, Sato T, Oya H, Ozawa T, Kagawa Y (1989) Deficiencies in complex I subunits of the respiratory chain in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 163(3):1450-1455 (Pubitemid 19244751)
138. Moncada S, Higgs A (1993) The l-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. N Engl J Med 329(27):2002-2012. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199312303292706 (Pubitemid 24015045)
139. Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA (1989) Biosynthesis of nitric oxide from l-arginine. A pathway for the regulation of cell function and communication. Biochem Pharmacol 38(11):1709-1715 (Pubitemid 19138518)
140. Morel Y, Barouki R (1999) Repression of gene expression by oxidative stress. Biochem J 342(Pt 3):481-496 (Pubitemid 29452631)
141. Morrow JD (2005) Quantification of isoprostanes as indices of oxidant stress and the risk of atherosclerosis in humans. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25(2):279-286. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000152605.64964.c0 (Pubitemid 40189146)
142. Mufson EJ, Kordower JH (1998) Nerve growth factor and its receptors in the primate forebrain: Alterations in Alzheimer's disease and potential use in experimental therapeutics. In: Mattson MP (ed) Neuroprotective signal transduction. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 23-59
143. Murakami K, Kondo T, Kawase M, Li Y, Sato S, Chen SF, Chan PH (1998) Mitochondrial susceptibility to oxidative stress exacerbates cerebral infarction that follows permanent focal cerebral ischemia in mutant mice with manganese superoxide dismutase deficiency. J Neurosci 18(1):205-213 (Pubitemid 28046782)
144. Murphy AN, Fiskum G, Beal MF (1999) Mitochondria in neurodegeneration: bioenergetic function in cell life and death. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19(3):231-245. doi: 10.1097/00004647-199903000-00001 (Pubitemid 30026913)
145. Nakamura T, Cho D-H, Lipton SA (2011) Role of the mitochondrial fission protein Drp1 in synaptic damage and neurodegeneration. In: Lu B (ed) Mitochondrial dynamics and neurodegeneration. Springer, Netherlands, pp 215-234. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-1291-1-8
146. Namura S, Zhu J, Fink K, Endres M, Srinivasan A, Tomaselli KJ, Yuan J, Moskowitz MA (1998) Activation and cleavage of caspase-3 in apoptosis induced by experimental cerebral ischemia. J Neurosci 18(10):3659-3668 (Pubitemid 28225674)
147. Naoi M, Dostert P, Yoshida M, Nagatsu T (1993) N-methylated tetrahydroisoquinolines as dopaminergic neurotoxins. Adv Neurol 60:212-217
148. Niizuma K, Endo H, Chan PH (2009) Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction as determinants of ischemic neuronal death and survival. J Neurochem 109(Suppl 1):133-138. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05897.x
149. Niki E, Saito T, Kawakami A, Kamiya Y (1984) Inhibition of oxidation of methyl linoleate in solution by vitamin E and vitamin C. J Biol Chem 259(7):4177-4182 (Pubitemid 14174676)
150. Nunomura A, Perry G, Aliev G, Hirai K, Takeda A, Balraj EK, Jones PK, Ghanbari H, Wataya T, Shimohama S, Chiba S, Atwood CS, Petersen RB, Smith MA (2001) Oxidative damage is the earliest event in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 60(8):759-767 (Pubitemid 32678256)
151. O'Neill GP, Ford-Hutchinson AW (1993) Expression of mRNA for cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 in human tissues. FEBS Lett 330(2):156-160 (Pubitemid 23265121)
152. Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K (1979) Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituric acid reaction. Anal Biochem 95(2):351-358 (Pubitemid 9194347)
153. Olanow CW (1992) An introduction to the free radical hypothesis in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 32(Suppl):S2-S9
154. Olanow CW (1993) A radical hypothesis for neurodegeneration. Trends Neurosci 16(11):439-444 (Pubitemid 23313517)
155. Olney JW (1989) Excitatory amino acids and neuropsychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry 26(5):505-525 (Pubitemid 19207819)
156. Ong WY, Halliwell B (2004) Iron, atherosclerosis, and neurodegeneration: a key role for cholesterol in promoting iron-dependent oxidative damage? Ann N Y Acad Sci 1012:51-64 (Pubitemid 38453515)
157. Onorato JM, Thorpe SR, Baynes JW (1998) Immunohistochemical and ELISA assays for biomarkers of oxidative stress in aging and disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 854:277-290 (Pubitemid 29022809)
158. 2+ in toxic cell killing. Trends Pharmacol Sci 10(7):281-285 (Pubitemid 19189749)
159. Palmieri B, Sblendorio V (2007) Oxidative stress tests: overview on reliability and use. Part I. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 11(5):309-342 (Pubitemid 350213812)
160. Panov AV, Gutekunst CA, Leavitt BR, Hayden MR, Burke JR, Strittmatter WJ, Greenamyre JT (2002) Early mitochondrial calcium defects in Huntington's disease are a direct effect of polyglutamines. Nat Neurosci 5(8):731-736. doi: 10.1038/nn884 (Pubitemid 34827590)
161. Patockova J, Marhol P, Tumova E, Krsiak M, Rokyta R, Stipek S, Crkovska J, Andel M (2003) Oxidative stress in the brain tissue of laboratory mice with acute post insulin hypoglycemia. Physiol Res 52(1):131-135 (Pubitemid 36356271)
162. Perry TL, Hansen S (1990) What excitotoxin kills striatal neurons in Huntington's disease? Clues from neurochemical studies. Neurology 40(1):20-24 (Pubitemid 20032885)
163. Peuchen S, Bolaños JP, Heales SJR, Almeida A, Duchen MR, Clark JB (1997) Interrelationships between astrocyte function, oxidative stress and antioxidant status within the central nervous system. Progr Neurobiol 52(4):261-281. doi: 10.1016/s0301-0082(97)00010-5 (Pubitemid 27306870)
164. Phillips HS, Hains JM, Armanini M, Laramee GR, Johnson SA, Winslow JW (1991) BDNF mRNA is decreased in the hippocampus of individuals with Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 7(5):695-702
165. Polidori MC, Mecocci P, Browne SE, Senin U, Beal MF (1999) Oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA in Huntington's disease parietal cortex. Neurosci Lett 272(1):53-56 (Pubitemid 29497844)
166. Poon HF, Calabrese V, Scapagnini G, Butterfield DA (2004) Free radicals: key to brain aging and heme oxygenase as a cellular response to oxidative stress. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 59(5):478-493 (Pubitemid 38649940)
167. Raingeaud J, Gupta S, Rogers JS, Dickens M, Han J, Ulevitch RJ, Davis RJ (1995) Pro-inflammatory cytokines and environmental stress cause p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation by dual phosphorylation on tyrosine and threonine. J Biol Chem 270(13):7420-7426
168. Rao AV, Balachandran B (2002) Role of oxidative stress and antioxidants in neurodegenerative diseases. Nutr Neurosci 5(5):291-309 (Pubitemid 35174629)
169. Reed DJ, Savage MK (1995) Influence of metabolic inhibitors on mitochondrial permeability transition and glutathione status. Biochim Biophys Acta 1271(1):43-50
170. Reynolds A, Laurie C, Mosley RL, Gendelman HE (2007) Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Int Rev Neurobiol 82:297-325. doi: 10.1016/S0074-7742(07)82016-2
171. 2+: their relationship to apoptosis and oncogenesis. FEBS Lett 325(1-2):104-107 (Pubitemid 23201869)
172. Rosen DR, Siddique T, Patterson D, Figlewicz DA, Sapp P, Hentati A, Donaldson D, Goto J, O'Regan JP, Deng HX et al (1993) Mutations in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase gene are associated with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nature 362(6415):59-62. doi: 10.1038/362059a0 (Pubitemid 23087289)
173. Sagara Y, Dargusch R, Chambers D, Davis J, Schubert D, Maher P (1998) Cellular mechanisms of resistance to chronic oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 24(9):1375-1389 (Pubitemid 28270339)
174. Saito A, Maier CM, Narasimhan P, Nishi T, Song YS, Yu F, Liu J, Lee YS, Nito C, Kamada H, Dodd RL, Hsieh LB, Hassid B, Kim EE, Gonzalez M, Chan PH (2005) Oxidative stress and neuronal death/survival signaling in cerebral ischemia. Mol Neurobiol 31(1-3):105-116. doi: 10.1385/MN:31:1-3:105 (Pubitemid 41271197)
175. Salvemini D, Settle SL, Masferrer JL, Seibert K, Currie MG, Needleman P (1995) Regulation of prostaglandin production by nitric oxide; an in vivo analysis. Br J Pharmacol 114(6):1171-1178
176. Sayre LM, Perry G, Harris PL, Liu Y, Schubert KA, Smith MA (2000) In situ oxidative catalysis by neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease: a central role for bound transition metals. J Neurochem 74(1):270-279 (Pubitemid 30012778)
177. Sayre LM, Perry G, Smith MA (1999) In situ methods for detection and localization of markers of oxidative stress: application in neurodegenerative disorders. Methods Enzymol 309:133-152 (Pubitemid 29446447)
178. Sayre LM, Perry G, Smith MA (2008) Oxidative stress and neurotoxicity. Chem Res Toxicol 21(1):172-188. doi: 10.1021/tx700210j (Pubitemid 351219718)
179. Scandalios JG (2002) Oxidative stress responses-what have genome-scale studies taught us? Genome Biol 3(7):REVIEWS1019
180. Schapira AH, Gu M, Taanman JW, Tabrizi SJ, Seaton T, Cleeter M, Cooper JM (1998) Mitochondria in the etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 44(3 Suppl 1):S89-S98
181. Schwarcz R, Okuno E, White RJ, Bird ED, Whetsell WO Jr (1988) 3-Hydroxyanthranilate oxygenase activity is increased in the brains of Huntington disease victims. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85(11):4079-4081
182. Siebenlist U, Franzoso G, Brown K (1994) Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa B. Annu Rev Cell Biol 10:405-455. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb. 10.110194.002201
183. Sies H (1985) Oxidative stress: introductory remarks. In: Sies H (ed) Oxidative stress. Academic Press, Orlando, pp 1-8
184. Sies H (1986) Biochemistry of oxidative stress. Angew Chem 25(12):1058-1071. doi: 10.1002/anie.198610581
185. Siman-Tov T, Gadoth N (2011) Free radicals in epilepsy. In: Gadoth N, Göbel HH (eds) Oxidative stress and free radical damage in neurology. Oxidative stress in applied basic research and clinical practice. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 153-167. doi: 10.1007/978-1-60327-514-9-10
186. Simantov R (1989) Glutamate neurotoxicity in culture depends on the presence of glutamine: implications for the role of glial cells in normal and pathological brain development. J Neurochem 52(6):1694-1699 (Pubitemid 19140752)
187. Slee EA, Harte MT, Kluck RM, Wolf BB, Casiano CA, Newmeyer DD, Wang HG, Reed JC, Nicholson DW, Alnemri ES, Green DR, Martin SJ (1999) Ordering the cytochrome c-initiated caspase cascade: hierarchical activation of caspases-2, -3, -6, -7, -8, and -10 in a caspase-9-dependent manner. J Cell Biol 144(2):281-292 (Pubitemid 29066031)
188. Slivka A, Mytilineou C, Cohen G (1987) Histochemical evaluation of glutathione in brain. Brain Res 409(2):275-284 (Pubitemid 17077548)
189. Stadtman ER (1992) Protein oxidation and aging. Science 257(5074):1220-1224
190. Stocker R, Keaney JF Jr (2004) Role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev 84(4):1381-1478. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00047.2003 (Pubitemid 39302636)
191. Sun SC, Ganchi PA, Beraud C, Ballard DW, Greene WC (1994) Autoregulation of the NF-kappa B transactivator RelA (p65) by multiple cytoplasmic inhibitors containing ankyrin motifs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91(4):1346-1350
192. Susin SA, Zamzami N, Kroemer G (1998) Mitochondria as regulators of apoptosis: doubt no more. Biochim Biophys Acta 1366(1-2):151-165 (Pubitemid 28467029)
193. Suzuki YJ, Forman HJ, Sevanian A (1997) Oxidants as stimulators of signal transduction. Free Radic Biol Med 22(1-2):269-285 (Pubitemid 26399334)
194. Tappel AL (1973) Lipid peroxidation damage to cell components. Fed Proc 32(8):1870-1874
195. Thanos D, Maniatis T (1995) NF-kappa B: a lesson in family values. Cell 80(4):529-532
196. Toyokuni S (1999) Reactive oxygen species-induced molecular damage and its application in pathology. Pathol Int 49(2):91-102 (Pubitemid 29133467)
197. Trushina E, McMurray CT (2007) Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroscience 145(4):1233-1248. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.10.056 (Pubitemid 46602738)
198. Van der Vliet A, Bast A (1992) Effect of oxidative stress on receptors and signal transmission. Chem Biol Interact 85(2-3):95-116 (Pubitemid 23020423)
199. Velliquette RA, O'Connor T, Vassar R (2005) Energy inhibition elevates beta-secretase levels and activity and is potentially amyloidogenic in APP transgenic mice: possible early events in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. J Neurosci 25(47):10874-10883. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2350-05.2005 (Pubitemid 41692617)
200. Vignini A (2011) Stroke and oxidative stress. In: Gadoth N, Göbel HH (eds) Oxidative stress and free radical damage in neurology. Oxidative stress in applied basic research and clinical practice. Humana Press, Totowa, pp 137-152. doi: 10.1007/978-1-60327-514-9-9
201. Wertz IE, Hanley MR (1996) Diverse molecular provocation of programmed cell death. Trends Biochem Sci 21(10):359-364 (Pubitemid 26338671)
202. White AR, Multhaup G, Galatis D, McKinstry WJ, Parker MW, Pipkorn R, Beyreuther K, Masters CL, Cappai R (2002) Contrasting, species-dependent modulation of copper-mediated neurotoxicity by the Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein. J Neurosci 22(2):365-376 (Pubitemid 34049074)
203. White BC, Sullivan JM, DeGracia DJ, O'Neil BJ, Neumar RW, Grossman LI, Rafols JA, Krause GS (2000) Brain ischemia and reperfusion: molecular mechanisms of neuronal injury. J Neurol Sci 179(S1-2):1-33
204. Williams CS, DuBois RN (1996) Prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase: why two isoforms? Am J Physiol 270(3 Pt 1):G393-G400
205. Wyllie AH, Kerr JF, Currie AR (1980) Cell death: the significance of apoptosis. Int Rev Cytol 68:251-306 (Pubitemid 11219226)
206. Yang JC, Cortopassi GA (1998) Induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition causes release of the apoptogenic factor cytochrome c. Free Radic Biol Med 24(4):624-631 (Pubitemid 28150480)
207. Yeon JA, Kim SJ (2010) Neuroprotective effect of taurine against oxidative stress-induced damages in neuronal cells. Biomol Ther 18(1):24-31. doi: 10.4062/biomolther.2010.18.1.024
208. Yoshida H, Kong YY, Yoshida R, Elia AJ, Hakem A, Hakem R, Penninger JM, Mak TW (1998) Apaf1 is required for mitochondrial pathways of apoptosis and brain development. Cell 94(6):739-750 (Pubitemid 28436006)
209. Zamzami N, Susin SA, Marchetti P, Hirsch T, Gomez-Monterrey I, Castedo M, Kroemer G (1996) Mitochondrial control of nuclear apoptosis. J Exp Med 183(4):1533-1544 (Pubitemid 26134296)
210. Zarkovic K (2003) 4-hydroxynonenal and neurodegenerative diseases. Mol Aspects Med 24(4-5):293-303 (Pubitemid 36945029)
211. Zhu D, Tan KS, Zhang X, Sun AY, Sun GY, Lee JC (2005) Hydrogen peroxide alters membrane and cytoskeleton properties and increases intercellular connections in astrocytes. J Cell Sci 118(Pt 16):3695-3703 (Pubitemid 41309416)
212. Zhu X, Raina AK, Lee HG, Casadesus G, Smith MA, Perry G (2004) Oxidative stress signalling in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 1000(1-2):32-39. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.01.012 (Pubitemid 38446487)