Understanding cell death in Parkinson's disease

Annals of Neurology

Volumn 44, Issue 3 SUPPL. 1, 1998, Pages

  Jenner, Peter ^a   Olanow, C Warren ^b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLUTATHIONE;

CELL DEATH; CONFERENCE PAPER; DNA DAMAGE; HUMAN; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NEUROPATHOLOGY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SUBSTANTIA NIGRA;

EID: 0031687793     PISSN: 03645134     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ana.410440712     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (167)

1. Polymeropoulos MH, Higgins JJ, Golbe LI, et al. Mapping of a gene for Parkinson's disease to chromosome 4q21-q23. Science 1996;274:1197-1199
2. Polymeropoulos MH, Lavedan C, Leroy E, et al. Mutation in the α-synuclein gene identified in families with Parkinson's disease. Science 1997;276:2045-2047
3. Krüger R, Kuhn W, Müller T, et al. Ala30Pro mutation in the gene encoding α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Nature Genet 1998;18:106-108
4. Spillantini MG, Schmidt ML, Lee VM-Y, et al. α-Synuclein in Lewy bodies. Nature 1997;388:839-840
5. Muñoz E, Oliva R, Obach V, et al. Identification of Spanish familial Parkinson's disease and screening of the Ala53Thr mutation of the α-synuclein gene in early onset patients. Neurosci Lett 1997;235:57-60
6. Gasser T, Wszolek ZK, Trofatter J, et al. Genetic studies in autosomal dominant parkinsonism: evaluation of seven candidate genes. Ann Neurol 1994;36:387-396
7. Bandmann O, Vaughan J, Holmans P, et al. Association of slow acetylator genotype for N-acetyltransferase 2 with familial Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1997;350:1136-1139
8. Tanner CM, Ottman R, Ellenberg JH, et al. Parkinson's disease (PD) concordance in elderly male monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. Neurology 1997;48:333
9. Tanner CM, Langston JW. Do environmental toxins cause Parkinson's disease? A critical review. Neurology 1990;40: 17-30
10. Koller W, Vetere-Overfield B, Gray C, et al. Environmental risk factors in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1991;40:1218-1221
11. Langston JW, Ballard PA, Tetrud JW, Irwin I. Chronic parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine analog synthesis. Science 1983;219:979-980
12. Nagatsu T. Isoquinoline neurotoxins in the brain and Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Res 1997;29:99-113
13. + analogs, in the lumbar cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1995; 45:2240-2245
14. Jenner P, Olanow CW. Pathological evidence for oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease and related degenerative disorders. In: Olanow CW, Jenner P, Youdim M, eds. Neurodegeneration and neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. London: Academic Press, 1996:24-45
15. Jenner P, Olanow CW. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1996;47(Suppl 3):S161-170
16. Olanow CW. A radical hypotehsis for neurodegeneration. Trends Neurol Sci 1993;16:439-444
17. Halliwell B, Gutteridge J. Oxygen radicals and the nervous system. Trends Neurosci 1985;8:22-29
18. Olanow CW. Oxidation reactions in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1990;40:32-37
19. Spina MB, Cohen G. Dopamine turnover and glutathione oxidation: implications for Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989;86:1398-1400
20. Wolff SP, Garner A, Dean RT. Free radicals, lipids and protein degradation. Trends Biol Sci 1986;11:27-31
21. Richter C, Park JW, Arnes BN. Normal oxidative damage to mitochondrial and nuclear DNA is extensive. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:6465-6467
22. Dawson VL, Dawson TM, London ED, et al. Nitric oxide mediates glutamate neurotoxicity in primary cortical cultures. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88:6368-6371
23. Orrenius S, Burkitt MJ, Kass GE, Dypbukt JM, Nicotera P. Calcium ions and oxidative cell injury. Ann Neurol 1992;32: 33-42
24. Ratan RR, Murphy TH, Baraban JM. Oxidative stress induces apoptosis in embryonic cortical neurons. J Neurochem 1994; 62:376-379
25. Singer TP, Castagnoli N Jr, Ramsay RR, Trevor AJ. Biochemical events in the development of parkinsonism induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-terrahydropyridine. J Neurochem 1987;49:1-8
26. Nicklas WJ, Vyas I, Heikkila RE. Inhibition of NADH-linked oxidation in brain mitochondria by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridine, a metabolite of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6 tetrahydropyridine. Life Sci 1985;36:2503-2508
27. Mizuno Y, Saitoh T, Sone N. Inhibition of mitochondrial alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridinium ion. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1987;143: 971-976
28. Kroemer G, Petit P, Xamzami N, et al. The biochemistry of programmed cell death. FASEB J 1995;9:1277-1287
29. Susin SA, Zamzami N, Kroemer G. The cell biology of apoptosis: evidence for the implication of mitochondria. Apoptosis. 1996;1:231-242
30. Tatton NA, Kish SJ. In situ detection of apoptotic nuclei in the substantia nigra compacta of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-treated mice using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase labeling and acridine orange staining. Neuroscience 1997;77:1037-1048
31. Perry T, Yong VW, Clavier RM, et al. Partial protection from the dopaminergic neurotoxin N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine by four different antioxidants in the mouse. Neurosci Lett 1985;60:109-114
32. Przedborski S, Kostivc V, Jackson-Lewis V, et al. Transgenic mice with increased Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase activity are resistant to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 1992;12: 1658-1667
33. Gutteridge JMC, Halliwell B, Treffry A, et al. Effect of ferritin containing fractions with different iron loading on lipid peroxidation. J Biochem 1983;209:557-560
34. Olanow CW, Youdim MHB. Iron and neurodegeneration: prospects for neuroprotection. In: Olanow CW, Jenner P, Youdim M, eds. Neurodegeneration and neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. London: Academic Press, 1996;55-67
35. Olanow CW. Magnetic resonance imaging in parkinsonism. Neurol Clin North Am 1992;405-420
36. Dexter DT, Wells FR, Lees AJ, et al. Increased nigral iron content and alterations in other metal ions occurring in brain in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1989;52:1830-1836
37. Sofic E, Paulus W, Jellinger K, et al. Selective increase of iron in substantia nigra zona compacta of parkinsonian brains. J Neurochem 1991;56:978-982
38. Good PF, Olanow CW, Perl DP. Neuromelanin-containing neurons of the substantia nigra accumulate iron and aluminum in Parkinson's disease: a LAMMA study. Brain Res 1992;593:343-346
39. Hirsch EC, Brandel J-P, Galle P, et al. Iron and aluminum increase in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson's disease: an X-ray microanalysis. J Neurochem 1991;56:446-451
40. Riederer P, Sofic E, Rausch W-D, et al. Transition metals, ferritin, glutathione, and ascorbic acid in parkinsonian brains. J Neurochem 1989;52:515-520
41. Dexter DT, Carayon A, Vidailhet M, et al. Decreased ferritin levels in brain in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1990;55: 16-20
42. Mann VM, Cooper JM, Daniel SE, et al. Complex I, iron, and ferritin in Parkinson's disease substantia nigra. Ann Neurol 1994;36:876-881
43. Connor JR, Snyder BS, Arosio P, et al. Quantitative analysis of isoferritins in select regions of aged, parkinsonian, and Alzheimer diseased brains. J Neurochem 1995;65:717-724
44. Faucheux B, Nillesse N, Damier P, et al. Expression of lactoferrin receptors is increased in the mesencephalon of patients with Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92: 9603-9607
45. 25I-ferrotransferrin binding sites in the mesencephalon of control subjects and patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1993;60:2338-2341
46. 125I-transferrin binding sites on perikara of melanized neurons of the substantia nigra is decreased in Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 1997;749:170-174
47. Connor JR, Menzies SL, St. Marrin SM, Mufson EJ. A histochemical study of iron, transferrin, and ferritin in Alzheimer's diseased brains. J Neurosci Res 1992;31:75-83
48. Valberg LS, Flanagan PR, Kertesz A, Ebers GC. Abnormalities in iron metabolism in multiple sclerosis. Can J Neurol Sci 1989;16:184-186
49. Temlett JA, Landsberg JP, Watt F, Grime GW. Increased iron in the substantia nigra compacta of the MPTP-lesioned hemiparkinsonian African green monkey: evidence from proton microprobe elemental microanalysis. J Neurochem 1994; 62:134-146
50. Oestreicher E, Sengstock GJ, Riederer P, et al. Degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons increases iron within the substantia nigra: a histochemical and neurochemical study. Brain Res 1994;660:8-18
51. He Y, Thong PSP, Lee T, et al. Increased iron in the substantia nigra of 6-OHDA induced parkinsonian rats: a nuclear microscopy study. Brain Res 1996;735:149-153
52. Dexter DT, Sian J, Rose S, et al. Indices of oxidative stress and mitochondrial function in individuals with incidental Lewy body disease. Ann Neurol 1994;35:38-44
53. Sengstock G, Olanow CW, Dunn AJ, Arendash GW. Iron induces degeneration of nigrostriatal neurons. Brain Res Bull 1992;28:645-649
54. Sengstock GJ, Olanow CW, Menzies RA, et al. Infusion of iron into the rat substantia nigra: nigral pathology and dose-dependent loss of striatal dopaminergic markers. J Neurosci Res 1993;35:67-82
55. Ben-Schachar D, Youdim MBH. Intranigral iron injection induces behavioral and biochemical "parkinsonism" in rats. J Neurochem 1991;57:2133-2135
56. Sengstock G, Olanow CW, Dunn AJ, et al. Progressive changes in striatal dopaminergic markers, nigral volume, and rotational behavior following iron infusion into the rat substantia nigra. Exp Neurol 1994;130:82-94
57. Riederer P, Wasserman A. Progressive lesioning of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons by intranigral iron injections. J Neural Transm [in press]
58. Ben-Shachar D, Eshel G, Finberg JPM, Youdim MBH. The iron chelator desferrioxamine (Desferal) retards 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons. J Neurochem 1991;56:1441-1444
59. Ward RJ, Dexter DT, Florence A, et al. Brain iron in the ferrocene-loaded rat: its chelation and influence on dopamine metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 1995;49:1821-1826
60. Blake DR, Winyard P, Lonec J, et al. Cerebral and ocular toxicity induced by desferrioxamine. Q J Med 1985;219:345-355
61. Schapira AHV, Cooper JM, Dexter D, et al. Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1990;54:823-827
62. Mizuno Y, Ohta S, Tanaka M, et al. Deficiencies in complex I subunits of the respiratory chain in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989;163:1450-1455
63. Schapira AHV, Mann VM, Cooper JM, et al. Anatomic and disease specificity of NADH CoQ1 reductase (complex I) deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1990;55:2142-2145
64. Schapira AHV. Evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease - a critical appraisal. Mov Disord 1994;9: 125-138
65. Lestienne P, Nelson J, Riederer P, et al. Normal mitochondrial genome in brain from patients with Parkinson's disease and complex I defect. J Neurochem 1990;55:1810-1812
66. Ikebe S, Tanaka M, Ohno K, et al. Increase of deleted mitochondrial DNA in the striatum in Parkinson's disease and senescence. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1990;170:1044-1048
67. Ikebe S, Tanaka M, Ozawa T. Point mutations of mitochondrial genome in Parkinson's disease. Mol Brain Res 1995;28: 281-295
68. +) in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 1992;575: 282-298
69. Hartley A, Cooper JM, Schapira AHV. Iron-induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction: relevance to Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 1993;627:349-353
70. Swerdlow RH, Parks JK, Miller SW, et al. Origin and functional consequences of the complex I defect in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1996;40:663-671
71. Beal MF. Does impairment of energy metabolism result in excitotoxic neuronal death in neurodegenerative illnesses? Ann Neurol 1992;31:119-130
72. Davey GP, Clark JB. Threshold effects and control of oxidative phosphorylation in non-synaptic rat brain mitochondria. J Neurochem 1996;66:1617-1624
73. Mizuno Y, Matuda S, Yoshino H, et al. An immunohistochemical study of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1994;35:204-210
74. Mizuno Y, Ikebe S, Hattori N, et al. Role of mitochondria in the etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995;1271:265-274
75. Newmeyer DD, Farschon DM, Reed JC. Cell-free apoptosis in Xenopus egg extracts: inhibition by Bcl-2 and requirement for an organelle fraction enriched in mitochondria. Cell 1994; 79:353-364
76. Wadia JS, Chalmers-Redman RME, Ju WJH, et al. Mitochondrial membrane potential and nuclear changes in apoptosis caused by trophic withdrawal: time course and modification by (-) deprenyl. J Neurosci 1998;18:932-947
77. Tatton NA, Maclean-Fraser A, Tatton WG, et al. A fluorescent double-labeling method to detect and confirm apoptotic nuclei in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1998;44(Suppl 1): S142-S148 (this issue)
78. Anglade P, Vyas S, Javoy-Agid F, et al. Apoptosis and autophagie in nigral neurons of patients with Parkinson's disease. Histol Histopathol 1997;12:25-31
79. Mochizuki H, Goto K, Mori H, Mizuno Y. Histochemical detection of apoptosis in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 1996;131:120-123
80. Riederer P, Sofic E, Rausch W-D. Transition metals, ferritin, glutathione, and ascorbic acid in parkinsonian brains. J Neurochem 1989;52:515-520
81. Dexter D, Ward RJ, Wells FR, et al. α-Tocopherol levels in brain are not altered in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1992; 32:591-593
82. Kish SJ, Morito CLF, Hornykiewicz O. Brain glutathione peroxidase in neurodegenerative disorders. Neurochem Pathol 1986;4:23-28
83. Kish SJ, Morito C, Hornykiewicz O. Glutathione peroxidase activity in Parkinson's disease brain. Neurosci Lett 1985;58: 343-346
84. Ambani LM, Van Woert MH, Murphy S. Brain peroxidase and catalase in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1975;32: 114-115
85. Marttila RJ, Lorentz H, Rinne UK. Oxygen toxicity protecting enzymes in Parkinson's disease. Increase of superoxide dismutase-like activity in the substantia nigra and basal nucleus. J Neurol Sci 1988;86:321-331
86. Sian J, Dexter DT, Lees AJ, et al. Glutathione-related enzymes in brain in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1994;36:356-361
87. Saggu H, Cooksey J, Dexter D, et al. A selective increase in particulate superoxide dismutase activity in parkinsonian substantia nigra. J Neurochem 1989;53:692-697
88. Yoritaka A, Hattori N, Mori H, et al. An immunohistochemical study on manganese superoxide dismutase in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 1997;148:181-186
89. Yoshida E, Mokuno K, Aoki S, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid of superoxide dismutases in neurological diseases detected by sensitive enzyme immunoassays. J Neurol Sci 1994;124:25-31
90. Perry TL, Godin DV, Hansen S. Parkinson's disease: a disorder due to nigral glutathione deficiency. Neurosci Lett 1982; 33:305-310
91. Perry TL, Yong VW. Idiopathic Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy and glutathione metabolism in the substantia nigra of patients. Neurosci Lett 1986;67:269-274
92. Perry TL, Hansen S, Jones K. Brain amino acids and glutathione in progressive supranuclear palsy. Neurology 1988;38: 943-946
93. Slivka A, Spina MB, Cohen G. Reduced and oxidized glutathione in human and monkey brain. Neurosci Lett 1987;74: 113-118
94. Sian J, Dexter DT, Lees AJ, et al. Alterations in glutathione levels in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders affecting basal ganglia. Ann Neurol 1994;36:348-355
95. Sofic E, Lange KW, Jellinger K, Riederer P. Reduced and oxidized glutathione in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 1992;142:128-130
96. Jain A, Martensson J, Stole E, et al. Glutathione deficiency leads to mitochondrial damage in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88:1913-1917
97. Pearce RKB, Owen A, Daniel S, et al. Alterations in the distribution of glutathione in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Transm 1997;104:661-677
98. Philbert MA, Beiswanger CM, Waters DK, et al. Cellular and regional distribution of reduced glutathione in the nervous system of the rat: histochemical localisation by mercury orange and o-phthaldialdehyde-induced histofluorescence. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1991;108:215-227
99. Asghar K, Reddy BG, Krishan G. Histochemical localisation of glutathione in tissues. J Histochem Cytochem 1975;23: 774-779
100. Hjelle OP, Chaudhry FA, Ottersen OP. Antisera to glutathione: characterisation and immunocytochemical application to the rat cerebellum. Eur J Neurosci 1994;6:793-804
101. Raps SP, Lai JCK, Hertz L, Cooper AJL. Glutathione is present in high concentrations in cultured astrocytes but not in cultured neurons. Brain Res 1989;493:398-401
102. Slivka A, Mytilineou C, Cohen G. Histochemical evaluation of glutathione in brain. Brain Res 1987;409:275-284
103. Meister A. Glutathione deficiency produced by inhibition of its synthesis, and its reversal: applications in research therapy. Pharmacol Ther 1991;51:155-194
104. Mytilineou C, Leonardi EK, Radcliffe P, et al. Deprenyl and desmethylselegiline protect mesencephalic neurons from toxicity induced by glutathione depletion. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1998;284:700-706
105. Zeevalk GD, Bernard LP, Albers DS, et al. Energy stress-induced dopamine loss in glutathione peroxidase-overexpressing transgenic mice and in glutathione-depleted mesencephalic cultures. J Neurochem 1997;68:426-429
106. Nakamura K, Wang W, Kang UJ. The role of glutathione in dopaminergic neuronal survival. J Neurochem 1997;69:1850-1858
107. Toffa S, Kunikowska GM, Zeng B-Y, et al. Glutathione depletion in rat brain does not cause nigrostriatal pathway degeneration. J Neural Transm 1997;104:67-75
108. Andersen JK, Mo JQ, Hom DG, et al. Effect of buthionine sulfoximine, a synthesis inhibitor of the antioxidant glutathione, on the murine nigrostriatal neurons. J Neurochem 1996; 67:2164-2171
109. Pileblad E, Magnusson T, Fornstedt B. Reduction of brain glutathione by L-buthionine sulfoximine potentiates the dopamine-depleting action of 6-hydroxydopamine in rat striatum. J Neurochem 1989;52:978-980
110. Seaton TA, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Thioctic acid does not restore glutathione levels or protect against the potentiation of 6-hydroxydopamine toxicity induced by glutathione depletion in rat brain. J Neural Transm 1996;103:315-329
111. + toxicity in nigral dopaminergic neurones. Neuroreport 1996;7:921-923
112. Martensson J, Meister A. Mitochondrial damage in muscle occurs after marked depletion of glutathione and is prevented by giving glutathione monoester. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86:471-475
113. Perry TL, Yong VW, Jones K, Wright JM. Manipulation of glutathione contents fails to alter dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurotoxicity of N-methyl-4-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in the mouse. Neurosci Lett 1986;70:261-265
114. Kunikowska G, Owen A, Rose S, et al. BSO-induced GSH depletion does not sensitize rats to the toxic actions of systemic MPTP administration. J Neural Transm 1998 [in press]
115. Uhlig S, Wendel A. The physiological consequences of glutathione variations. Life Sci 1992;51:1083-1094
116. DeLeve LD, Kaplowitz N. Glutathione metabolism and its role in hepatotoxicity. Pharmacol Ther 1991;52:287-305
117. Barker JE, Heales SJR, Cassidy A, et al. Depletion of brain glutathione results in a decrease of glutathione reductase activity: an enzyme susceptible to oxidative damage. Brain Res 1996;716:118-122
118. Mithöfer K, Sandy M, Smith MT, Di Monte D. Mitochondrial poisons cause depletion of reduced glutathione in isolated hepatocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 1992;295:132-136
119. Heales SJR, Davies SEC, Bates TE, Clark JB. Depletion of brain glutathione is accompanied by impaired mitochondrial function and decreased N-acetyl aspartate concentration. Neurochem Res 1995;20:31-38
120. Seaton TA, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Mitochondrial respiratory enzyme function and superoxide dismutase activity following brain glutathione depletion in the rat. Biochem Pharmacol 1996;52:1657-1663
121. Spina MB, Cohen G. Exposure of striatal synaptosomes to 1-dopa elevates levels of oxidized glutathione. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1988;247:502-507
122. Loeffler DA, DeMaggio AJ, Juneau PL, et al. Effects of enhanced striatal dopamine turnover in vivo on glutathione oxidation. Clin Neuropharmacol 1994;17:370-379
123. Mytilineou C, Han S-K, Cohen G. Toxic and protective effects of L-DOPA on mesencephalic cell cultures. J Neurochem 1993;61:1470-1478
124. Spencer JPE, Jenner P, Halliwell B. Superoxide-dependent depletion of reduced glutathione by L-DOPA and dopamine. Relevance to Parkinson's disease. Neuroreport 1995;6:1480-1484
125. Spencer JPE, Jenner P, Halliwell B. Superoxide-dependent formation of 5-S-cysteinyl-catecholamine conjugates and inhibition by dihydrolipoate. A possible mechanism for formation in vivo. J Neurochem 1998 [in press]
126. Rosengren E, Linder-Eliasson E, Carlsson A. Detection of 5-S-cysteinyldopamine in human brain. J Neural Transm 1985;63: 247-253
127. Shen X-M, Dryhurst G. Further insights into the influence of L-cysteine on the oxidation chemistry of dopamine: reaction pathways of potential relevance to Parkinson's disease. Chem Res Toxicol 1996;9:751-763
128. Li H, Dryhurst G. Irreversible inhibition of mitochondrial complex I by 7-(2-aminoethyl)-3,4-dihydro-5-hydroxy-2H-1,4-benzothiazine-3-carboxylic acid (DHBT-1): a putative nigral endotoxin of relevance to Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1997;69:1530-1541
129. Kuhn W, Muller T. Neuroimmune mechanisms in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Suppl) 1995;46:229-233
130. Hirsch EC, Hunot S, Damier P, Faucheux B. Glial cells and inflammation in Parkinson's disease: a role in neurodegeneration? Ann Neurol [in press]
131. Olanow CW, Jenner P, Tatton N, Tatton WG. Neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, eds. Parkinson's disease and movement disorders. 3rd ed. [in press]
132. McGeer PL, Itagaki S, Boyes BE, McGeer EG. Reactive microglia are positive for HLA-DR in the substantia nigra of Parkinson and Alzheimer disease brains. Neurology 1988;38: 1285-1291
133. Benveniste EN. Inflammatory cytokines within the central nervous system: sources, function, and mechanism of action. Am J Physiol 1992;263:1-16
134. Mogi M, Harada M, Kondo T, et al. Interleukin-2 but not basic fibroblast growth factor is elevated in parkinsonian brain. J Neural Transm 1996;103:1087-1081
135. Mogi M, Harada M, Narabayashi H, et al. Interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6 and transforming growth factor-alpha levels are elevated in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid in juvenile parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 1996; 211:13-16
136. Hunot S, Betard C, Faucheux B, et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of interferon-γ and interleukin-1β in the substantia nigra of Parkinsonian patients. Mov Disord 1997;12:20
137. Mogi M, Harada M, Kondo T, et al. Interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor-alpha are elevated in the brain from parkinsonian patients. Ann Neurol 1994;180:147-150
138. Boka G, Anglade P, Wallach D, et al. Immunocytochemical analysis of tumor necrosis factor and its receptors in Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 1994;172:151-154
139. Hunot S, Brugg B, Ricard D, et al. Nuclear translocation of NF-κB is increased in dopaminergic neurons of patients with Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad SCi USA 1997;94:7531-7536
140. Beckman JS, Beckman TW, Chen J, et al. Apparent hydroxyl radical production by peroxynitrite: implications for endothelial injury from nitric oxide and Superoxide. Proc Natl Acad SCi USA 1990;87:1620-1624
141. Hunot S, Boissière F, Faucheux B, et al. Nitric oxide synthase and neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 1996;72:355-363
142. Mufson EJ, Brandabur MM. Sparing of NADPH-diaphorase striatal neurons in Parkinson's and ALzheimer's diseases. Neuroreport 1994;5:705-708
143. Good PF, Hsu A, Werner P, Perl DP, Olanow CW. Protein nitration in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998;57:338-342
144. Ischiropoulos H, Zhu L, Chen J, et al. Peroxynitrite-mediated tyrosine nitration catalyzed by Superoxide dismutase. Arch Biochem Biophys 1992;298:431-437
145. Bolanos JP, Heales SJR, Peuchen S, et al. Nitric oxide-mediated mitochondriaL damage: a potential neuroprotective role for glutathione. Free Rad Biol Med 1996;21:995-1001
146. Langeveld CH, Schepens E, Jongenelen CAM, et al. Presence of glutathione immunoreactivity in cultured neurones and astrocytes. Neuroreport 1996;7:1833-1836
147. Pileblad E, Eriksson PS, Hansson E. The presence of glutathione in primary neuronal and astroglial cultures from rat cerebral cortex and brain stem. J Neural Transm [Gen Sect] 1991; 86:43-49
148. Monteiro HP, Winterbourn CC. 6-hydroxydopamine releases iron from ferritin and promotes ferritin-dependent lipid peroxidation. Biochem Pharmacol 1989;38:4177-4182
149. Reif DW, Simmons RD. Nitric oxide mediates iron release from ferritin. Arch Biochem Biophys 1990;283:537-541
150. Connor J, Snyder B, Beard J, et al. Regional distribution of iron and iron-regulatory proteins in the brain in aging and Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci Res 1992;31:327-335
151. Damier P, Hirsch EC, Zhang P, et al. Glutathione peroxidase, glial cells and Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 1993;52:1-6
152. Makar TK, Nedergaard M, Preuss A, et al. Vitamin E, ascorbate, glutathione, glutathione disulfide, and enzymes of glutathione metabolism in cultures of chick astrocytes and neurones: evidence that astrocytes play an important role in antioxidative processes in the brain. J Neurochem 1994;62: 45-53
153. Mena MA, Casarejos MJ, Carazo A, et al. Glia protect fetal midbrain dopamine neurons in culture from L-DOPA toxicity through multiple mechanisms. J Neural Transm 1997;104: 317-328
154. Hou J-GG, Cohen G, Mytilineou C. Basic fibroblast growth factor stimulation of glial cells protects dopamine neurons from 6-hydroxydopamine toxicity: involvement of the glutathione system. J Neurochem 1997;69:76-83
155. Dexter DT, Carter CJ, Wells FR, et al. Basal lipid peroxidation in substantia nigra is increased in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 1989;52:381-389
156. Dexter DT, Holley AE, Flitter WD, et al. Increased levels of lipid hydroperoxides in the parkinsonian substantia nigra: an HPLC and ESR study. Mov Disord 1994;9:92-97
157. Yoritaka A, Hattori N, Uchida K, et al. Immunohistochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal protein adducts in Parkinson disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93:2696-2701
158. Sanchez-Ramos J, Overvik E, Ames BN. A marker of oxyradical-mediated DNA damage (8-hydroxy-2′deoxyguanosine) is increased in nigro-striatum of Parkinson's disease brain. Neurodegeneration 1994;3:197-204
159. Alam ZI, Jenner A, Daniel SE, et al. Oxidative DNA damage in the parkinsonian brain: an apparent selective increase in 8-hydroxyguanine levels in substantia nigra. J Neurochem 1997;69:1195-1203
160. Alam ZI, Daniel SE, Lees AJ, et al. A generalised increase in protein carbonyls in the brain in Parkinson's but not incidental Lewy body disease. J Neurochem 1997;69:1326-1329
161. Grune T, Reinheckel T, Joshi M, Davies KJA. Proteolysis in cultured liver epithelial cells during oxidative stress. Role of multicatalytic proteinase complex proteasome. J Biol Chem 1995;270:2344-2351
162. Berlett BS, Stadtman ER. Protein oxidation in aging, disease, and oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 1997;272:20313-20316
163. Floor E, Wetzel MG. Increased protein oxidation in human substantia nigra pars compacta in comparison with basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex measured with an improved dinitrophenylhydrazine assay. J Neurochem 1998;70:268-275
164. Jahngen-Hodge J, Obin MS, Gong X, et al. Regulation of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes by glutathione following oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 1997;272:28218-28226
165. Friquet B, Szweda LI. Inhibition of the multicatalytic proteinase (proteasome) by the 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal cross-linked protein. FEBS Lett 1997;405:21-25
166. Grune T, Davies KJA. Breakdown of oxidised proteins as a part of secondary antioxidant defenses in mammalian cells. Biofactors 1997;6:165-172
167. Lopes UG, Erhardt P, Yao R, Cooper GM. p53-dependent induction of apoptosis by proteasome inhibitors. J Biol Chem 1997;272:12893-12896